After the death of Alexander the Great, his associates began a long-term exhausting war for the inheritance of the great commander. Alexander did not leave a posthumous will. According to legend, when the military leaders surrounded the bed of the dying young king, one of them asked to whom he was leaving the throne. Alexander removed the ring from his finger and, dropping it on the floor, said: "To the most worthy." The legend is clearly similar to an anecdote, because despite the disputes that flared up around the body that has not yet cooled down young hero, generals and close associates decided that they would rule a huge empire if Alexander's wife Roxana, who was pregnant, gave birth to a son, his heir.
Guardian regents were elected, and, despite the birth of a son, also named Alexander, each of the Greek military leaders, who had real power, tried either to seize the throne of the empire created as a result of a ten-year campaign, or to create a state for themselves.
Ultimately, the power of Alexander broke up into several smaller states. Having gained a foothold in these territories, the generals declared themselves kings one after the other. The Persian nobles and satraps, whom Alexander brought closer to him, did not get real power, since in their satrapies they did not dispose of the military force, which consisted mainly of Greeks.
The Persian nobility naturally aspired to power, especially in national territory, and waited for the moment to get out of the Macedonian tutelage, taking advantage of the strife of the generals. Antigonus, one of Alexander's most active generals, defeated Eumenes of Cardia, Alexander's former secretary, who defended the interests of his heir from Roxana. As a result of the victory, Antigonus took possession of a huge territory and removed from power Peucestus, the governor of Persil, whose rule was to the liking of the Persians.
Then one of the noble Persians declared that they would not obey anyone else, and was executed for this. Peucestus suited the Persians as a ruler, because of his assimilation of the Persian language and customs. Mithridates, who was a friend of Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, and his entourage, was apparently burdened by the guardianship of the Macedonians.
Plutarch tells about the events connected with the removal of Mithridates from the court of Antigonus. Antigonus had a dream that he was sowing Asia with golden wheat, but as soon as it began to grow, Mithridates appeared and began to reap it with a sickle. Alarmed by the dream, Antigonus summoned his son, who was his co-ruler, and told him the contents of the dream, taking his word to be silent. In conclusion, Antigonus, who interpreted the dream as a bad omen, declared that Mithridates should be killed. Annoyed by his father's superstition, Demetrius called Mithridates beyond the camp line and wrote with a spear in the sand: "Mithridates, run!"
According to another historian Diodorus, Mithridates retired to his ancestral fortress Kimiata and began to attract to his side the inhabitants of the nearby Paphlagonian and Cappadocian villages, which were under the rule of the Macedonians and were tired of the endless wars that interfered with farming.
Having fled from Antigonus, Mithridates, apparently, remained loyal to him and maintained friendly relations with Demetrius.
After the defeat of Antigonus and his death, Demetrius withdrew from Asia to Greece, and Mithridates began to pursue an independent policy aimed atincreasing his possessions in Pontus.
During this period, in Asia Minor, several big states, in Cappadocia, Ariarat rules, in Pergamum - Filiter, and then his heirs, the Attalides. The rulers of large states, Seleucus and Lysimachus, apparently were not opposed to the creation of small buffer states, hoping in this way to stop the wars between their states.
While the Greek-Macedonian rulers were at war with each other, the Roman Republic was strengthened and exalted in the west of the Mediterranean. Having won in 202 BC. e. Carthage, the Romans turn their eyes to the East.
The Romans by this time had a strong fleet and army; Rome's economy, based on large slaveholding farms, required workers. The Roman Republic, using the contradictions and struggle between the Hellenistic states1, in 197 BC. e, defeated the army of King Philip of Macedonia.
An ally of Rome, the Pergamum king Eumenes, expanded his kingdom, which occupied the territory of the southwestern part of Asia Minor. His war with the Pontic king Farnak ended in a "draw". Farnak during the war managed to capture the city of Sinop, which he made his capital.
In 171 BC. e. Rome declared war on the Macedonian king Perseus, who pursued a cautious policy of accumulating forces and protracting hostilities. In 168 BC. e. Rome, irritated by the protracted war, sent its best commander L. Aemilius Paul to the Balkans.
The Roman commander, having an army twice the size of the Greek, managed to lure Perseus out of the camp to fight. Perseus led the phalanx into the field. The Macedonian phalanx crushed the Roman advanced units with a decisive blow. Scattering the spear points of the Roman soldiers, she reached the commander-in-chief of the Roman army.
1 Hellenistic states- countries formed after the collapse of the power of Alexander the Great (323-30 BC, see map).
Aemilius Paul later admitted that he trembled, seeing how swiftly the Macedonians were advancing. The Romans managed to surround the phalanx with a blow from the flanks, the long spears of which had become useless. Perseus fled the battlefield, leaving the encircled Macedonians to die.
Greece shuddered at the news of the Roman victory and their reprisals. Many inhabitants of Epirus were sold into slavery in retaliation for the invasion of King Pyrrhus, the nephew of Alexander the Great, into Italy 100 years before the events described. The Romans began to rule in the Balkans and Asia Minor, dictating their policy and punishing even their allies. By the end of the II century. BC e. The Romans became the de facto masters of Asia Minor.
In 133 BC. The king of Pergamum, Attalus III, died, who was childless and left a will in favor of Rome, according to which the royal land, the treasury and the rights of the king were transferred to the Roman people. The Greek cities of Pergamum, according to the will, received freedom.
Rome inherited a huge territory with a populous population, a developed economy and wealth accumulated by the king of Pergamum over a century and a half. One library of Pergamon, which had 300,000 books, was priceless.
Unrest swept throughout the kingdom at the news of the will of King Attalus. The wealthy citizens of Pergamum, fearing the unrest of the slaves, released many of them into the wild.
Attalus, reckoning with the inevitability of the seizure of his kingdom by Rome, apparently, made such a testament.
But the poorest democratic part of the multi-tribal population of the kingdom did not agree with this. It was this part of the population that supported the claims to the royal throne of Pergamum, the half-brother of King Attalus Aristonicus. Rumors spread among the people that the will was forged.
Aristonicus, according to Greek law and tradition, was the legitimate heir to the deceased king. Rome's acceptance of the will was the signal for rebellion.
In 132 BC. Aristonicus, with the support of the democrats, created an army into which the slaves entered in masses. The rebels easily defeated the allies of Rome, who sent punitive armies from Pontus, Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Cappadocia.
Aristonicus made several campaigns, quite successfully commanding his motley army, which consisted mainly of slaves, the poor and mercenaries. He laid siege to the city of Cyzicus, fought through Kariya and the west of Asia Minor, and at the beginning of 130 BC. defeated the Roman army under the command of the consul Crassus.
The Romans had not experienced such shame since the time of Hannibal. Consul Crassus, who was taken prisoner, in order to avoid shame, hit one of the Thracians escorting him in the eyes with a vine and was stabbed on the spot by an angry mercenary.
The Romans, alarmed by the successes of Aristonicus, who fought under the slogan of creating a state of equals2, without slaves and oppressed, sent a new consul, M. Perperna, against the rebels.
The rebels were defeated, as the movement was not supported by the rich nobility of the Greek cities.
Aristonicus, besieged after the defeat at Stratonikeia, was forced to surrender. The Romans took him to Rome, where he was later executed.
Despite the death of Aristonicus, the uprising continued until 129 BC, until the consul M Aquilius crushed the last pockets of resistance in a hard struggle. Despite the brutal reprisals of the Roman punitive troops, the people of Pergamum, which consisted of various tribes united by the idea of creating a state of equals, not only destroyed the Roman consul and his army, but also managed to resist the powerful Roman military machine that crushed Carthage and Macedonia for three years, the state of the Seleucids and the Greek polis associations. Pergamon was turned into the Roman province of Asia. The population was taxed exorbitantly, despite the looting of the Roman army during the three-year war.
The taxes themselves were not onerous: the manner in which they were levied made them so.
