Peter I is one of the most striking and controversial figures in Russian history, she still causes controversy among historians regarding the results and methods of government. Peter's reforms were controversial: on the one hand, he sought to advance Russia along the path of progress, on the other hand, he did it with barbaric methods, at the cost of huge sacrifices and suffering of the people.
Peter the Great with his reforms contributed to the development of all aspects of society. He developed industrial production in the economy, building manufactories, pursued a policy of protectionism, that is, support for domestic production by introducing high import duties. In addition, a trade charter was drawn up, the port was moved from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg. There have also been changes in the military field. Reorganization of the army, the introduction of recruiting sets, the creation of military educational institutions and charters, the construction of the fleet led to the fact that Russia became an empire, which undoubtedly could not be ignored in Europe.
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Modernization of the management system (creation of the Senate, collegiums, division of the country into provinces) strengthened secular power in Russia and the autocracy of the autocrat.
At the same time, getting acquainted with European achievements during the Great Embassy of 1697-1698. Peter remained indifferent to the ideas of parliamentarism, since he believed that they were unacceptable in Russia. He ruled the country with purely dictatorial methods, causing protests in different sectors of society. Revolts broke out repeatedly: Arkhangelsk (1705–1706), Bashkir (1704–1711), uprising of K. Bulavin (1707–1708). Tsarevich Alexei also spoke out against his father, for which he was executed. The most beautiful city in Russia, the "paradise" of Peter - St. Petersburg was actually built on the bones, since over a hundred thousand people died during its construction. Ruthlessly broke traditions, folk foundations that have developed over the centuries. All these sacrifices were for the sake of achieving the main goal - the creation of a great Russia.
P.N. Milyukov believed that the reforms were carried out by Peter at random, from case to case, under the pressure of specific circumstances, that only "at the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power." Renowned historian CM. Solovyov thought otherwise. He believed that the appearance of the reformer tsar was predetermined by history itself: “... the people got up and gathered on the road; but someone was waiting; waited for the leader, and the leader appeared.
Thus, we can conclude that at the beginning of the XVIII century. Russia needed reforms, otherwise it would have remained a backward country. Reforms always cause discontent in society, and only a strong, whole person could cope with resistance.
Updated: 2018-02-20
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The problem of "genius" and "villainy" belongs to the number of eternal in philosophy, and in the classical artistic heritage, and in historical literature. It can be formulated, in particular, as follows: how compatible in one person (contradictory, fickle, complex, fluid like mercury) are good impulses for progress, merciless, profound reforms, a radical transformation of society - and sadistic obsession, the desire to doom yourself, personally to the death of millions of people. Say, in the name of “state necessity”, because “it is necessary”, and “future generations will appreciate” and forgive the inevitable cruelty of the deed.
Future generations still do not remain indifferent to one of the brightest and most terrible executioners (and at the same time - reformers) on the throne, the founder of a powerful granite, ceremonial, pompous, pretentious and blood-fed empire, unique in its own way in the history of Europe (but not Asia) - to Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov, officially, during his lifetime, by decree of the obedient and intimidated Senate recognized as the "Father of the Fatherland" and "Peter the Great". The attitude towards Peter I in Russia is very interesting. At the moments of even the most timid attempts at new reforms, there is a desire to approach the legacy of the Great Transformer quite critically, to pay attention to the incredibly terrible price that his victories were paid for (among modern historians, in this sense, it is necessary to note the approach of Evgeny Anisimov). When a deafening imperial “drumbeat” is heard from above, the image of Peter again rises to an unattainable height; before us is the “ideal monarch”, whose portrait adorns the offices of officials of the highest rank, almost the “state-forming symbol” of the modern Russian Federation (“Peter the Great” is the name of one of the country’s powerful aircraft carrier cruisers). Let us briefly consider what this man and this monarch was like.
Our people have very good reasons to remember that " Great Peter» flooded the autonomous Hetman Ukraine with blood; hanging, crucifying, chopping the heads of real and imaginary opponents, he drowned in blood the remnants of state independence on our land. But - that's why! - fully sharing Shevchenko's hatred for this outstanding "crowned executioner", one can and should carefully analyze, "take apart the bones" the activities of "that First One who kicked our Ukraine", try to understand him. Who knows, maybe it will come in handy? After all, Peter embodies the typologically significant features of many despots (for all the originality of this personality), which was also confirmed in times close to us.
