Issues under consideration:

1. Types of sound alternations.
2. Positional alternations of sounds:

a) positional alternations of vowels;

b) positional alternations of consonants.

3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants.

Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, position of sound, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, stunning of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.

1. Types of sound alternations

In the process of speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this substitution is constant, regular, due to the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation, and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relations of regular replacement of one sound by another in the same phonetic conditions are called alternation.

The alternations associated with the position of the sound are called position alternations. Alternations due to phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.

All types of sound alternations can be represented in the form of the following table:

Types of sound alternations

Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and hence words, because alternations are related to the relationship of sounds (phonemes) within the system, where the units are related to each other in some way. The language distinguishes two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) - relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) - relations of association of homogeneous units based on associations.

In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and the recognition of similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of the sound, are paradigmatic (for example, when the speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b ' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] is the same typical sound).

2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)

Sounds in the speech stream are pronounced with different strength and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position - this is its immediate environment, as well as the position at the beginning, at the end of the word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels - the position in relation to stress.

There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.

Positional changes - these are sound changes associated with its position (for example, stunning at the end of a word, weakening unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of positional changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, loss (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.

Combinatorial changes - these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types positional changes, except for stunning at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with the position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.

2 a) Positional vowel alternations

The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. quantitative reduction – decrease in longitude and strength of sound - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). Qualitative reduction– attenuation with some change in sound. For example, for sounds [a], [o], [e] - in an unstressed position. Cf .: the sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mult current].

Sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word and as a reduced sound [b] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk- [milko], beard- [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r "and e b" ying], hourly[ h "s Lvoi].

The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [ and e ], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight- [n "bp" and e l "otʹ].

IN foreign words qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano- [рLjа́л "], but boa[boa], remark[r "and e mark], but metro[m "etroʹ].

Positional changes in vowels undergoing reduction can be represented in the form of the following table:

combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sound and are called accommodation. Wed pronunciation [o] in words they say[say], chalk[m’ hol], mole[mo l']. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m 'hol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo l'].

Thus, characterizing the changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (qualitative reduction, quantitative reduction or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonants (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz] :

[and e] - positional changes(in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.

[·о] – there are no positional changes, because vowel under stress; combinatorial changes - progressive accommodation.

[b] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes are absent.

2 b) Positional alternations of consonants

As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed sound [t] in words - So And That: [so] - [to from].

Much more often than accommodation, there are other changes in consonant sounds.

Assimilation – similarity in some way. Assimilation happens:

• in the vicinity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
• by the nature of the change by deafness/voicedness And hardness/softness;
• in the direction of impact - progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(impact of sounds from right to left (¬);
• by completeness of assimilation: complete And partial.

The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale- [kask] - voiced [h] under the influence of the deaf [k] assimilated into a deaf paired sound [s]. This assimilation is contact partial regressive in deafness.

Hissing consonants before hissing as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I drive .

D assimilation - distribution of sounds. In Russian, this process is rare. As a result of the process, the sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft- [m "ahk" y], easy- [l "ohk" y]. Dissimilation is subjected to pairs of the same way or place of formation of sound or similar sounds. Dissimilation can be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.

Distant progressive dissimilation has occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in the vernacular corridor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is a distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: thu, th like [sh] - What[what] and - wow, his like [ova], [yva]: blue- [with "in" bb]! These alternations are carried out regularly, in the same positions without exception, and have the character of a law.)

contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [grutskaya ® grtskaya], [ts] ® [c].

With the contraction of groups of consonants, sound loss can be observed: Sun- [sun]. Usually these are combinations [vst], [ntsk], [stl], etc.

Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:

Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - the omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant- [g'igansky].

Haplology- (from the Greek gaplos - simple + logos - concept) the omission of one or two identical neighboring syllables, due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralogy, standard-bearer, instead of standard-bearer.

Metathesis- (from the Greek metathesis - permutation) permutation of sounds or syllables in the composition of a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from talerka.

Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, indrav instead of temper, scorpionjon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in the word coffee(from coffee), the sound [in] in the word singer(from sang) in literary speech.

substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, more often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic for the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[v] instead of [w].