Taxes from the provinces were not collected by government officials, but were farmed out, that is, a collector (publican), usually from Roman horsemen2, bought the right to collect taxes from any district, and the size of the tax was determined by the greed of the publican and his assistants.
All this led to a general hatred for the Romans, which accumulated for decades in the cities and provinces subject to them.
Publicani, like locusts, attacked the taxable population of the provinces, creating lawlessness to extort funds. The people endured bullying and were forced to give their own children into slavery, any resident who did not pay taxes on time could be beaten. Complaints from the population of the provinces, reaching Rome, remained unanswered.
Roman Republic towards the end of the 2nd century. became almost sovereign mistress of the Mediterranean.
1. Aristonicus proclaimed the creation of the state of the Sun - Heleopolis, so the rebels called themselves heleopolites.
2. Horsemen - the second after the senators, the Roman estate, the financial aristocracy.
Hellenistic Egypt, having lost many of its possessions, depended on the Romans; the small Greek states that remained autonomous were dependent on Rome and subject to Roman governors.
The only Hellenistic state that continued to develop and expand its territory was the Pontic state.
Attempts to unite the lands on the coast of the Black Sea or Pontus, as the ancient Greeks called it, were repeatedly made by various states.
So in one of the fragments of the list of foros (tax) of the Athenian allies for 425 BC. e. the cities of Pontus Euxine are mentioned, which, apparently, were part of one tax district.
The entire near-Pontic region, apparently, was perceived by the Greeks of that era as a single economically and geographically whole region.
According to Diodorus Siculus, even the Bosporan ruler, the archon of Panticapaeum Eumel, who ruled at the end of the 4th century. BC e., made an attempt to unite Pontus into a single state, but he was prevented by death.
Eumel, during his five-year reign, put an end to piracy on the Black Sea and provided assistance to the Greek cities of the Southern Black Sea region, which fought against Tsar Lysimachus.
The Pontic king Pharnaces I in 183 BC e. captured Sinop, the most economically and militarily strong city of the Southern Black Sea region, and, having other coastal centers, founded the fortress city of Farnakia in the country of the Khalibs, rich in iron ore.
Farnak turns his gaze to the north, where Tauric Chersonesus needs military assistance in the fight against the Scythians.
A union treaty is concluded, imprinted on a marble slab found in Chersonese.
Fragments of treaties with the cities of western Pontus have been preserved.
The text of the peace treaty, concluded after the four-year war of Pharnaces of Pontus with the kings of Asia Minor, lists the allies of the Pontic kingdom. These are Heraclea Pontus, Cyzicus, Mesemvria, Chersonese Tauride, the Sarmatian king Gatal and the unknown Asian ruler (possibly the king of Colchis) Akusiloch.
The creation of a Pontic state covering the entire Black Sea basin, apparently, was conceived by Farnak I; his successors continued this work, pursuing a consistent policy of capturing and annexing the territories of tribes and cities.
Farnak intended the Greek cities of the coast to be a special cementing force of his state, since the leading layers of these cities were interested in creating a single political and economic space of the Black Sea basin, which could lead to the end of hostile relations with the barbarian tribes of the coast.
This policy was reflected in the minting of coins by the Greek cities of Kallatia, Istria, Odessa and Tiras, which depicted the portrait features of the Pontic kings and the sea deity Pontus.
Farnak I, who captured the important trading city of Sinop, received a port from which ships went directly to Tauris.
In Taurida at that time there were two Greek states: the Bosporan kingdom and the Chersonesus Republic. The mountainous part of Taurida was inhabited by the warlike tribes of the Tauris, who were constantly at war with the Republic of Chersonesos.
In the steppe part lived the so-called royal Scythians, who built the city of Naples on the site of the modern city of Simferopol under Tsar Skilur.
Relations between the Greeks and the Scythians developed in different ways. Periods of peaceful life, during which trade and mutual contacts developed, were replaced by confrontations and wars, in which the Chersonesites had to go under protection defensive structures. All contacts with the Scythians and Tauris ceased, trade froze, not only the merchants of Chersonesus suffered losses, but also the kings of Pontus, who lost revenues to the treasury from trade.
In order to put an end to the Scythian threat, an agreement on mutual defense was concluded between Farnak and Chersonese. It is possible that gradually such treaties, due to circumstances, were forced to sign by all the Greek colonies of the Black Sea.
King Mithridates V Everget, who ruled in 150-120 BC. e., moved the capital of Pontus to Sinop.
He pursued an active policy aimed at strengthening the economic and military power of the kingdom, actively developed iron and silver mines, and created a navy to fight pirates who interfered with trade.
Mithridates Everget created instead of the militia from the local tribes a mercenary army according to the Greek model and with Greek commanders.
Mithridates V Euergetes and Laodice
He enjoyed great prestige among the democrats in the Greek cities, supported them, as opposed to the Romans, who relied on the nobility. Democrats from territories subject to the Romans could always count on shelter from the Pontic king.
Realizing that sooner or later he would have to face the Romans, Mithridates Everget significantly expanded his kingdom, began to make alliances with the Thracian and Pontic tribes. Leading an active foreign policy, he favored trade. Under him, the Pontic kingdom had trade and economic ties with Athens and Delos.
Trying to raise his prestige in the Greek world, which he counted on in case of war with Rome, he married, like his father, a princess from the house of the Seleucids and began to build his family not only to the Achaemenids, but also to Alexander the Great. Patronizing the Greek population and planting the culture and language of this people, he received the epithet Euergetes-Benefactor.
The court of Mithridates was made up of people of various tribes and peoples: Greeks, Paphlagonians, Cappadocians, Thracians, Tibarens, Mosineks, Macrons, Drils, Khalibs, Colchs, Armenians, Persians, etc. The huge incomes received by the king of Pontus made it possible to keep a large number of close associates, advisers, translators and friends. Leading an active foreign policy, the tsar maintained a whole corps of diplomats and envoys who negotiated and represented the tsar among the numerous tribes of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Balkans and the Black Sea coast.
Heir of Mithridates Euergetes
The heir of Mithridates Euergetes was Mithridates VI Eupator, born in 132 BC. from the queen from the house of the Seleucids, Laodice, daughter of the king of Syria, Antiochus VII. The prince, who grew up at a court that was extremely magnificent according to Eastern custom, learned to speak a dozen languages and from childhood knew the main enemy of the Pontic kingdom. Like any eastern court, the close associates of the Pontic king were engaged in endless intrigues. All this influenced the character of the future king, who grew up in such an atmosphere very suspicious, vindictive and cruel.
As an eleven-year-old boy, Mithridates, having inherited the Pontic kingdom after the early death of his father, to which the Romans had a hand, was forced to live for seven years, hiding for fear of being destroyed by rivals.
He had to wander all over the country, communicating with many people whom he tried to make his supporters.
Upon reaching the age of eighteen, he returned to the capital of Pontus, a hardened and experienced young man in life's adversities.
Physically strong and well-built, Mithridates Evpator ran fast, drove a chariot perfectly, tamed wild horses and was a good shooter.
From childhood, because of the fear of being poisoned, the prince accustomed his body to various poisons.
In his succession, Mithridates Evpator spared neither energy nor means to achieve his goal. His willingness to fight Rome to the end is reminiscent of the determination of the Carthaginian commander Hannibal.
Despite his education, the king was very superstitious, believed in omens, which often prevented him from achieving his goal. Mithridates was a subtle diplomat and, using historical situations, he was able to get a wide variety of people and movements into allies. Mithridates closely followed the events taking place in the world, he was waiting for a good moment to speak out against the Roman Republic, hoping for the support of the population, the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, groaning under the yoke of the Romans. The agents of the king of Pontus brought him information from all parts of the Roman Empire, which included the territories of modern Italy, the south of France, most of Spain, the northern coast of Tunisia and Algeria, Greece, Albania, parts of Serbia and Bulgaria, southwest of Asia Minor.