In 1749, the Prussian king Frederick II, talking with Voltaire (playing the role of an "enlightened monarch", Friedrich patronized the great philosopher), said of Peter: "This person seems almost ugly because of the strength of his contrasts." And the famous German thinker, mathematician and physicist Georg Leibniz, long years literally currying favor with Peter and writing flattering letters to him, once in one of his letters he compared him ... with the great half-savage rulers of China and Abyssinia: the king and his country, like those rulers, also have an unexpectedly great future (a dubious compliment!). But both the irreconcilable critics of the first emperor of Russia and his apologists agreed on one thing: having a versatile mind and extreme susceptibility, suppressing his natural inclinations with the power of reason, he saw that it was not enough to speak to a lazy, ignorant, inept people (he sincerely saw him that way!) : do this and that, move, learn. An example is needed. Personal example king.
Perhaps that is why Peter personally masters the craft of a ship's carpenter, turner, toothpicker, surgeon (the latter is rather bad), not shunning any physical work, disappears for hours and days at shipyards, in workshops (whether in Holland or in Russia), near your favorite lathe.
But that is precisely why the tsar is personally (!) present at the wheeling, torture, executions, sees with his own eyes how the whip, rack, fire “act” (including when his own son and heir Alexei was the “object of influence”); this is by no means a painful, pathological curiosity, no - Tsar Peter, again personally, by his presence, participation and example, shows his subjects what the slightest disobedience, even the slightest disrespectful word said about the Sovereign can turn into! And all these subjects were powerless, because even one of the closest associates of the monarch, Field Marshal Boris Sheremetev, signed his letters to Peter like this: “Your humble and humble servant” ...
Peter introduced a system of denunciations, investigations and espionage in the widest possible way: it was enough for any person, even a commoner, to declare: “I know the word and deed of the Sovereign”, as an investigation immediately began on charges of high treason of the one pointed out by the declarant, moreover, if If the “traitor” was rich, then the scammer had a very good chance of taking possession of his property. All the more mercilessly Peter stopped any attempts of armed resistance to his power. With infinite cruelty, he suppressed the uprising of the archers (1698). He was not satisfied with a few blows of the whip and a few hanged - but turned the matter widely, in his own way. The investigation, superficially, according to the king, carried out and completed by his close associates Shein and Romodanovsky, was started again. Fourteen dungeons were arranged in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow and worked day and night. In them one could find all the ordinary instruments of torture, including the braziers on which the tortured were roasted. One of them was tortured seven times and received 99 lashes, while 15 were enough to kill a man. The Streltsy commander Korpakov, who was involved in the case, tried to cut his own throat in order to put an end to the torment; he only hurt himself and the torture continued. Women - wives, daughters and relatives of archers, servants or close associates of Princess Sophia accused of treason - were interrogated in the same way. One of them was relieved of the burden during torture. It is amazing that such brutal cruelties were committed by the same Peter who founded the Academy of Sciences, at whose insistence the women of Muscovy were first admitted to general evenings, “assemblies” on an equal footing with men ...
The tsar’s statement is known, dating back to about 1697, when young Peter (under the name of Peter Mikhailov; however, this “incognito” was no secret to anyone) went to Holland and England to study shipbuilding: “I am in the rank of a student and need teachers me". But this is by no means proof of the “democratism” of the monarch, who sincerely believed all his life (and wrote this down in all possible charters, decrees, other “highest” documents) that “His Majesty is an autocratic master who answers no one in the world about his deeds he should not give, but he has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, to rule according to his will and goodwill ”(from the“ Military Charter ”). Or in another place, where this thought is expressed even more briefly: “The power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey!”. Without taking this into account, it is impossible to understand the contradictions in the thoughts and actions of Peter, who, obviously, quite sincerely called himself "the first servant of the state." This is beautifully expressed in the order for the troops on the eve of the Battle of Poltava, June 26, 1709: “Warriors! Do not imagine that you are fighting for Peter - but for the state handed over to Peter ... And know about Peter that life is not dear to him - if only Russia and Russian piety, glory and prosperity would live. But after all, this State was and remained essentially Asian, tyrannical, was in fact the property of a single person - Tsar (later Emperor) Peter, and moreover, to such an extent that famous phrase King Louis XIV "The State is Me!" may seem like a manifesto of a convinced democrat.
Peter was characterized by a combination of obsession, quite rare in history (to make “his” state great, suppressing any resistance) and thoughtful rationality (in the depths of his soul, he always preferred those of his servants who had no one and nothing to rely on except him! ). Obviously, it is rulers of this kind who most often achieve success. Interestingly, many of his contemporaries, both in Russia and abroad, actively thought about the reasons for the success of Peter's "bone-breaking" reforms. The Danish diplomat and ambassador Just Juhl wondered, speaking of the king: "How could it take so long?" And he answered: “They carried him out because he corresponded to the mores of the country.” Truly so!