3. Historical alternations of sounds

Regular changes in sounds, not related to the position in the word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:

vowel alternation:

[ e] - [ and] - [ o] - [ a] - [Ø] // sound zero: died - to die; pestilence - to die - I will die; I take - collect - collect - collect;

[e] - [Ø] zero sound: stump - stump; true - true; wind - winds;

[o] - [Ø] - zero sound: forehead - forehead; bottomless - the bottom; lie - lie;

[ s] - [ Ø] - zero sound: send -ambassador - send.

Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:

[and] - [th] - [she] - [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;

[s] - [oh] - [ov] - [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim - swimmer - swim; cover - cut - cover;

[y] - [ov] - [ev]: kuyu - to forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;

[a] - [im] - [m]: reap - shake - shake;

[a] - [in] - [n]: reap - reap - reap.

consonant alternation:

[g] - [g] - [s]: friend - make friends - friends; run - run; moisture - wet;

[k] - [h]: shout - shout; hand - manual; peku - bakes;

[x] - [w]: quiet - silence; dry - land; stuffy - stuffy;

[s] - [s "] - [g]: thunderstorm - to threaten - to threaten; to carry - I drive; smear - I smear; climb - get along;

[s] - [s"] - [w]: bringing - to wear - a burden; scythe - mow - koshu; ask - demand - petition; high - height - higher;

[t] - [t "] - [h] - [w "]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return - return - return;

[d] - [f] - [f]: gardens - soot - planting;

[n] - [n "]: change - change; torn - tear;

[l] - [l "]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;

[p] - [p "]: hit - hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;

[b] - [b "] - [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;

[n] - [n "] - [pl"]: pour - rash - pour;

[in] - [in "] - [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;

[f] - [f"] - [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;

[sk] - [st] - [s"t"] - [w":]: shine - shine - shine - shine; start - let - omit;

[sk] - [w":]: crack - crack;

[st] - [w "]: whistle - whistle

4. Phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription is a recording of sounding speech with special signs. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the shades of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, yo, yu, i. Letters b, b are used in a different sense. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È …. Z. The main signs adopted in phonetic transcription:

– square brackets to highlight transcribed sounding units;

/ - a sign above the letter to indicate stress;

’ - a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;

L- a sign for designating sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after solid consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [sLdy],;

b- a sign for denoting unstressed sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of a word: gardener- [sedLvo΄t], young- [mlLdo΄y], as well as unstressed sound[e] after non-softened [g], [w], [c] in all unstressed positions, except for the first before stress: cement- [ts'm'i en nt'i΄rv't'].

b- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly- [h’ sLvo΄y], arborist- [l'sLvo΄t];

and e- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest- [l'i e sleepy]; nickel- [p'i e so].

s e – a sign for sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants w, w, c: regret- [zhy e l’et’], price- [tsy e na΄],

γ – letter to represent a fricative consonant denoted by a letter G in words: yeah, sir;

È - the bow under the line between the words indicates the continuous pronunciation of the service and independent words: in rows- [p È r 'and e da΄m];

j- a letter for the sound [th] at the beginning of words on e,yo,yu, i, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb- [pLdjo΄m], his- [svj and e v΄];

Ç - the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].

/ - a sign of a bar pause during the transcription of a sounding speech: [s’i e rg’e΄y / my friend//]

// - a sign of a phrasal pause in the transcription of sounding speech:

[home / and È s’t’e΄ny pmLga΄jut //] .

Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the features of the pronunciation of a word of a particular locality are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.

The literary pronunciation of the words of the Russian language implies the observance of certain norms, which are reflected in the transcription rules.

5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants

Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels:

1. The vowels O, A, E (in the spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.

2. In all unstressed positions after solid consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika- [b llla΄yk]; garden .

The vowels I, S, Y do not change during pronunciation.

3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription it is conveyed by the sign - [vLdaʹ]. This type of pronunciation is called akanem. The norm of the literary language is an aka pronunciation.

4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If a word with a preposition, in the flow of speech is one phonetic word and transcribed according to general rule: to the garden[in glro΄t];

5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Y) is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the icon [and e]: watch[ch'i e sy].

6. The vowel E (in the spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l'i e sno΄y]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced indistinctly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the [b] sign: arborist- [l'sLvo΄t], copse- [p'yr 'and e l'e΄sk].

7. The letters E, Yo, Yu, I are not used in transcription, in their place are written the corresponding pronunciation (audible) sounds: ball[m'ach'], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prLside jb].