Mithridates VI Eupator Dionysus
What was the Roman Republic at the end of the 2nd century BC? uh? It was a rapidly developing society that reached its climax. The economic development of the slave-owning economy led to the creation of complex and productive, by ancient standards, agricultural production. Having received huge material resources and a mass of slaves as a result of victorious wars, the practical Romans created intensive branches of agriculture: arable farming, horticulture, olive growing, viticulture and vegetable growing. Animal husbandry and poultry farming continue to develop. Veterans of the Roman legions develop new lands, drain swamps to expand agricultural land.
The rapid development of urban communities attract the rural poor to the cities of Italy, left without a livelihood due to the use of cheap slave labor. Handicraft production is growing, the volume of trade is increasing in the cities. Italy thrives on the corruption of the provinces subject to her and the sophisticated and skillful organization of slave labor. The merciless exploitation of slaves led to social tensions, which caused outbreaks of class struggle not only between slaves and slave owners, but also social conflicts within the free population of the Roman Republic. The mass of wealthy Romans, who owned estates, palaces, ships, workshops, engaged in trade and tax collection, was opposed by small producers who lived by the labor of their own hands and were forced out of economic life the use of slave labor.
Roman slave owners were not a monolithic class. Senators, horsemen, the top of the plebs and the nobility of the Italian cities had equal interests, which divided them into different political groups and led to fierce political fights that escalated not only into armed clashes, but also into bloody civil wars, during which political opponents and political opponents were destroyed without exception. neutral citizens of the republic. The struggle of the common people against the senators was led by the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi.
With the help of agrarian reform (endowing the mass of small landowners with land and limiting the ownership of the area of arable land to a norm of up to 500 jugers1), the leaders of the Roman plebeians tried to improve the state system and strengthen the internal unity of the Roman people in order to intensify foreign policy, i.e., capture new territories.
Both brothers, as a result of a fierce political struggle, were killed along with their closest supporters. The agrarian reform was partially carried out, and several tens of thousands of people received land allotments, which increased the number of qualified Roman citizens who were able to bear arms. The state began to issue weapons to soldiers free of charge, and they began to receive salaries, while previously they received a share of military booty. The younger brother Gaius Gracchus managed to create a powerful political coalition, consisting of horsemen, urban and rural plebs.
Since the inhabitants of Italy were divided into full citizens and disenfranchised Italian allies, which undermined the inner fortress of Rome, Gracchus also wanted to pass a bill on Italian allies to grant them the right to Roman citizenship. But opponents defeated his bill. The Roman Republic, which fought a series of victorious wars in Africa with Jugurtha, the Cimbri and Teutons in Gaul and Northern Italy, thanks to the reforms of the commander Gaius Marius, was shocked by the uprisings of slaves in Sicily. In Sicily there were many slaves who got there as a result of the policy of Roman businessmen in the provinces, who turned the inhabitants into slaves for debts.
1 Yuger- Roman measure of area, equal to 0.25 hectares.
The Senate of Rome, during the war with the Cimbri and Teutons, issued an edict on the release of such illegally enslaved provincials and subjects of allied kings in order to recruit them into the army as allied warriors. The edict aroused the discontent of the Sicilian slave owners, as a result of which the governor of the province, having freed a small part of the slaves, violated the order of the Senate and stopped the release. This was the reason for the uprising in 104 BC. e. The rebellious slaves managed to capture inner Sicily and organized their administration in the occupied territory. They chose a king for themselves, who took the throne name Tryphon. The king of slaves wore a diadem following the example of the Hellenistic kings and a toga with a purple border, had lictors following the example of the highest Roman magistrates.
The rebels defeated the Roman troops near the city of Morgantina, and the uprising spread throughout Sicily. On the territory of Italy itself, the Roman horseman Vettius called for an uprising of slaves in order to get rid of the debts he had incurred. Gathering a large detachment of slaves, he declared himself king and armed his people with pre-purchased weapons. Against Vettius, a legion was sent by the Senate under the command of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, which was defeated by the rebels near Capua. The Roman Senate, frightened by what had happened, bribed one of the commanders of Vettius, and he was killed. The movement was suppressed only in 103 BC. e. Following this, Lucullus landed in Sicily with a large army, to which he added the militias of the seaside cities and the Roman garrisons. In the battle near the town of Skirtia, Lucullus, suffering heavy losses, managed to push the rebellious slaves, and they took refuge behind the walls of their capital, Triokala. The attempt to capture the fortress city ended in failure, and Lucullus was forced to retreat. Only in 101 BC. uh, big military forces, who fought with the Cimbri and Teutons under the command of Manius Aquilius, defeated the rebels and stormed Triokal. The captured participants in the uprising were either executed or given to gladiators. The uprising in Attica, which took place in 103-102. BC e., was the result of the merciless exploitation of slave miners in the Lavrion silver mines. Tens of thousands of slaves, working in terrible conditions and under strict control, killed the guards and fled. Having captured the fortress at Cape Sunius, they made devastating raids on Attica, reaching as far as Athens. But here, too, the uprising failed. All these movements of slaves and the poor forced the slave owners to unite around Rome, in which they saw their stronghold.
In Rome itself, a sharp struggle is unfolding between the democrats, who were supported by the rural and urban plebs with horsemen, led by Gaius Marius, Apuleius Saturninus and Servilius Glaucius, and the optimates, supporters of the Senate oligarchy.
The Optimates prevailed in this struggle, destroying Saturninus, abandoned by Marius at the last moment. In 91 BC. e. The Allied War began, one of the bloodiest in all of Roman history.
In this war, military, political and social demands were intertwined, all this gave it a special bitterness. Free inhabitants of Italy, consisting of different tribes, sought to obtain Roman citizenship. Etruscans, Samnites, Lucanians, Greeks and other peoples who inhabited Italy and stood for more high level cultural and social development, experienced cruel Roman oppression and an arrogant attitude towards themselves. The behavior of the Romans is well expressed in the "Aeneid" by the Roman poet Virgil in the translation of A. Fet:
Animated copper let others forge more tenderly
Also let living faces lead out of marble
Litigation is better conducted, as well as the sky movement
It is better to draw with a cane, and the dawn of the luminaries herald
You lead the nations, O Roman, remember with power -
Here are your arts - to impose the customs of the world,
Spare the subordinates and conquer the proud.
The rebels formed an army of 100,000 and created a federation of all Italian communities and cities with the center in the city of Corfinius. The federation was called "Italy", its coat of arms was the image of a bull butting a she-wolf. After repeated battles with no success for the Romans, the revolt expanded; the Greek cities of Italy, which had long remained faithful to Rome, began to go over to the side of the federates: Nola, Salerno, Pompey, Venafre.
But Rome found strength in itself, and even freedmen began to be accepted into the legions. The best commanders were placed at the head of the Roman armies. The turning point in the Allied War was brought by the law of the consul Lucius Caesar, according to which Roman citizenship was given to Italian communities that remained loyal to Rome. After the adoption in 89 BC. e. the law of Plautius-Papiria, according to which all residents of the allied communities who submitted an application within 2 months received Roman citizenship, the uprising subsided, since the main issue was already resolved without a fight.
Many cities and communities began to leave the Federation "Italia". The Romans managed to inflict a series of serious defeats on the federates and captured their capital Corfinium. At the beginning of 88 BC. e. the last fortresses of the Italics were taken by storm. The Roman Senate, realizing the extreme danger of such wars, granted all Italians the rights of Roman citizenship, the victors were forced to satisfy the demands of the vanquished. However, the optimates humiliated the new Roman citizens. They were not enrolled in all 35 territorial elective districts, but only in 8, in order to limit their political activity. The new citizens and populares insisted on the distribution of the Italics among all 35 districts. The incomplete solution of the allied issue and the difficult post-war economic situation caused a fierce internal political struggle between the populares and the optimates, which led to civil war. Rome, the position in which the populars controlled, was taken with battle by the legions under the command of Sulla, and political opponents who did not have time to escape were killed. Gaius Marius, captured by the Sullans, managed to escape from prison and took refuge in Africa, Sulla, having strengthened the Senate by including his supporters at the head of six legions, departed for Greece.