And these morals were characterized by two Russian proverbs of that era: “A whip is not an angel, but it will teach you to tell the truth” and “Before the tsar - as before death.” Peter, the recognized "Europeanizer" of his country, the man who gave her a new calendar, a new civil script, new customs, to some extent even new language(because he himself edited the language of the first fully "secular" books of that era) - at the same time (a tragic paradox!) inspired and fully supported the terrorist regime in his state. Here are some facts. The peasant Trifon Petrov was tortured and sentenced to eternal hard labor for having bowed to the tsar in a special way in a drunken state. Another peasant had to share his fate for not knowing about the adoption of the imperial title by the king. Some priest spoke of the king's illness and did not seem to rule out the possibility of his death; the priest was exiled to Siberia. A woman found in her cellar on a barrel of beer anonymous letters written in an unfamiliar language; during interrogation, she could not explain their meaning and died under the blows of a whip. Another woman interrupted the church service with a wild cry; she was blind and probably subject to epileptic seizures; she was suspected of deliberate outrage and "put in for questioning." A drunk schoolboy spoke obscene words - he was given 30 blows with a whip and his nostrils were pulled out, then he was sentenced to eternal hard labor. These are all official documents, protocols of Peter's secret office...
Lack of scrupulousness, disregard for generally accepted rules and a poorly hidden contempt for them were combined in this man with a deep sense of duty and respect for law and discipline. Peter wanted to transform the life of a people whose morality and religion consisted largely of prejudice and superstition. He rightly considered them to be a fundamental obstacle to progress and the "common good" (as he understood it), and at any convenient occasion fought them. Peter considered himself called to remove from the national consciousness the slag left on it by centuries of wild ignorance. But he introduced into the work undertaken an infinite amount of cruelty, malice, personal harshness and passion. He beat at random. By fixing, he messed up. The great educator was at the same time one of the greatest corrupters of the human race. And it can be argued: modern Russia owes him not only its power and strength, but also most of its vices.
Peter the Great - one of the most majestic and controversial figures in history Russian state attracted the attention of many writers.
Alexei Tolstoy was no exception. He turned to the image of Peter repeatedly - in the story “Peter's Day”, written immediately after the revolution, in the play “On the Rack”. Delving into the era of Peter the Great, Tolstoy tried to better understand modernity. Time passed, and the views of the writer changed. If in The Day of Peter the thought of the futility of an individual, even the most outstanding personality, to influence the course of history is clearly heard, then in the play Peter is a tragic figure who is trying to carry out reforms in Russia alone.
The personality of Peter was so attractive to Tolstoy also because, in his political views, the writer was a supporter of strengthening the Russian statehood. The main thing for him was "the strengthening of Russian statehood, the restoration of economic life in ruined Russia and the assertion of Russia's great power", as he wrote on the eve of his return from emigration to " open letter N.V. Tchaikovsky. Tolstoy did not share the communist ideology, but announced his readiness to cooperate with the communists, since he believed that the only political force capable of fulfilling the tasks of strengthening Russia was the Bolshevik government.
But after returning to his homeland, the writer found himself in a difficult position. Proletarian criticism was wary of him, considering him almost a counter-revolutionary, so the "process of artistic getting used to modernity" dragged on for many years. And only in 1930, when the first book of the novel about Peter the Great was published, did a turning point come in the fate of Alexei Tolstoy. The book turned out to be extremely relevant and timely, its pathos of transformation and reorganization of life met the topic of the day more than ever.
In Tolstoy's novel, Peter is presented both as a person and as a statesman. Describing in detail the childhood, adolescence, the period of maturation of the future king, the author depicts his character in development, noting not only positive sides personalities, but also negative ones. Tolstoy tries to be impartial, he describes many terrible, bloody scenes, such as the Streltsy rebellion, trying to convey the historical flavor of that era as accurately as possible, without getting carried away by his own assessments and without trying to judge the actions of the characters from the point of view of contemporary morality. Drawing a portrait of Peter, he avoids idealization and creates a full-fledged character of a large statesman, preoccupied with the idea of strengthening and transforming the Russian state.
Tolstoy constantly compares Peter with two other characters - Prince Vasily Golitsin and the Swedish King Charles XII.