8. After the solid consonants Zh, Sh, Ts in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter E, the sign [s e] is written in the transcription: want- [zhy e lat '], price- [tsy e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is transmitted with the sign [b]: yellowish[yellow].

9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in a stressed position, instead of the spelling rule And, the pronunciation [s] is written in the transcription: number- [cy΄fr], lived- [life], sewed- [shyl].

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonants:

In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which the processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are stunned. The processes of accommodation of consonant sounds (for example, the roundness of the sound [to] in the word here) are usually not reflected in the transcription used by us.

Historical sound alternations

Alternations not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of phonetic processes that acted in more early periods development of the Russian language. They are also called morphological alternations, since they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although in themselves they are exponents grammatical meanings, And traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of the modern phonetic system of the language.

The alternation of vowels (in many cases, these alternations have become literal) e - o: I carry - wears, I carry - carries e-o-zero sound-i: dial-set-dial - dial e - zero sound: day - day, true - true o - a: cook - cook o - zero sound: sleep - sleep, lie - lie, strong - strong o - zero sound - s: ambassador - send - send (I) - m - them: reap - shake - shake, take - I’ll take - charge a (I) - n - them: reap - reap - reap, crush - I’ll take - take in - about in: kuyu - forge, please - please u - ev: spend the night - spend the night, doctor - heal yu - ev : spit - spit, grieve - grieve at - oh - s: dry - dry - dry up and - oh beat - fight, drink - drink e - oh: sing - sing

Alternation of consonants Mrs. - Zh: shore - you save, pearls - a pearl, strict - stricter to - h: weave - bake, flour. - flour, w - w: hearing - listen, peas - peas, dry - drier g - h - f: friend - friends - friendly to - c - h: face - face - personal a - f: carry - drive, smear - I smear, low - below zg - zzh (g): squeal - squeal ad-zzh (g): furrow-furrow e - w: wear - wear, dance - dance d - f: walk - walk, young - younger t-h: want-want, bother-bust sk-st-sh let-let-let-forest, thick - thicker b - bl: love - love, hesitate - hesitate p - pl: buy - buy, drip - drop in - ate: crush - crush, catch - catching f - fl: graph - graph m - ml: break - break, doze - doze d, t - e: lead - lead, weave - weave to, g-h: attract-attract, help-help

Dictionary-reference linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what "historical alternations of sounds" are in other dictionaries:

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The same as the historical alternations of sounds ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

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32. Phonetic and historical alternations.

Why do words alternate sounds? This happens during the formation of grammatical forms of the word. That is, sounds in the same morpheme, for example, in a root, can replace each other. This substitution is called alternation.

In certain cases, not only vowels alternate, but also consonants. Most often, alternation is found in roots, suffixes and prefixes.

Moss - moss, carry - carry, cool - cooler, friend - friends - make friends - at the root of the word;

circle - mug, daughter - daughters, winter - winter, valuable - valuable - in suffixes;

wait - wait, call - convene, rub - votru - in prefixes.

There are two types of alternations: historical(they cannot be explained, they arose a long time ago and are associated with the loss of vowels [b], [b] (son - sleep, flatter - flatter) or with the inexplicable identity of consonant sounds (run - run) and phonetic(in a different way, positional, since they depend on the position of the sound in the word [nΛga - nok], they can be explained from the point of view of the modern Russian language, for example, the alternation [g / / k] arose because the consonant is preserved before the vowel, and at the end of the word, the sound is deafened, changing its sound quality).

Historical alternations

Phonetic (positional) alternations

Historical alternations are revealed during word formation and form change.

Phonetic (positional) can be determined by the reduction of vowels and the assimilation of consonants.

Many fluent vowels when changing monosyllabic and two-syllable nouns according to cases [o, uh, and / / -]:

mouth - mouth, ice - ice, stump - stump;

fire - fire, knot - knot, wind - wind, lesson - lesson, nail - nail, beehive - beehive;

bucket - buckets, window - windows, needle - needles, egg - eggs.

There are also fluent vowels in short adjectives: short - short, bitter - bitter, funny - funny, long - long, cunning - cunning.

In the roots of various verbs, vowels and consonants also alternate: touch - touch, examine - inspect, collect - collect, send - send, ignite - ignite, understand - understand, compress - compress.