"Legion- a division of the Roman army, in the era of the Roman Republic, consisted of 4.5 thousand infantry and 500 horsemen, to which they attached.
The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter the desired word, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-building dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.
The meaning of the word pont
pont in the crossword dictionary
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
show off
PONT (Greek sea) in Greek mythology a god who personified the sea, the offspring of Gaia. From the union of Gaia and Pontus, the sea giant Taumant, the stormy sea Forkis, the abyss of Keto, the sea elder Nereus and Eurybia were born.
Pont
(Greek Pontos), ancient area in Asia Minor along the coast of Pontus Euxinus; was part of Cappadocia. From 302 (or 301) BC. e. The Kingdom of Pontus arose on the territory of Pontus.
Wikipedia
Pont
Pont- the ancient Greek name for the northeastern region of Asia Minor, in the north adjacent to Pontus Euxine- To the hospitable sea, now the Black Sea.
Pontus (disambiguation)
Pont:
- Pontus is the northeastern region of Asia Minor.
- Pontus is an unrecognized state in the northeastern part of Turkey in the period 1917-1922.
- The Kingdom of Pontus is a Hellenistic state in Asia Minor in 302 - 64 BC. uh..
- Pontus - ancient Greek god inland sea.
- Pont Canavese is a commune in Italy, located in the Piedmont region, in the province of Turin.
- Pontus Euxine- the ancient name of the Black Sea.
Pontus (mythology)
Pont- a character of ancient Greek mythology, the god of the inland sea, an ancient pre-Olympic deity, the son of Gaia and Ether. Hesiod, in Theogony, indicates that Gaia gave birth to Pontus without a father. For Hesiod, Pontus is more than the personification of the Sea.
He is the father of Nereus, Tawmant, Phorky and his sister-wife Keto (from Gaia or Tethys); Eurybia; telchines (from Gaia or Thalassa); genera of fish.
Sometimes he is compared with the sea titan Oceanus, who was more revered among the Greeks than Pontus.
Pontus (republic)
Republic of Pontus- a Greek state in the northeastern part of modern Turkey, which de facto existed from 1917 to 1922. The Republic of Pontus was never officially declared, but the central government embryonic state existed, but never controlled all the territories declared as part of it. The Pontic Greeks revolted against Ottoman Empire during the First World War, under the leadership of the Metropolitan of Trebizond, the Paris Peace Conference, Chrysanthos, proposed to fully establish the status of an independent republic of Pontus, but neither Greece nor other delegations supported him.
Examples of the use of the word pont in the literature.
And I saw, having closed eyelids, salty show off rocking Genoese boats, green hills, crumbling marble villas and ancient towers of a distant sacred city.
Many Venets profited from trade with Lazika, with the coast of Evksinsky ponta north and west of the Phasis River.
Now few people remembered who Azorin was, but La Ponte Until now, I have tried to cut sentences in his manner - so that they turn out to be very capacious and logical, tightly linked together.
Rushing through the boiling pontoo, carried far from the beloved, - So from the shield of Achilles, magnificent, marvelous to the eyes, 380 Light poured through the air.
Off the coast ponta, at the mouths of large rivers, the Greek cities built their colonies for profitable trade with the barbarians, perhaps these peaceful havens of citizenship produced, although slowly, but noticeable in history, influence on the latter?
Mithridates sent Diophantus with a fleet, and he defeated the Scythians of Polak and the Taurians and returned to Pont.
Gaius Cassius Longinus, always distinguished by his propensity for independence, at the head of his cavalry detachment moved to Ponto Evksinsky.
On the tables that were carried in front, the countries and peoples over which the triumph coped were indicated: Pont, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, Iberians, Albans, Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, the tribes of Phoenicia and Palestine, Judea, Arabia, as well as pirates, finally destroyed on land and at sea.
You got me on show off don't take it," said Luchkov, "you've screwed up a bunch of joints yourself.
Trajan, his representative Pliny, sent to the province of Asia Minor, called Bithynia and Pont.
It would be nice, of course, to have a good week on the banks ponta, but these shores are less and less hospitable every year - it is strictly forbidden to sleep somewhere on the beach, they will notice it in a jiffy, and what remains: to pay three times a day for a bed in a chicken coop?
Banks of Propontis and Euxine ponta where the quarries were located have changed.
Under the outer current that came from the Evksinsky ponta in the Propontis, there was a second, the reverse.
There is no doubt that della Ponte inferior in talent to his rivals in the fight for Rialto - Michelangelo, Sansovino, Sanmicheli, Palladio.
It went west at the call of the great king Skilur, to where the distant ponta Evksinsky began a war with the Greek invaders.
The history of the Pontic Greeks originated in the mists of time. From the 1st millennium BC until the 10th century The Pontic Greeks have come a long way in history. In continuation of this path, the Pontians developed at Pontus Euxinus and maintained their culture at a high level, formed their own states, engaged in science and art, and were able to ensure such economic development that their ports became important points, crossroads of world trade of their time.
Historical Pontus in its own way geographic location was a breakwater for the enemies of Byzantium.
Trebizond, the capital of the Pontic Empire, held out for eight years after the fall of Constantinople before being captured by the Ottomans in 1461. Ottoman yoke endurance, self-consciousness and faith of the Pontic Greeks were tested.
Pont is one of the most beautiful corners of the earth with a mild subtropical climate, rich flora and fauna, numerous rivers, mountain ranges. It is located at the junction of East and West in the northeastern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor. Geographically, it can be divided into two parts: northern (Primorsky Pont) and southern (Continental). The border is the plateau of Parkhar, sung in Pontic folklore. The Pontic land is rich in minerals. Deposits of gold, silver, magnesium, and other metals have been known here since ancient times.
Most big cities Pontus: Sinop, Trebizond, Kerasund, Kotiora (Ordu), Samsund and other former centers of maritime trade, "gates to the East".
The first mention of Pontus dates back to the time when the ancient Greek civilization began to spread its influence over the vast expanses of the Black Sea region. The history of Ancient Pontus is known to us thanks to myths and archaeological finds. Particularly popular in Ancient Greece there was a cycle of myths dedicated to Phrixus and Gela, the legendary hero Jason and the campaign of the Argonauts for the Golden Fleece.
During this period, the resettlement of the Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor begins. Twelve Ionian tribes, having moved out of the regions of modern Attica and the northern part of the Peloponnese, founded twelve cities of Asia Minor. The Ionians preserved the legacy of the ancient Greek Aed poets, singers who played the lyre musical instrument; one of them was Homer, who lived in the 8th century. BC. on the island of Chios. The Ionians were united and high level self-awareness, highly valued their culture and language, their belonging to a highly developed civilization.
South of the city of Ephesus (Asia Minor) on the northern slope of Mount Mikalis, there was a religious center of the Ionians - the temple of Poseidon. Ionians from all regions regularly gathered there for festivities dedicated to the god of the sea. Neighboring peoples: Lelegs, Karas, Lycians, Meons and others who lived in Asia Minor, were very quickly Hellenized. Later, following the Ionians in Asia Minor Dorians and Aeolians began to move.
Miletus was the largest Ionian city in Asia Minor. The inhabitants of Miletus founded most of the colonies on the Black Sea coast. They also founded the city of Sinop. Sinop, in turn, created the colonies of Trebizond, Kerasund and others. The name Pontus comes from the name of the sea that washes it from the north (Pontus of Euxine). In addition to Pontus, almost the entire Black Sea region was inhabited by the Greeks. Wherever the Greek went or went, he carried with him a particle of his great culture, remained faithful to the language of his ancestors, bowed before their memory.