Prince Vasily Golitsyn is a man with a European education, a progressive thinker, who perfectly understands that Russia cannot develop without reforms. It is full of transformation projects, but the matter does not reach their implementation - Golitsyn lacks the will of the state. Failure Crimean campaign showed his lack of military talent as well.
Charles XII is a man of a different stock, a different character. All of Europe admires his courage, luck and military exploits. The will of Charles is able to overcome any obstacles, but the young king frankly lacks statesmanship; all his thoughts are about himself, about his own glory.
Peter the Great compares favorably with both of them. He is talented, has extraordinary willpower, is active and energetic, and his abilities are aimed at the glory of Russia, and not at the elevation of his own personality. Peter is stubborn in achieving his goal and does not lose his presence of mind during temporary defeats. He is one of those people who
learn from their own and others' mistakes. So, he learned a good lesson from the initial failures in the Northern War, and under his leadership the Russian army gradually became the strongest in Europe.
One of Peter's undoubted talents was the ability to notice and distinguish among other people extraordinary, businesslike, those whom he could rely on in his difficult work. When he was chosen, belonging to a noble family did not give any privileges. “Nobleness by suitability to count” - such a rule was introduced by the young king. He could elevate and bring closer to himself the son of a petty merchant and demote those who were not capable of anything. In this regard, the fate of the boyar Buynosov is indicative, who fully proved his inability to conduct state affairs and ends his career as a royal jester.
On the other hand, there is a whole group of characters who achieve success and prosperity, relying only on own forces. Such, for example, is the Brovkin family. Ivan became a merchant, Alyosha became a lieutenant colonel in the Russian army, Sanka conquered Paris. Of course, one cannot fail to mention Alexander Menshikov - the brightest among the "rising" characters. As a boy, he sold pies, and later became Peter's first assistant. Gradually, Menshikov grows up to a major statesman, commander and diplomat. This is the type of ideal performer, despite the fact that he is not without sin and is sometimes dishonest. Peter has to punish him severely, but nevertheless Menshikov remains the tsar's favorite.
There are a lot of talented people in the novel: this is the self-taught artist Andrei Golikov, the artisan Kuzma Zhemov, the blacksmith Kondrat Vorobyov. Tolstoy is convinced of the talent of the Russian people, and Tsar Peter, in his reforms, relied primarily on this trait of the national character.
But the author does not embellish real life and the nature of the characters, striving for the most complete reflection of historical truth. The fact that Peter often responded with cruelty to cruelty, fought against barbarism with "barbaric means", is shown very convincingly in the novel.
Let's not forget that construction new capital on the bones of thousands and thousands of people, mass executions and persecution of the Old Believers - all these are also the acts of Peter.
Thus, the figure of Peter is very contradictory, and it cannot be assessed unambiguously positively. Of course, he is a creator. But he is also a tyrant, because historical necessity cannot justify a crime, and the idea of statehood cannot be placed above human life.
PETER I THE GREAT
(born in 1672 - died in 1725)
The first Russian emperor known for his reforms government controlled.
On January 27, 1725, the Imperial Palace in St. Petersburg was surrounded by reinforced guards. Ended in terrible agony life path first Russian emperor Peter I. For the last ten days, convulsions were replaced by delirium and deep fainting, and in those moments when the king came to himself, he screamed terribly from unbearable pain. During the last week, in brief moments of relief, Peter took communion three times. By his order, all arrested debtors were released from prisons and their debts were covered from royal sums. In all churches, including those of other faiths, prayers were served for him. Relief did not come, and on January 28, at the beginning of the sixth morning, the emperor died.
Peter was the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. He was born on May 30, 1672. From his first marriage with Maria Ilinichnaya Miloslavskaya, the tsar had 13 children, but only two of the sons survived - Fedor and Ivan. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, Peter's upbringing took place under the supervision of his elder brother, Tsar Fyodor, who was his godfather. For the young prince, he chose Nikita Zotov as mentors, under whose influence he became addicted to books, especially historical writings. Nikita told the pupil a lot about the past of the Fatherland, about the glorious deeds of his ancestors. Tsar Ivan the Terrible became a true idol for Peter. Subsequently, Peter spoke of his reign: “This sovereign is my predecessor and model; I have always imagined him as the model of my government in civil and military affairs, but I did not go as far as he did. Fools only those who do not know the circumstances of his time, the properties of his people and the greatness of his merit, call him a tormentor.