It is important to know the alternation of sounds in order to correctly apply spelling rules when there are difficulties with writing letters in different parts of speech. If you do not recognize the alternation, you can make a mistake in morphemic analysis, when you highlight parts of a word.

Some philologists propose the following classification:

Sound changes are divided into two types -

quantitative And

quality.

The former are associated with the emergence or disappearance of certain sounds (phonemes) in the word and the language as a whole, while the others are associated with the transition of one sound (phoneme) to another.

quantitative changes. IN In the history of a language, there are not so often situations when the composition of phonemes either increases in a given language or decreases. So, in the East Slavic (Old Russian) language, i.e. the language of the Eastern Slavs, which originated from the Proto-Slavic language - the common language of all Slavs, phoneme formed /f / , which happened, on the one hand, as a result of borrowings, for example, from Greek, Hebrew and other languages, where it was available ( Foma, Fedor, Joseph and so on.), and on the other hand, under the influence of the law of incidence of reduced (short) sounds [O ] And [e ], denoted by the lettersKommersant (ep ) Andb (er ). For example, before the fall of the reduced word VKOUP« together” sounded with the sound [ V], and after - as a result of its assimilation (similarity) with the subsequent consonant - it began to begin with the sound [ f]. To some extent, the Russian people reacted with hostility to the appearance of a new phoneme. That is why, and still in common parlance, you can find such names as homa, Khvedor, Osip etc., where [ f] is replaced by [ X], [xv"] And [ P].

Example with VKOUP at the same time shows us the disappearance of the phoneme [ъ] from the East Slavic language. Other examples of this kind: KID - where, SID - here, LEG - leg etc. Their brevity contributed to the disappearance of the reduced ones. As a result, polysyllabic words could become monosyllabic ( DAY - today "today"; KENAZ - prince). Obviously, the general language law of economy had an effect here.

quality changes. In this case, we are talking about replacing one sound in a word with another. On the example of the history of the East Slavic word VKOUP we see the replacement [ V] on [ f]. In the examples given above, we observe here other qualitative changes in sounds. : [To] - [G], [With] - [h], [and] - [sh] and so on.

Hebrew name " John" turned into our Ivan". And here is an example from the “Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov: " Ignat... here's a pork tail for you. Skusnaya"(Part 5, Ch. 26). " Skusnaya" - "delicious". We see here the replacement of the literary [ f] into dialect [ With]. An example of another replacement from the same book: weakened instead of freed.

Quite noticeable in the history of the Russian language in its early period of development was the transition [ s] V [ And] after backlingual [ G], [To], [X]. If our ancestors before this transition spoke Kiev, goddesses, cunning etc., then after it: Kyiv, goddesses, cunning. In Ukrainian, the transition [ s] V [ And] stuck in the middle. That's why the Ukrainian sound [ And] is wider than Russian.

Example from Romance languages: translation [ b] - [v]: habere "to have"(lat.) - avoir (fr.), avere (it.).[V] in a word " barbarian" - of the same origin.

Quantitative changes in sounds can lead to qualitative ones and vice versa. Thus, the fall of the reduced in East Slavic (quantitative change), as we have seen, contributed to the transition [ V] V [ f] (qualitative change). But this qualitative change led to a quantitative one - the appearance of sound [ f].

Sound changes occurring in the language can be significant (systemic) and minor. In the first case, we are dealing with phonetic laws, and in the second, with phonetic patterns. The first ones thoroughly transform the entire phonetic system of a given language, while the others only some part of it.

The action of phonetic laws and patterns leads to certain historical and phonetic processes. Let's consider their classification. They are divided into

quantitative And

quality.

The first change the number of sounds (phonemes) in the word, while the others change the sound composition of the word, keeping the same number of sounds in it. The first ones are miscarriage, haplology And insert, and to the second - shift(movement) sounds and them permutation(metathesis) . Let's consider them separately.

quantitative processes. Dropout and haplogy reduce the number of sounds in a word, while insertion, which includes a prosthesis, epenthesis and epithesis, on the contrary, increases.

Throwing out (diaeresis).Diareza - this is a throwing out of certain sounds from a word. Dieresis can occur at the beginning of a word, in the middle and at the end.