The development of Asia Minor, begun in the XI - X centuries. BC. Ionians, their descendants the Pontics continued, moving deep into the peninsula from the northeast. Contacts with new peoples contributed to the spread of Greek civilization in the East, the material and spiritual culture of the Greeks themselves was enriched.
Pontus became one of the largest regions densely populated by Greeks. Neighboring tribes of non-Greek origin were gradually Hellenized. Such tribes were Khalibs, Mossiniks, Macrons (macrocephalia), Drils, Chans, who still live in Pontus, Scythians, Kerkits, Taohs. Larger peoples also lived in the neighborhood: Kurds, Laz, Armenians, Assyrians. The majority of the population of Pontus were Greeks. Greek language and way of life were increasingly included in the life of the peoples of Asia Minor and the Caucasus.
Kingdom of Pontus
The Pontic cities were separate city-states with their own governing bodies. The inhabitants of the cities retained their faith in the gods of Olympus and spoke the Ionic dialect of the ancient Greek language.
The first Pontic king was Ariobarzanes (363-337 BC). The second king was Mithridates I (337-302 BC). Mithridates II, in the fight against the king of Thrace, loses part of the territories, but subjugates Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. The subsequent rulers of the Pontic kingdom were: Ariovarzanis II (266-255 BC), Mithridates III (255-222 BC), Mithridates IV (222-184 BC) , Mithridates V Eupator (157-120 BC).
At the end of 120 BC. rises to the throne last king Ponta Mithridates V Eupator the Great (120-63 BC). In the era of Mithridates Eupator, the Hellenization of neighboring tribes continued at a rapid pace. The Greek language and Greek culture began to spread to Pontus. In rivalry with Rome, he managed to occupy Galatia (M. Asia) and Cappadocia, most of the islands of the Aegean Sea and Macedonia. Since the time of Hannibal, the Romans had not had such a strong rival. During the war with Pontus, the famous commanders Sulla, Lucullus, Pompey led the Roman legions. In 63 BC 69-year-old Mithridates, betrayed by his son, is defeated and, unable to gather new forces for the war, finds death in Panticapaeum (Kerch), ordering him to be killed.
The Pontic kingdom existed for 300 years and only after 30 years of struggle fell under the blows of mighty Rome.
The era of Rome and Byzantium
A citizen of Rome was considered one who spoke Latin and Greek, worshiped the Greek and Roman gods. It is believed that since that time the name Romeus has been assigned to the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, which the Pontic Greeks retain to this day. From the word "Romeos" comes Turkish - Urum (i.e. Greek). From the 1st century BC. according to the IV century. AD Pontus was part of the Roman Empire. With the division of the Roman Empire into two parts in the IV century. AD Pontus becomes a province of the Byzantine Empire (IV-XIII centuries).
Byzantium is known as the Greek Empire. Pontus becomes the most important strategic point on the eastern borders of the empire. The inhabitants of the border zone were called Akrits (the heroic Akritian epic created by them is known).
The Byzantine Empire, which withstood the onslaught of the barbarians, lasted until 1453 and fell under the blows of the Ottomans.
Trebizond Empire (1204 - 1461)
In 1221-1222. two Mongol commanders Jebe and Subudai led their troops through the Caucasus and headed for Rus'. The Empire of Trebizond lost its possessions in the Northern Black Sea region, but the main danger was approaching from the south. These were the Ottomans. The Greek states could not stop their onslaught and gradually became victims of their disunity. By the 15th century The Ottomans captured a significant part of the territory of Asia Minor and rushed to the Balkan Peninsula.
In 1204, after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the weakening of central authority, the Trebizond Empire was formed on the territory of Pontus, which lasted until 1461. The Byzantine imperial family of Komnenos came to power.
Alexei and David were the founders of the Komnin family. From 1185 they were at the court of Queen Tamara of Georgia. In 1204, with the help of the Pontic feudal lords, part of the Constantinople nobility and soldiers of Queen Tamara, the Komnenos occupied Trebizond. The emperor of the newly created Pontic Empire was called the king and autocrat of the Romans, but later, at the request of the Emperor of Constantinople, the name was changed to another: the king and autocrat of Anatolia, Iberians and Peratia. The emblem of the rulers was a single-headed eagle. The influence of the Trebizud Empire extended to part of Asia Minor, the Caucasus and the Crimea. Military art, spiritual culture, and trade have received great development here. In the era of the Komnenos, 3,000 churches were built on the territory of Pontus. Significant development was received by science: astronomy, physics, mathematics. People from neighboring countries came to study in Trebizond.
Due to historical circumstances, the Pontic Greeks have developed almost independently from the rest of the Greek ethnos since Late Antiquity. As a result, the Pontics formed their own, rather peculiar culture, although it had many common features with the Hellenic, but in many ways and different from it.
Pontic Greek comes from the ancient Ionian dialect. Due to its relative isolation, Pontic has retained many archaic features: its vocabulary and grammar have much more in common with ancient Greek than with modern Greek. On the other hand, during the long period of communication between the Pontic Greeks and other peoples of Asia Minor and the Caucasus, many words from Persian, Turkish and various Caucasian languages entered the Pontic dialect. All this makes it very difficult to understand Pontic.
The culture has retained many archaic features, in particular, most of the Pontic dances date back to the most ancient Pyrrhic ones. The widespread male dance "serra" was described by Strabo and Plato, and the male dance with daggers ("masher", "ti masheri" or "hadzharts") - by Xenophon.
Christianity and Pont.
The Greeks of Asia Minor, including Pontus, are considered the most zealous Christians. When in 961 Byzantine emperor Nikifor Foka liberated the island of Crete from the Arabs, who had been there for 130 years, some of the Cretans were Muslims. Then Asia Minor and Pontic families were resettled on the island, and the Cretans again became Christians. In 1414 another 880 Pontic families were resettled to the island of Crete. The area where they settled was called Trebizond.
In the IV century. the monastery of Panagia Sumela, famous throughout the Christian world, is being built. The icon of the Mother of God, which was in the monastery, according to legend, was painted by the evangelist Luke himself. The Sumela monastery got its name from the name of the mountain on which it is located (Su Mela).
Also known is the monastery of St. John (Vaselon or Zebulon), built in 270, later destroyed by the Persians, but restored under the emperor Justinian. Also no less famous are the monasteries of St. George and Gumera. In Trebizond itself, the churches of St. Eugene (the patron saint of the city), St. Sophia, St. Basil and others were built ...
During that period, there were also 6 cathedrals, 1,131 churches, 22 monasteries, 1,647 churches and 1,459 clergy who took pride in developing and maintaining spiritual convictions and general education along with the monasteries of St. Sumela, St. Gumer, St. George Peristerios, St. John Vaselon and others.
Georgaffia
Name, area, population.
PONDOS is the name of the coastal part of the North-East of the Asia Minor Peninsula, which stretches from Sinop to the eastern edge of the Black Sea (Batumi), with a total area of 71.500 km2 and a population of 2.048.250, of which 697.000 were Orthodox Greeks.
Other geographic data.
a) Landscape: at a distance of about 100 km. south of the coast and throughout Pondos, from west to east, the Pariardi (Yavur Dag) mountain range stretches, which separates the Pond from the southern part of Asia Minor, leaving two main routes - the first from Amiso to Sevastia and the Central Part and the second from Trabzon to Yerzurum and Eastern direction. The main branches of this mountain range from the west: the city of Kemer Dag (north of Amasia), the city of Gildiz Dag (north of Sevastia), the city of Kara Dag (north of Nikopol), the city of Kemer Dag (east of Argyrupol), etc.
b) Rivers: the main rivers flowing into the Black Sea from west to east: Alice (Kizil Irmak), the largest river in Asia Minor separating Pond and Paphlagonia, and Irish (Gesil Irmak)
demographic data.
a) cities. The most important cities of Ponda were: Trebizond (Trapezus, Trabzon) with 50,000 inhabitants, of which 15,000 Greeks, Kerasunda (Kerasuz) with 20,000 inhabitants, of which 12,000 Greeks, Tripoli with 10,000 inhabitants, of which 3,000 Greeks, Kotiora (Ordu) with 12,000 inhabitants, of which 6,000 Greeks, Amisos (Samsund) with 35,000 inhabitants, of which 18,000 Greeks, Sinop with 15,000 inhabitants, of which 4,500 Greeks, Nikopol with 1,500 Greeks, Argyropol with 6,000 inhabitants, of which 2,500 Greeks and Amasia with 42,000 inhabitants, of which 18.000 are Greeks.
b) Clergy - Education. Pond was divided into 6 metropolises:
1) Metropolis of Trabzon with 84 schools, 165 teachers and 6,800 students.