After the death in 1682 of the 22-year-old Tsar Fedor, the struggle for the throne of two families, the Miloslavskys and the Naryshkins, sharply escalated. The candidate for the throne from the Miloslavskys was Ivan, who was in poor health, from the Naryshkins, the healthy, but younger Peter. At the instigation of the Naryshkins, the patriarch proclaimed Peter the tsar. However, the Miloslavskys did not reconcile themselves and provoked a streltsy riot, during which many people close to the Naryshkins died. This made an indelible impression on Peter, influenced his mental health and outlook. For the rest of his life, he harbored a hatred for the archers and for the entire Miloslavsky family.
The result of the rebellion was a political compromise: both Ivan and Peter were elevated to the throne, and Princess Sophia, the smart and ambitious daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, became their regent (ruler). Peter and his mother did not play any role in the life of the state. They ended up in a kind of exile in the village of Preobrazhensky. Peter happened to take part only in embassy ceremonies in the Kremlin. Here, in Preobrazhensky, the military "fun" of the young tsar began. Under the leadership of the Scot Menesius, from Peter's peers, mostly representatives of noble families, a children's regiment was recruited, from which in the early 90s. grew up two guards regiment- Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky. The future Field Marshal M. M. Golitsyn, and the descendant of a noble family Buturlin, and the son of a groom, and in the future a friend and associate of Peter, A. D. Menshikov, served in them. The king himself served here, starting as a drummer. The officers in the regiments were mostly foreigners. In general, foreigners who lived near Preobrazhensky in the German Quarter (Kukui), who came to the country under Tsar Alexei, seekers of happiness and rank, craftsmen, military specialists, played a huge role in Peter's life. From them, he studied shipbuilding, military affairs, and in addition, drink strong drinks, smoke, wear foreign clothes. From them, one might say, he absorbed the disdain for everything Russian. The closest to Peter was the Swiss F. Lefort.
In the summer of 1689, the struggle with the Miloslavskys intensified. Princess Sophia, realizing that soon Peter would push back the sick Ivan and take the reins of government into his own hands, began to incite the archers, led by Shaklovity, to revolt. But this idea failed: the archers themselves handed over Shaklovity to Peter, and he, having named many of his associates under torture, was executed along with them. Sophia, Peter imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Thus began his sole rule. Ivan ruled only nominally, and after his death in 1696, Peter became autocrat.
In 1697, the tsar, as part of the Great Embassy of 50 people, under the guise of an officer of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Peter Mikhailov, went abroad. The purpose of the trip is an alliance against the Turks. In Holland and England, working as a carpenter in shipyards, the king mastered shipbuilding. On the way back, in Vienna, he was caught by the news of a new archery revolt. Peter hurried to Russia, but on the way he learned that the rebellion was suppressed, 57 instigators were executed, and 4 thousand archers were exiled. Upon his return, believing that Miloslavsky's "seed" had not been exterminated, the tsar ordered the investigation to be resumed. Already exiled archers were returned to Moscow. Peter personally participated in torture and executions. He himself chopped off the heads of archers and forced his confidants and courtiers to do it. Many archers were executed in a new way - they were wheeled. The king's revenge on the Miloslavsky family knew no bounds. He ordered to dig a coffin with the body of Miloslavsky, bring him on pigs to the place of execution and put him near the chopping block so that the blood of the executed would pour on the remains of Miloslavsky. In total, more than a thousand archers were executed. Their bodies were thrown into a pit where animal corpses were dumped. 195 archers were hanged at the gates of the Novodevichy Convent, and three - near the very windows of Sophia, and for five whole months the corpses were not removed from the place of execution. In this terrible deed, and in many others, Peter surpassed his idol Ivan the Terrible in cruelty.
At the same time, the tsar embarked on reforms with the aim of reshaping Russia along Western European lines, turning the country into an absolutist police state. He wanted everything at once. With his reforms, Peter I put Russia on its hind legs, but how many people at the same time went up on the rack, on the chopping block, on the gallows! How many were killed, tortured... It all started with cultural innovations. It became obligatory for everyone except the peasants and the clergy to wear foreign clothes, the army was dressed in uniforms according to the European model, and everyone, again except the peasants and the clergy, were obliged to shave their beards, and in Preobrazhensky Peter himself cut off the beards of the boyars. Since 1705, a tax on beards was introduced: from servicemen and clerks, merchants and townspeople, 60 rubles each. per person per year; hundreds of rich merchants from the living room - 100 rubles each; from people of lower rank, boyar people, coachmen - 30 rubles each; from the peasants - 2 money each time they entered the city or left it.