Beginning of a word. A typical example of a sound escape at the beginning of a word is the so-called elision in French, which is understood as the contraction of an article with a noun that begins with a vowel sound: le + usage = l "usage (custom), le + homme \u003d l "homme (man).

The middle (base) of a word. We observed such a throwaway in the East Slavic language under the action of the law of falling reduced: BIRD(6 sounds) - bird(5 sounds); HEART(7 sounds) - heart(6 sounds). But cases with the so-called unpronounceable consonants in Russian are also suitable here: sun, honest, idle, happy and so on.

It is known that the Romance languages ​​were formed on the basis of Latin. But Latin (the language of the Romans) was spread over a vast territory called Romagna (Roma - Rome), where various tribes lived. So, French arose as a result of the development of Latin by the Gauls. In the process of this development, various processes took place in the emerging Romance languages. They led them to differentiation. Among these processes, a large place belonged to the median dieresis of Latin words, for example, in French: tabula - table (table), niger - noir (black), homo - homme[om] (Human) etc.

End of word. In Russian, we find the contraction of sounds at the end of a word, for example, in suffix diaereses ( Pantelevich (Panteleevich), Alekseich (Alekseevich), Ivanych (Ivanovich)) and inflectional (read (reads), know (knows), break (breaks) and so on.).

But a lot more end-of-word phonics have occurred in the history of the French language. That's why the mute appeared in French E (village "village", femme "woman", painture "painting", toilette "toilet"). That is why in certain positions the consonants at the end of the word stopped being pronounced ( est[E] "is", absent[apsa~] "absent", justement[z 6system~], ils aiment

[ilz E m] "They love" etc.). “The beginning of this phenomenon dates back to the period of falling away of final consonants,” writes A. Doza. - The consonant dropped out only before a word starting with a consonant, later - before a pause and was preserved before a word starting with a vowel "

Haplology. Haplology is a reduction in the number of sounds on a morpheme suture: calculation - calculation; Kursk - Kursk; tragico- comedy - tragicomedy; standard-bearer - standard-bearer; mineral logic - mineralogy; in Sanskrit: su "good" + ukti "speech", united, gave sukti "wit, aphorism"; vidya "knowledge" + artha "love" = vidyartha "curious".

Insert. It exists in the form of prosthesis, epenthesis and epithesis.

Prosthesis is a sound insert at the beginning of a word: east, eight, patrimony ( from father), caterpillar(from " mustache") and so on. Yu.S. Maslov in his textbook gives many examples of prosthetic consonants from Slavic languages: Belarusian geta (this), wuha (ear), yon, yana (he, she) with prosthetic [j]; Ukrainian gostry (sharp), vin, won (he, she), vulitsa (street), vikno (window) and others (p. 84).

Prosthetic vowels are less common. An example of borrowings in Turkish: istandart (standard), istasion (station). Hungarians have turned our words yard And school V udvar And iskola.

We see that the processes I am describing are of a sound nature - not associated with any semantic changes in the words where they occurred. However, in rare cases, we find some hint of the semantic effect of such processes. So, " temper" And " indrav' is not exactly the same thing. There is some semantic difference between them, it is associated with the stylistic load of the colloquial word " indrav". No wonder N.A. Ostrovsky, one of the tyrants exclaims: “ For my don't interfere!». « Ndrav" - It is not simple " temper", A " what I want then and turn". Therefore, the word " indrav» appears in semantic relation more saturated due to the seme, indicating the arbitrariness, tyranny of its owner.

epithesis is the addition of a sound at the end of a word. The East Slavic language was spoken song, but the Russians inserted [ A]. It turned out song, although the word " song» continues to be used in a sublime sense in modern Russian. We remember that the Don Cossacks at M.A. Sholokhov's word " life» pronounced with epithetic [ a]: life. Therefore, they managed with the word " life', like Russian literary language dealt with the word " song". An interesting example of this kind is given by the Finnish language with the name of the Swedish capital Stockholm: Swedish Stockholm Finns began to pronounce Tukholma- with epithetic vowel [a].

The epithetic consonants, obviously, should include the sound [j], which began to be regularly inserted at the end of Russian words borrowed from Latin and ending in -ia(no iota in the middle): Victoria - Victoria, iustitia - justice, familia- surname. The same was the case with the words Italy, India, Persia and so on.

quality processes. Qualitative sound changes can occur either due to a shift (movement) of vowels or consonants in place (row) or method of formation, or due to a rearrangement of sounds in a word.