2) Metropolis of Rodopol with 55 schools, 87 teachers and 3,053 students.
3) Metropolis of Kolonia (Nikopol) with 88 schools, 94 teachers and 4,900 students.
4) Metropolis of Haldia - Kerasundi with 252 schools, 322 teachers and 24,800 students.
5) Metropolis of Neocaesarea with 182 schools, 193 teachers and 12,800 students.
6) Metropolis of Amasya with 376 schools, 386 teachers and 23,600 students.
d) In total, there were 1,047 schools throughout the Pond, with 1,247 teachers and 75,953 students. Among these schools, the Institute of Trabzon, which was a real luminary of education and morals with great fame, the Argyrupol Institute, Gumera Lyceum, Kerasunda Semi-Gymnasium, Amis Gymnasium, etc., were especially distinguished.
Of my time. It had a great influence on neighboring countries and the subsequent development of the Black Sea region. All ancient states in the south modern Russia one way or another, they adopted something from this power. The kingdom of Pontus is known modern science much more than other similar countries. This is due to the fact that his sovereigns fought with Rome for a long time. There is no doubt that the threat posed by the Pontic kingdom was reflected in the internal political system republics.
Territory
During its existence in the III - I century. BC. The Pontic kingdom changed its borders many times, mainly due to its own expansion. The center of the state was Northern Cappadocia on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea. IN ancient era it was known as Pontus Euxinus, and that is why the kingdom came to be called Pontic, or simply Pontus for short.
The nature of the state was largely determined by its favorable geographical position. What territories were included in the Kingdom of Pontus? These were lands between Central and Western Asia, the Balkans and the Black Sea. Consequently, Pontus had trade links with all these regions, which made its rulers rich and powerful. They were visited by merchants from Northern Mesopotamia and Transcaucasia. Rare oriental goods brought by large Pontic kingdom were minted from gold and had a unique appearance. Archaeologists continue to find them in Turkey and Russia, Ukraine and the Caucasus.
Society
In the Pontic state, the traditions of many peoples were mixed. Asia Minor, Anatolian, Iranian and Hellenic customs took root in this kingdom. The population was mostly agriculture favored by the mild climate. There were relatively few cities in Pontus. They were mainly on the Black Sea coast. These were policies that were founded by the ancient Greek colonizers.
By ethnicity, the population belonged to the Cappadocians, Macrons, Khalibs, Colchis, Cataons. All kinds of newcomers lived here, for example, the Phrygian tribes. There have always been many Iranian-speaking Persians in the Pontic kingdom. This whole kaleidoscope was a dangerous powder keg. Different peoples were united thanks to the great Hellenic (Greek) culture. The further east the tribe lived, the weaker this influence was. The population of the policies of the Black Sea coast remained the most Hellenized.
Founding of Pontus
The Pontic state was founded by King Mithridates I in 302 BC. By origin, he was a Persian who served the Macedonian king Antigonus. For unclear reasons, the nobleman fell into disgrace with his monarch and fled to remote Cappadocia, where he founded a new state. By his name, the entire subsequent dynasty of the kings of Pontus began to be called the Mithridatids.
It should be noted the conditions against which this state appeared. The Pontic kingdom, whose history began at the end of the 4th century BC. e., arose on the ruins of the great power created by Alexander the Great. This commander first conquered Greece, and then spread the Hellenistic culture to most of the Middle East. His power was short-lived. It broke up into many principalities immediately after the death of Alexander in 323 BC.
heyday
The descendants of Mithridates I continued to strengthen and develop the Pontic state. They were helped by the political fragmentation of their neighbors and the struggle of potential competitors for influence in the region. This ancient power reached its heyday under Mithridates VI Eupator, who ruled in 117-63. BC.
At a young age, he had to flee his native country. After the death of his father, the mother of Mithridates VI opposed the fact that her son took his rightful throne. The hardships in exile undoubtedly hardened the future king. When he finally managed to return to power, the monarch began wars with his neighbors.
Small principalities and satrapies quickly submitted to Mithridates. Contemporaries began to deservedly call him the Great. He annexed Colchis (modern Georgia), as well as Tauris (Crimea). However, the king had the most important test ahead - several campaigns against Rome. The republic at that time increased its expansion to the East. She had already annexed Greece and now laid claim to Asia Minor, where the Pontic kingdom was located. Endless wars began between the two powers.
Relations with the provinces
Having created a huge state that already looked like an empire, Mithridates was faced with a natural problem - how to keep all his acquisitions. He tried to find a balance in relations with the new provinces, giving them different status. For example, some small tribes of the south formally became his allies, while Colchis and Tauris turned into a material and raw material base for the state economy.
Most of the funds went to the salaries and food of the army. This is not surprising, because the Pontic kingdom under Mithridates forgot about what the world is. The sovereign made the northwestern Black Sea region the main supplier of grain. The army needed endless bread for long-range raids in the Roman provinces.
External and social contradictions
Mithridates VI tried to increase the Pontic state with the help of the Hellenization policy. He declared himself the protector and patron of ancient Greek culture. But this course could not but lead to conflict with another ancient power in the person of Rome. The republic on its eastern borders did not need a powerful Pontic kingdom.
Mithridates, in addition, tried to strengthen his country by increasing the privileges of policies. By this he attracted the urban class to his side. But against such domestic policy was a powerful aristocracy. Its representatives did not want to share their wealth and influence with the policies at all.
Domestic policy of Mithridates VI
Ultimately, the aristocracy gave the ruler an ultimatum. He had to support her interests or suppress a major rebellion sponsored by the fat wallets of the elite. The king, who was constantly at war with Rome, could not put himself under a blow in the back. He had to make concessions to the aristocracy. They resulted in the birth of a tyrannical class that exploited the ordinary population.
Because of this contradiction, the Pontic kingdom, whose army was built according to the ancient Greek model, in fact, could not get rid of the features in its state structure. It is also important that this great power existed only thanks to the charismatic and powerful figure of the great king. After the death of Mithridates VI, it was bound to fall apart.
The doom of the kingdom
Today, the Kingdom of Pontus and its role in the history of the Black Sea region are being studied by researchers from various countries. But regardless of who we are talking about, every specialist pays attention to the era of Mithridates VI, since under him the state reached the peak of its development.
But even this great monarch had his mistakes and difficulties that he could not overcome. In addition to the internal problems described above, the king had to deal with the absence of any serious allies in the fight against Rome. Behind the republic were numerous provinces of the Mediterranean - Greece, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Carthage, etc. No matter how effective ruler Mithridates was, due to his objective capabilities, he could not resist Roman expansion for a long time.
Death of Mithridates
In the autumn of 64 BC. the king of Pontus was able to gather a colossal army of 36 thousand people at that time and conquer the Bosporus. However, his multinational army did not want to continue the campaign and go to Italy, where Mithridates wanted to go to strike right in the heart of Rome. The position of the monarch was precarious, and he retreated.
Meanwhile, a conspiracy was brewing in the army. The soldiers were dissatisfied with the war, and in addition, there was a man who wanted to encroach on power in the Kingdom of Portia. This ambitious man turned out to be the offspring of Mithridates VI Farnak. The plot was uncovered, and the son was caught. The king wanted to execute him for treason, but those close to him dissuaded him and advised him to let him go home. The father agreed.