Other innovations were also introduced. Crafts were encouraged, numerous workshops were created, young men from noble families were sent to study abroad, city administration was reorganized, the calendar was reformed, order established St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called, the Navigation School was opened. To strengthen the centralization of government, boards and a senate were created instead of orders. All these transformations were carried out by violent methods. A special place was occupied by Peter's relations with the clergy. Day after day he led the attack on the independence of the church. After the death of his mother, Peter no longer participated in religious processions. The patriarch ceased to be an adviser to the tsar and was expelled from the tsar's Duma, and after his death in 1700, the management of church affairs passed to a specially created Synod. And all these and other transformations were superimposed by the unbridled temper of the king. In the words of the historian Valishevsky: “In everything that Peter did, he brought too much swiftness, too much personal rudeness, and in particular, too much passion. He hit right and left. And therefore, by correcting, he spoiled everything. The fury of the king, reaching to rage, his mockery of the people knew no restraint. He could attack Generalissimo Shane with wild abuse, and Romodanovsky and Zotov, who were trying to appease him, people close to him, inflict severe wounds: one had severed fingers, the other had wounds on his head; he could beat his friend Menshikov for not taking off his sword at the assembly during the dances; could kill a servant with a stick for taking off his hat too slowly; he could order that the 80-year-old boyar M. Golovin be forced to sit naked, in a jester's cap, for an hour on the Neva ice because he refused, dressed as a devil, to participate in the jester's procession. After that, Golovin fell ill and soon died. So the tsar behaved not only at home: in the Copenhagen Museum, Peter mutilated the mummy, because he was refused to sell it for the Kunstkamera. Many such examples could be cited.
The Petrine era is a time of constant wars. The Azov campaigns of 1695–1696, the Northern War of 1700–1721, the Prut campaign of 1711, the campaign against the Caspian in 1722. All this required a huge amount of both people and money. A huge army and navy were created. Recruits were often brought into the cities in chains. Many lands were depopulated. In general, during the reign of Peter I, Russia lost almost a third of its population. Throughout the state, it was forbidden to cut down large trees, and for felling an oak, it was generally relied the death penalty. For the maintenance of the army, new requisitions were introduced: recruiting, dragoon, ship, household and official paper. New dues were introduced: for fishing, domestic baths, mills, inns. The sale of salt and tobacco passed into the hands of the treasury. Even oak coffins were transferred to the treasury and then sold for 4 times more. But money was still not enough.
The difficult nature of Peter was reflected in his family life. Even at the age of 16, his mother, in order to ward off the German settlement, married him to Evdokia Lopukhina, whom he never loved. Evdokia bore him two sons: Alexander, who died in infancy, and Alexei. After the death of Natalya Kirillovna, relations between the spouses deteriorated sharply. Peter even wanted to execute his wife, but limited himself to forcibly tonsure her as a nun in the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. The 26-year-old queen was not given a penny for maintenance, and she was forced to ask her relatives for money. At the same time, Peter had two mistresses in the German settlement: the daughter of the silversmith Betticher and the daughter of the wine merchant Mons - Anna, who became the first titled favorite of the king. He gave her palaces, estates, but when her love affair with the Saxon envoy Keyserling was revealed, the vengeful Peter took away almost everything he gave, and even kept her in prison for some time. A vindictive but not inconsolable lover, he quickly found a replacement for her. Among his favorites were at one time Anisya Tolstaya, and Varvara Arsenyeva, and a number of other representatives of noble families. Quite often the choice of the tsar stopped and on simple servants. In 1703, another woman appeared who played a special role in the life of the monarch - Marta Skavronskaya, who later became Peter's wife under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. After the Russian troops occupied Marienburg, she was a servant and mistress of Field Marshal B. Sheremetev, then A. Menshikov, who introduced her to the tsar. Martha converted to Orthodoxy, bore Peter three daughters and a son, Peter Petrovich, who died in 1719. But only in 1724 did Peter crown her. At the same time, a scandal broke out: the tsar became aware of the love affair between Catherine and Willem Mons, the brother of the former favorite. Monet was executed, and his head in a jar of alcohol, by order of the king, was in his wife's bedroom for several days.