Movementvowels. In history in English of its middle period (XII-XVI centuries), the law of vowel shift was in effect, consisting in the fact that the lower vowels moved up, i.e. became narrower. E - I / he "he", O - U / moon "moon".

Movementconsonants. In the history of the same language of the ancient period (until the 12th century), another phonetic law occurred - the movement of consonants:

K - X / heart "heart", cf. cordis in Latin;

B - R / pool "puddle", cf. "swamp" in Russian;

D - T / two "two", cf. with Russian;

VN - V / brother "brother", cf. bhratar in Sanskrit.

Permutation (metathesis). Metathesis is a sound permutation. Yes, the Latin word flor« flower'turned into Russian name « Frol", and the German Futteral in Russian " case". Examples from Romance languages: Lat. paludem- it. padule (swamp); lat. elemosia - port . esmola (charity); lat. periculum- Spanish peligro.

Does a new example from M.A. fit here? Sholokhov? His Christonya in "Quiet Don" says " obnakovye (trenches)" instead of " ordinary". Leaving aside the alternation [ A] - [s] at the root, then we find the permutation [ n] from the middle of the literary word to the beginning of the colloquial dialect. But there is no substitution of one sound for another, as in the above examples. Obviously, such a permutation of sound should be considered as a special kind of metathesis. In this case, we are talking about partial metathesis, since with complete metathesis there is a mutual permutation of two sounds, and in the case of partial permutation, only one sound is rearranged to another place, but does not replace any other.

Alternation of sounds (allophones) and phonemes - their mutual replacement in the same morpheme in different cases of use, acting as the main or additional morphological indicator ( nose-it / carry-ti; could-y / can-eat), that is, it can be determined not only by phonetic, but also by word-formation or morphological reasons. Such alternations accompany the formation of words and their forms.

Alternants can differ quantitatively (length of sound) or qualitatively (method of formation, place of formation).

According to the nature of the alternation conditions, there are two types of them:

• phonetic (also called automatic alternations);
• non-phonetic - traditional, historical.

Phonetic alternations

Changes in sounds in the flow of speech, which are caused by modern phonetic processes. Such alternations are due to the phonetic patterns operating in the language, the change in sound is associated with the position of the sound, but does not change the composition of phonemes in the morpheme:

1) alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels: n (o) s - n (^) -hundredth - n (b) owl;

2) alternation of voiced and deaf consonants: moro (s), (frost) - frost (s) ny.

Phonetic alternations are always positional; they serve as material for determining the phonemic composition of a language.

Phonetic alternations are divided into positional and combinatorial.

1. Positional - alternations due to the place relative to the stress or word boundary. This type of phonetic alternation includes stunning and reduction.

2. Combinatorial - alternations due to the presence in the environment given sound other specific sounds ( accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation).

Non-phonetic (historical) alternations

Alternants of historical alternations are independent phonemes, such alternations can be both positional and non-positional:

Positional (morphological) alternations take place during regular formation (in certain grammatical forms, for example, drive - drive, look - look) and word formation through certain morphemes. They are the object of study of morphonology. Alternations are different:

• by the nature of alternating phonemes (alternating vowels and consonants);
• by position in the morpheme (on the morpheme seam and inside the morpheme);
• on the basis of productivity - unproductivity.

Non-positional (grammatical) alternations are not determined by the position relative to a certain morpheme, but usually they themselves are a means of word formation (for example, dry - dry) or shaping. They act as internal inflections and belong to the sphere of grammar.

Historical alternations of sounds, not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of the phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. They are also called morphological alternations, since they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although they themselves are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of modern phonetic language systems.

Vowel alternation (in many cases these alternations have become literal):

e/o: I carry - wears, I carry - carries;

e / o / zero sound / and: dial - set - dial - dial;

e/zero sound: day - day, true - true;

o/a: cook - prepare;

o/zero sound: sleep - sleep, lies - lies, strong - strong;

o / zero sound / s: ambassador - send - send;

a(z) / m / im: reap - shake - shake, take - take - charge;

a(i) / n / im: reap - reap - reap, reap - reap - reap;

at / s: Kuyu - forge, please - please;

y / ev: spend the night - spend the night, doctor - heal;

yu / ev: spit - spit, mourn - grieve;

u / o / s: dry - to dry up - to dry up;

and / oh: beat - fight, drink - drink;

e/oh: sing - sing.