But this act did not help to avoid a riot in the army. When Mithridates realized that he was surrounded by enemies, he took poison. That didn't work. Then the monarch persuaded his bodyguard to kill him with a sword, which was done. The tragedy broke out in 63 BC. The Romans, having learned about the death of Mithridates, celebrated for several days. Now they rightfully believed that the Pontic kingdom would soon submit to the republic.
Decline and fall
After the death of Mithridates VI, Pontus fell into decay. The Roman Republic, having won the war with its neighbor, made western part kingdoms by his province. In the east, the nominal power of the Pontic monarchs remained, but in fact they became dependent on Rome. The son of Mithridates Farnak II tried to revive the power of his father. He took advantage of what had begun and attacked the republic. Farnak managed to return Cappadocia and Lesser Armenia.
However, his success was short-lived. When Caesar was freed from internal troubles, he went east to punish Pharnaces. In the decisive battle at Zela, the Romans won an unconditional victory. It was then that the Latin catchphrase "Veni vidi vici" appeared - "I came, I saw, I conquered."
Julius Caesar, however, left the formal royal title in the hands of Mithridates' heirs. In return, they recognized themselves as vassals of Rome. The title was finally abolished in 62 AD. The last ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus, Polemon II, abdicated without any resistance, since he did not have any resources to fight Rome.
Due to the frequent confusion among my readers due to the meager information about the country of Pontus, which is often unfairly bypassed in history books and non-fiction, before continuing the story of his journey there in August 2013, decided to give a brief geographical overview of this region. Fortunately, this is not difficult to do. The idea of writing a book about Pontus has been brewing in my head for a long time, therefore, some initial sketches have already been made. It remains only to bring them to a simplified readable form and lay out in the form of a post. To make it not boring at all, I decided to bring a number of photographs of Pontic nature.
Pontus - country, or historical area, located in the northeast of Asia Minor on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Pontus borders on the following historical regions: in the west - with Paphlagonia, in the southwest - with Cappadocia, in the southeast - with Lesser Armenia, in the east - with Colchis (Georgia).
Briefly speaking about Greek history Pontus, the Greeks appeared here in the 8th century BC, which is at least known exactly from the date of foundation of Trebizond - 750 BC. For me, there is no doubt that the acquaintance of the Greeks with the Black Sea and the Pontic country happened much earlier, as evidenced by the ancient Greek myths, which are often unfairly bypassed by scientists, as important source information. You should not discount myths, because it was thanks to myths that Troy and Mycenae were discovered, which until recently, in the 19th century, were also considered mythical cities. So, in the myths we find information about the journey of the Greeks to Colchis for the Golden Fleece on the ship Argo, Pontus is located just along the path of the Argonauts.
The Greeks firmly settled here, having founded a number of policies: Sinop, Amis (Samsunta), Kerasund, Trebizond and others. During the Greco-Persian wars, the Pontic cities fell under the rule of the Persians. After the defeat of the Persian Empire from Athens to Pontus, an expedition of Pericles was organized with the aim of "restoring the constitutional order", if you can joke like that.)) The campaign of Alexander the Great practically did not affect Pontus, and after the collapse of his empire, the Pontic kingdom arises on the territory of Pontus Persian kings the Mithridates dynasty, which in turn, having existed for 300 years, perishes under the blows of the Roman legions.
As citizens of Rome, the Pontic Greeks were called Romans, this self-designation has survived to this day, the Turks call the Pontics “rum”, and I speak the language “rumja”. Christianity came to Pontus in the 3rd century. After the division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western and the death of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern gradually becomes completely Greek, which in historical literature called Byzantine. The Byzantine Empire was administratively divided into districts - themes. Pontus was part of the theme of Haldia. After the fall of Constantinople in the 13th century, under the blows of the Latin Crusaders on the territory of eastern Pontus, the Greek Empire of Trebizond of the Great Komnenos was formed, which existed for more than two hundred years and died in 1461, when the Ottoman Turks captured its capital - Trebizond, 8 years after the fall of Constantinople.
Under the rule of the Turks began the most difficult period in the history of Pontus. Periods of religious tolerance gave way to times of cruel persecution of Christians. Under economic pressure and physical violence, part of the Christians of Pontus converted to Islam, and part became crypto-, that is, secret Christians: outwardly they were Muslims, but they kept the Christian faith in their souls, there were secret chapels and icons in their houses, they performed Christian rites at night. In some areas, such as Stavri, Kromni, Imera and Sanda, there were secret Christian priests. In the 19th century, under pressure from Russia and European states, the Ottoman Empire was forced to gradually soften its attitude towards non-Muslims, a number of decrees were issued guaranteeing freedom of religion. Secret Christians gradually began to open their faith, but their situation still remained difficult.
During World War I Russian empire liberated Trebizond, Argyroupolis and a number of Armenian cities from the power of the Turks, but this, alas, did not last long. The ensuing revolution and the seizure of power in Russia by the Bolsheviks led to a radical turn in foreign policy. Lenin, raving about the ideas of a world revolution, saw Kemal as an ally and provided him with substantial assistance with troops, food, weapons and gold. Thanks to this help, Kemal was able to defeat the Greek army, which had already captured Smyrna and was moving towards Ankara. After the defeat of the Greeks, real terror began against the Greek and Armenian population, which began to suffer from the Turks even earlier under the Young Turks. During this genocide, about one and a half million Greeks, Armenians and Assyrians were destroyed.
Subsequently, between Greece and the state that calls itself Turkey, an exchange of population was carried out, millions of Greeks were deported from their homes to Greece. Part of the persecuted Greeks fled to neighboring countries: Russia, Georgia, Iran and the Middle East, where a large large population lives to this day. Today there is a Pontic-speaking Greek population on Pontus in the regions of Tonya and Of, but they are all overwhelmingly Muslim and consider themselves citizens of Turkey. Such, in a nutshell, is the history of Pontus.
Fragmentary historical information, as well as the fact that for centuries the historical region of Pontus was like independent state, and was included as a periphery in various public entities, whose boundaries are constantly changing, create certain difficulties in clearly defining its boundaries.
In the Greek literature devoted to Pontus, it is proposed to consider the borders of the country as those proposed by Metropolitan Chrysanths of Trebizond (Filipidis) in 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference, where the issue of creating an independent Pontic Republic was discussed. This is in the administrative division of the Ottoman Empire, first of all, the vilayet of Trebizond (tur. Trabzon), part of the vilayet of Sevastia in the south, namely the sanjaks (smaller administrative unit) Sebin, Karahisar, Amasya and Tokat, as well as a small part of the Kastamoni vilayet - the sanjak of Sinop . The area of Pontus within these boundaries is 71,500 sq. km, of which 31,500 sq. km occupies the vilayet of Trebizond. Geographical coordinates countries: latitude - from 39º 45´ to 42º; longitude - from 52º to 59º.
Map of the Pontic Republic:
Pontus is a very mountainous country. The low coastline in the north is very narrow, in places the mountains come close to the sea, forming steep cliffs. More or less large flat spaces are located only in the lower reaches of the Galis and Iris rivers in the western part of Pontus. With this exception, all other regions of the country have a high altitude. Parallel to the coast of Pontus, two ridges of the North Anatolian (Pontic) mountains cross from west to east. The first ridge Pariadr (Lazistan, tour. Palkhar Dag) divides the country into two parts. To the north of it there is a coastal zone, and to the south - a region of highlands, the height of which in the west is 750, and in the eastern regions - over 1000 meters above sea level. To the south is the valley of the Lik River (tur. Kelkit Hag), the right tributary of the Iris River (tur. Ezil Yrmak). Further south, another ridge of the Pontic Mountains, Antitaurus, also runs parallel to the Black Sea coastline, forming the natural border of Pontus in the south.