Against the background of these events, the tragedy of Peter's son, Alexei, stands out clearly. His fear of his father reached the point that, on the advice of friends, he even wanted to renounce the inheritance. Peter saw this as a conspiracy and ordered his son to be sent to a monastery. Alexei fled and took refuge with his mistress, first in Vienna and then in Naples. But they were found and lured to Russia. The father promised his son forgiveness if he would name the accomplices. But instead of forgiveness, Peter sent him to the casemate of the Peter and Paul Fortress and ordered an investigation to begin. The prince was tortured five times in a week. The father was also present. To end the torment, Alexei slandered himself: they say, he wanted to get the throne with the help of the troops of the Austrian emperor. On June 24, 1718, a court of 127 people unanimously sentenced Alexei to death. The choice of execution was given to the discretion of the king. Little is known about how Alexei died: either from poison, or from suffocation, or he was cut off his head, or he died under torture. However, the participants in the investigation received awards, titles, and villages. The very next day, Peter celebrated the ninth anniversary of the Battle of Poltava with grandeur.
With the end of the Northern War in 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles of "Father of the Fatherland", "Emperor" and "Great".
The turbulent life of the king "gave" him a bouquet of diseases by the age of 50, but most of all he suffered from uremia. Mineral water did not help either. For the last three months, Peter spent most of his time in bed, although on the days of relief he took part in the festivities. In mid-January, the attacks of the disease became more frequent. Kidney dysfunction led to blockage of the urinary tract. The performed operation did not give anything. Blood poisoning has begun. The question of succession to the throne arose sharply, since the sons of the king by this time were not alive. On January 27, Peter wanted to write an order for the succession to the throne. They gave him paper, but he could write only two words: “Give everything ...” In addition, he lost his speech. The next day he died in terrible agony. His body remained unburied for 40 days. It was exhibited on a velvet bed embroidered with gold in the palace hall, upholstered with carpets that Peter received as a gift from Louis XV during his stay in Paris. His wife Ekaterina Alekseevna was proclaimed empress.
This text is an introductory piece.Peter I We strongly condemn A.S. Ter-Oganyan for his lack of perseverance. After all, he was at first - the south began to fight, Azov, Taganrog. And the capital - at first I wanted to move it there! - So it was necessary to stand on this to the end! - says Oganyan. - And how much everything else would be
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Chapter I. Peter the Great and Tula blacksmiths The Petrine era. - Titan-king and poor Rus'. – Mining in Rus' before Peter. - Founding of the first ironworks. - Peter's concerns about mining. – The role of “random” people in history. - Nikita and Akinfiy Demidov. – Childhood and
“Great Peter would be alive ...” In the early sixties, in the editorial office fiction Lenizdat brought a thick notebook, on the hard cover of which was written: "Barn Book". Soon this prosaic inscription was slightly corrected. "Cupid Book"
Peter the Great Peter I the Great - last king of all Rus' and the first All-Russian Emperor, was born on May 30 (June 9), 1672, and died on January 28 (February 8), 1725. Peter ascended the throne in 1682, when he was only ten years old, and ruled independently, without the help of a regent , Peter
"Peter I - a great reformer or a great tyrant?"
Peter the Great was the most controversial ruler in Russian history. On the one hand, he did a lot of useful things, and on the other hand, his complex character is known to everyone. So what was more outweighed? It's worth looking into this. A person needs to know the history of his country, because without a worthy past there can be no worthy future.
Supporters of the fact that Peter I is a great reformer. They justify their position by saying that:
- Policy. As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. January 24, 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, which introduced a new classification of employees. The nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, thus, the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book, was put in its place.
- Economy. Under Peter there was a significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725, there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and "1690" only 21). Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade took a noticeable step forward (internal and external metalworking plants were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before early XVIII c, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I, the country began to sell it. Deposits of copper ore were discovered. (Ural.) New types of manufactory appeared: textile, chemical, shipbuilding.
- Army. Announced by decree of 1699 on the beginning of recruitment. In the period from 1699 to 1725, an army (318 thousand people, along with Cossack units) and a fleet were formed. The army was with a single principle of recruitment, uniform uniforms and weapons. Simultaneously with the creation of the army, the construction of the fleet continued. By the time of the Battle of Gangut (1714), Baltic Fleet of 22 ships, 5 frigates and many small vessels. Russia had both a navy and a merchant fleet.
- Construction of St. Petersburg
Tsar Peter I founded the city on May 16 (27), 1703, laid a fortress on one of the islands in the Neva delta. In 1712, the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. The city officially remained the capital until 1918.
- On the issue of religion. Tsar Peter I proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in the state. It was widely used in Russia by various religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, Jewish.
- Education and science. Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power. He paid great attention to education and science. Peter obliged all children of the nobility to learn to read and write, not only sent many to study abroad, but also opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: maritime, engineering schools, artillery school. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began. It was called "Vedomosti" and was published in St. Petersburg since 1702. To facilitate reading and writing in 1708, he reformed the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. And, already at the end of his life, on January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia.