Consonant alternation:

g/f: shore - you protect, pearls - a pearl, strict - stricter;

b/h: bake - bake, flour - flour;

w/w: hearing - listen, peas - peas, dry - drier;

g / s / f: friend - friends - friendly;

k / c / h: face - face - personal;

s/f: carry - drive, smear - smear, low - lower;

zg / zzh (w): squeal - squeal;

zd / zzh (w): furrow - furrow;

s / w: wear - wear, dance - dance;

d/f: walk - walk, young - younger;

t/h: to want - I want, to bother - I'm busy;

sk / st / u: let - let - let go, thick - thicker;

b/bl: love - love, hesitate - hesitate;

p / pl: buy - buy, drip - drop;

in / ow: crush - crush, catch - catch;

f/fl: graph - graph;

m/ml: break - break, doze - doze;

d, t/s: I lead - lead, weave - weave;

k, g / h: attract - attract, help - help.

Morphemes in different positions can have various options sound, for example: /But sh/ - /But and yk/, /G A ra /- /G O ry/, /thing/ - /thing/. Variants of morphemes that partially differ in phonemic composition are called allomorphs (But sh- And But and- , ha R- And G O R-, piece To- And piece h- ). When comparing the phonemic composition of allomorphs, the fact of alternation is revealed. The alternation of phonemes is the phonemic difference between allomorphs of the same morpheme. (This definition goes back to L. V. Shcherba's formulation.) Instead of the term "alternation", the corresponding Latin term "alternation" is also used. Phonemes that alternate in the same morpheme are called alternants (for example, /w/ And /and/ V But and And But and ik). Just as a phoneme exists in its allophones, a morpheme exists in its allomorphs (or, in other terminology, morphs) with the difference, however, that the allomorphs of any morpheme are not numerous.

The alternation of phonemes is outwardly comparable with the formation of obligatory allophones of the same phoneme, however, these phenomena have a number of differences. First, alternation is always alternation different phonemes; phonemic identity is fundamentally excluded here. In the formation of allophones phonemic identity Necessarily. Secondly, the alternation of phonemes is due to the coexistence of allomorphs of the same morpheme; therefore, alternation takes place with the obligatory morphemic identity. Yes, alternating /and//sh/ occurs in single-root words ( /But and yk/ - /But sh/ ). But the same phonemes in different morphemes (for example, /and ar/ - /sh ar/) are not related by the alternation relation. Allophone formation /T/, for example, can be observed in allomorphs of one morpheme (for example, prefixes from-: from now on- faucal [ T]; postpone - [T] with side burst; have supper- labialized [ T]), but the same allophones appear in completely different morphemes: turbid, boilers, cloud. Thus, the condition of morphemic identity for the formation of allophones is of no fundamental importance. Thirdly, the difference between alternation and the formation of obligatory allophones lies in the fact that the formation of each allophone is strictly determined by specific conditions, the phonetic context, since the allophones of one phoneme are connected by relations of additional distribution. When alternating, only the alternant, which is represented by a phoneme only in a strong position (for consonants) or only in a stressed position (in essence, also strong) for vowels, is in a connected position. So, voiced [zh] cannot be at the end of a word and alternates with [ sh] (/on and A/- /But sh/ ), stressed vowel [ O] cannot be in an unstressed syllable and therefore alternates with [ A] (/vos/ - /V A zy /), while [ sh] can also be in a strong position ( /sh mind/), and in the weak ( /But sh/ ). Also [ A] may be stressed ( /m A l/) and in the unstressed position ( /m A la/).

We will consider a phoneme that appears in a strong position as a "left" alternant and place it to the left of the alternation icon; the phoneme in a weak position - the "right" alternant and put it to the right of the alternation icon: /cru G A/ - /cru To/ (/g//k/). This, in essence, means a kind of "orientation" of alternations - from a strong position to a weak one.

Positional and historical alternations

Everything that has been said so far about alternations concerns only one type of alternations - positional. In Russian there is another type of alternation - historical. There are a number of differences between these two types.