The mountains of Pontus are very high. In the eastern regions of the country, their peaks reach almost 4,000 meters above sea level. The most high mountain- Tatus Dag - 3950 m. In the western regions the mountains are lower, the peaks do not exceed 3000 m above sea level. Another essential characteristic of the Pontic Mountains is their ruggedness, which for centuries provided the country with natural protection from attacks from the land.
Northern slopes of the Pariadr ridge in the area of the Vaselon monastery:
Pariadr Mountains in Tonya region:
Anti-Taurus in the Stavri area:
Foothills of Antitaurus. Sunset at the village of Varenu:
The river system of Pontus belongs to the Black Sea basin. In the west of the country flows the largest river of Asia Minor - Galis, its length is 960 km. It originates in the Antitaurus Mountains in the region of Sevastia and flows into the Black Sea in the region of the town of Bafra between Sinope and Amis. The lower reaches are navigable. The next major river to the east is the Iris. It also originates in the region of Sebastia, passes through Amasya, then connects with its tributary Lik, which originates in the Pariadra mountains in the Argyropol region. It flows into the sea east of Amis. As mentioned above, both of these rivers form significant plains in their lower reaches and create favorable conditions for the development of agriculture.
Further to the east, small and fast mountain rivers follow: Harsiotis (tur. Harsit), which flows into the area of the city of Tripoli (tur. Tirebolu); Piksitis (tur. Degirmen Dere), originating in the mountains of Pariadra south of Trebizond, where the valley of the town of Matsuki (tur. Macka) and the famous Orthodox monastery of Panagia Sumela are located; and the easternmost river Pontus - Akampsis (tur. Chorokh), which originates on the eastern edges of the Pariadr ridge and flows into the Black Sea almost at the border with Georgia.
In addition to these five main rivers of Pontus, there are a huge number of small rivers and streams, the course of which is short and therefore swift.
One of the tributaries of the Pixitis River:
The coastline of the Black Sea on Pontus is comparatively little meandering. There are no significant bays and harbors, and those small ones that exist are not protected from the north and northeast winds. The best harbor on Pontus is in the city of Sinop. Among the most protruding capes of the Pontic coast, the following can be distinguished: Cape Lepto (tur. Ince Burnu) is located in the western part of Pontus, where the city of Sinop is located. This is the northernmost geographical point of the country. Two other capes are Jasonio, a little west of the city of Kotiora (Turkish Ordu) and Cape Hiero near the town of Platana, east of Trebizond.
Sunset over Trebizond:
The climate of Pontus corresponds to the three geographical zones of the country, into which it is divided by the Pontic Mountains. This is a coastal zone near the Black Sea; a zone of alpine pastures, a "parkaria" in the mountains of Pariadra; and the third - the zone of highlands between the ridges of Pariadr and Antitaurus.
In the coastal zone, the climate is mild and humid. This is a zone of humid subtropics, characterized by hot summers and mild rainy winters. The wettest place on the Pontic coast is the region of the city of Rizos (tur. Rize), here the annual amount of residues is 2454 mm. In other areas, it is much lower: in Trebizond - 782 mm, in Amis - 758, in Sinop - 691. The main amount of precipitation occurs in the winter months. The average temperature in winter is 8-9, in summer 22-23ºС. Spring in the coastal zone is characterized by frequent drops atmospheric pressure and changes in wind direction, as well as frequent thunderstorms. Summers are hot, but at the same time humid and cloudy. Cloudiness is less in autumn than in summer. Sunny days are often followed by intermittent rains. Winters are mild, the temperature in winter rarely drops below zero. If, however, there were cold winters, it was a real disaster for the inhabitants of the coastal strip, as livestock and cultivated trees died, the paths were blocked, both sea due to storms, and land due to heavy snowfalls in the mountains. The climate of the seaside strip of the eastern part of Pontus is similar to the climate of Colchis and the western Caucasus, while in the west the climate is more reminiscent of the Mediterranean.
The humid and mild climate of the Pontic coast ensures lush vegetation in this area. Viticulture and horticulture flourished in the eastern part, and to a lesser extent, the cultivation of cereals due to the rugged terrain. In the western regions with wide valleys formed by the sediments of the Iris and Galis rivers, on the contrary, the cultivation of cereals prevailed.
Narrow, with the exception of the valleys of the Galis and Iris rivers in the west, the coastal strip of Pontus, as it moves south, passes into mountains covered with dense forests. Oak, spruce, pine, chestnut, birch, beech grow mainly here, in the Amis region, in addition to them, there is also plane tree. In the lower zone of the foothills, there is also a significant number of species of fruit trees, both wild and cultivated: apple, cherry, pear, dogwood, nuts, olives. In the area of the city of Kerasunda (tur. Giresun) also grows sweet cherry, so named by the Roman commander Lucullus after the name of the city - cerasum. Forests cover about 1/5 of the territory of Pontus, at least in the province of Trebizond. In the past, forests occupied much larger areas, since the Greeks, forced to move to western Pontus from the interior of the country due to the closure of the mines of Haldia in the middle of the 19th century, found these areas covered with boundless forests, which they cleared with great difficulty, winning back a place for crop areas and also for settlements.
This situation is typical in general for all regions of Europe and Western Asia, where humanity has been active and partially destroyed the forest cover due to the expansion of sown areas, use as building material and fuel. The reduction of the forests of Pontus over the course of history is due to their use as fuel in the production of metals in the numerous mines of the Pontic region, which will be discussed a little later.
As you move up, the forest zones of the Pontic Mountains are replaced by subalpine meadows and shrubs. Approximately from a height of 2000 meters above sea level, a zone of high-mountain pastures begins - "parkaria". This is the second conditional climatic zone of Pontus. The climate is harsh with warm, but short summer and long and snowy winters. There are often fogs here, and snow lies most of the year. There are practically no areas suitable for agriculture here, it is possible here only in the lowlands and hollows. At the same time, high-mountainous alpine pastures favor the development of cattle breeding. People do not live here, only in the summer months livestock breeders come here to graze their livestock. Mostly breeds of cattle are bred - bulls and buffaloes, goats, sheep, as well as horses, donkeys and mules. In addition, here, due to the healthy mountain climate, also in summer period many Pontians came to spend their holidays. Blooming alpine plants Pontic rhododendron and Pontic azalea give a special beauty to the nature of this area in spring. Thanks to them, Pontic honey has a slightly bitter and heady taste.
Parhariya in Kromni:
Parharia in Sanda:
The third climatic zone of Pontus is a plateau of uplands between the Pariadri and Antitaurus ridges, where the river Lycus flows. The climate here is sharply continental, dry and healthy. Temperature differences in winter and summer are significant. In autumn, starting from October, strong winds blow here and it rains with snow, turning closer to winter into heavy snowfalls, which throughout history often blocked communication between the coast and the hinterland of Asia Minor. The soil of this area is stony, the vegetation is sparse, and there is practically no forest cover. Meanwhile, in ancient times, forests also prevailed here, they were depleted for the same reason indicated above as in other areas of Pontus, namely, mass cutting for use as fuel in the extraction and production of metals. In summer, droughts are possible, causing the drying up of rivers and such adverse consequences for humans as the death of crops and the loss of livestock.
Speaking about the climate of Pontus, it is necessary to mention that in ancient times the country was much colder than it is now. Aristotle pointed out that because of the winter cold, donkeys are not bred on Pontus, and birds migrate to more southern places in winter. Also, ancient authors noted the glaciation of certain parts of the Black Sea.
An important resource of the Pontic region is the stock of fish in the Black Sea. Fishing has been developed throughout the ages in the coastal zone, as well as in the rivers of the Pontic foothills. So, for example, in Trebizond the famous Black Sea anchovy was the staple food of the poorest segments of the population. In addition, due to the large catch, it was often used as fertilizer in crop areas.
Ore-rich lands of Kromni:
Earthquakes on Pontus, in contrast to neighboring Armenia, were rare, strong destructive earthquakes were not observed in the entire three thousand-year history of the country.
That's all for now.