Counter arguments are brought to them by those who believe that "Peter I is not a great reformer." And they support their position with the fact that:
- Policy. The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasances, the number of officials and the cost of their maintenance increased. The burden of taxes fell on the shoulders of the people. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs. Numerous taxes, direct and indirect, were introduced. All this worsened the position of the taxable population (peasants, townspeople, merchants, etc.).
- Social side. The reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. The decree of Peter I in 1721 allowed manufacturers to buy villages with peasants for factories. The decree forbade the sale of factory peasants separately from the factory. Manufactories using forced labor were unproductive. The people responded to the deterioration of their situation with resistance (the Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria). Peter used mass executions, torture, exile as a means of punishment. For example, the Streltsy rebellion of 1698 was a cruel massacre of the archers, which was committed by the sovereign. 799 archers were executed. Life was saved only for those who were from 14 to 20 years old, and even then they were beaten with whips. In the next six months, 1182 archers were executed, beaten with a whip, branded and 601 people were exiled. The investigation and executions continued for almost ten more years, the total number of executed reached 2,000 people.
- Construction of St. Petersburg. In order to speed up the construction of stone houses, Peter even banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg. Serfs were widely used for work in the project. It is believed that about 30,000 died during construction.
- Church. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow. Reform of the Synod of the Church: When Patriarch Adrian Peter died in 1700, he forbade choosing a successor. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the "Holy Governing Synod" was created to manage the church, which was subordinate to the Senate. The state tightened control over the income of the church from the monastic peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, schools, etc. It was forbidden to create new monasteries, and the number of monks in existing ones was limited.
- Old Believers. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them. They took a tax from every man for wearing a beard, they took a fine from them and for the fact that the priests performed their spiritual duties. They did not enjoy any civil rights in the state. For disobedience, they were exiled to hard labor as enemies of the church and state.
- Culture. The desire of Peter I to turn Russians overnight into Europeans was carried out by violent methods. Shaving beards, introducing European-style clothing. Dissenters were threatened with fines, exile, hard labor, and confiscation of property. Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many years later, this turned into distrust of the peasantry in any person from the “educated”, since a nobleman dressed in European foreign language, seemed to the peasant a foreigner. Peter openly despised everything folk customs. Peter, returning from Europe, ordered to forcibly shave his beard and wear a foreign dress. At the city outposts there were special spies who cut off the beards of passers-by and passers-by and cut off the floors of the long national cut of clothing. The beards of those who resisted were simply uprooted. On January 4, 1700, all residents of Moscow were ordered to dress in foreign dresses. Two days were given to execute the order. It was forbidden to ride on Russian-style saddles. Merchants were graciously promised a whip, confiscation of property and hard labor for the sale of Russian dresses.
If we divide the reign of Peter I into reformation and tyranny, then it is easier to present it in a comparative tablet.
Peter was a reformer |
Peter was a tyrant |
1. A clear structure of public administration 2. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything 3. The growth of a large-scale manufacturing industry and new types of manufactories appeared. 4. Under Peter I, trade (internal and external) stepped forward noticeably 5. New factories were built. 6. Russia started selling metal to Europe. 7. Creation of a new army. 8. Construction of the military and commercial fleet. 9. Construction of St. Petersburg, which in 1712 became the capital of Russia. 10. Tsar Peter I proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in the state 11. Peter I paid great attention to education and science. opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: naval, engineering schools, artillery school. 12. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began On 13.1708 he carried out a reform of the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. 14. . In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. On January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia. 15. Peter himself was engaged in any work and personally took part in all undertakings. 16. Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power |
1. The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasance. |
Conclusion: History does not know the subjunctive mood. Peter the Great was and his deeds are great. I think that Tsar Peter I embodied so many different and sometimes contradictory qualities that it is difficult to characterize him unambiguously. The merits of Peter I are so great that they began to call him the Great, and the state turned into an empire. Peter was naturally a reformer, but the methods he chose to carry out the reforms were radical. Yes, Peter I appears before us violent and cruel, but such was the century. The new made its way. Just as fiercely and mercilessly as the obsolete old clung to life.
The era of Peter the Great is in many ways instructive for us today, when it is necessary, as Peter the Great happened to do in his time, to create and defend on the old obsolete basis new Russia, to reform the army and navy, to cultivate industriousness, active patriotism, devotion to state interests and love for military affairs. Love your Fatherland and be proud of Russia.