• 1. In positional alternations enter the alternants who are in strong and weak position. When historical alternations to alternants the concept of positions is inapplicable. For example, in alternation /t"//h/ (joke T b - shu h at) alternants are not connected by correlative relations; in alternation /b"//bl"/ (lu b it - lu bl Yu) an unequal number of phonemes alternate; when will break - breaks apart drums alternate /O/ And /A/. The choice of the left and right alternant of the historical alternation is dictated by considerations of etymological primacy, and not by the logic of phonetic relations.
• 2. positional alternations are due to patterns of phoneme combinations and, in general, patterns positional(in a broad sense) phoneme distribution. So, voiced noisy ones cannot stand at the end of a word and in front of deaf ones; /O/ almost never occurs in unstressed syllables, and /e/ after soft consonants in unstressed syllables in many cases alternates with /And/. Restrictions for some phonemes to appear in some positions determine their positional alternations in these cases with other phonemes.

For alternates historical alternations of strong and weak positions do not exist, they are determined mainly morphological reasons. The appearance of historical alternations finds an explanation in the facts of the history of the language. Yes, alternating /O/ with phonemic zero ( /dream/ - /sleep/) is caused by the history of the reduced ones - their dropping out in weak positions and clearing up in strong positions. In addition, if in positional alternations the alternants are always one-phonemic, then in historical alternations one or even both alternants can be combinations of phonemes, for example: /m"//ml"/ (/cor m"it"/ - /car ml"y/). All alternations, when they arise, are positional, due to the phonetic laws of the state of the language of a particular period. However, later the reasons that caused the alternations were lost, and the results of the alternation in the form of a correlation of phonemes were already preserved as historical alternations.

• 3. Alternations take place within the main morphological unit - morphemes; thus they are associated with morphology, performing certain morphological functions. Morphological role positional alternations is outwardly insignificant due to the fact that they reflect the pronunciation norms of the language. So, their most universal manifestation is the designation of the zero ending in the nominal declension system: voiced noisy alternate with deaf ones at the end of the word: Oak trees - oak / du b y - du P/ , cow - cows / caro V A - caro f/. As for consoles, there is no positional alternation in them morphological function do not perform: wash away - knock down /s//z/. Morphological role historical alternations in the sphere of word formation and form formation are much more diverse both for names and for verbs. So, when forming adjectives before the suffix -n(from -н) back-lingual /k, G, X/ alternate with /h, and, w/: hand - manual, book - book, fun - funny; the same alternation occurs in nouns before the suffix -OK: heel To - heel h OK, take G A - take and OK, petu X - petu sh OK; a wide variety of alternations occur in the formation of verb forms: core m it - core ml Yu, grip T it - grip h at, su d it - su and at, R s be - R O Yu, sn I be - sn them at, l e whose - l I gu - l yo G, P And be - P e th - P Ouch lo etc. The morphological role of historical alternations is not obscured by the written form of the language. Hence the fourth difference between the two types of alternations.
• 4. positional alternations, as a rule, are not reflected in writing due to the morphological principle of Russian spelling. This significantly obscures their morphological role. The morphological description of the Russian language is traditionally based on its writing; so when matching forms like in the house - in houses grammarians do not see the alternations presented there /o//a/ (in d O me - in d O max) And /mm"/ (in to m Oh - in to m e). As for historical alternations, as already mentioned, they are always reflected in writing.

In some cases, positional and historical alternations can seem to be combined. Yes, in /b"ir"and and OK/ - /b"ir"and sh ka/ (shore - berezhka) there is positional alternation /w//w/; V /b"ir"and G A/ - /b"ir"and and OK/ (shores - shore) - historical alternation /g//f/; V /b"ir"and G A/ - /b"ir"and sh ka/ alternation /g/ /sh/ is derived from the first two and, as a result, does not fit under the concept of either positional or historical. It should also be noted that the same ratio of phonemes, depending on the conditions, can act as a positional alternation ( / pl "and T A/ - / pl "and T"uh/ - /t//t"/) and as historical ( /races T u/ - /races" T"osh/ - /t//t"/): the alternating phonemes are both in a strong position in hardness-softness before non-front vowels.

For all their differences, positional and historical alternations are varieties of one phenomenon - the alternation of phonemes, due to the coexistence of allomorphs in which morphemes are realized. Both types fall under the definition of alternation given in § 1. However, since historical alternations are not determined by the phonetic structure of the modern Russian language, only the most important cases of positional alternations will be described below.