The consequences of the First World War include. State and political consequences of the First World War. What have we learned

Modern History

Yushchenko Olga Ivanovna

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The history of modern times - 20-21 centuries.

1918 - the year of the end of the First World War, the beginning of modern history.

Results and consequences of the First World War (1914-1918)

Two warring blocs: the German bloc (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria, Germany) and the Entente (Russia, France, England).

Reasons for the war:

Franco-German conflict

Anglo-German conflict

· Russo-German conflict.

The result - the victory of the Entente, but without the participation of Russia. In 1917, Russia withdrew from the war (as a result of revolutions).

Geopolitical results:

4 empires collapsed (Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German)

· New states appeared on the political map (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia)

Japan and the United States suffered minimal losses in the war and received maximum benefits

India and China gained independence

· The decline of the era of Eurocentrism begins, the world has become multipolar, new states enter the world arena.

Socio-economic consequences of the war:

Depletion of resources (financial, human)

· Economic crises

Social problems (cards, duty)

Revolutions (in Russia, in Germany, in the Ottoman Empire, in Austria-Hungary)

Post-war reforms

· Changing the role of the state in socio-economic life (the state takes on broader functions - regulation, control, distribution). Direct regulation(individual enterprises, industries, industries, government orders) and indirect regulation(tax, budget, social politics).

· Since the 1920s, all countries have had a controlled economy (somewhere more, somewhere less).

Socio-political consequences of the war:

disillusionment with liberal values

The emergence of extreme political currents (extreme right - communism, extreme left - fascism)

· Politicization of the masses.

The war was a huge moral shock to the people.

4 years of war - a whole lost generation. Loss of values, orientation. Used to killing. Mass unemployment, lack of prospects.

The role of women has changed. The war greatly affected her status, self-awareness. Women were forced to work, to replace men in factories, factories. The woman became the breadwinner of the family. The war even changed the appearance of a woman (corsets disappeared, skirts became shorter, women's trousers appeared, short women's haircuts appeared). Women received political rights on an equal footing with men, they received the right to vote.

To sum up the results of the war, the Paris Peace Conference was created, the "meeting" lasted a year and a half. Russia was not invited. The formal reason is the civil war in Russia. All issues were decided by representatives of three states - England, France, USA. The rest of the countries were put before the fact and simply received peace treaties.

Wilson ran for the leadership of the United States. The doctrine of "America for Americans" is strong, but supporters of a different approach have already appeared. The American market was still wide, and the American bourgeoisie did not need external economic expansion.

The League of Nations is created - the winners of the war. The task of the League is peacekeeping.

The US suffered a diplomatic defeat in the war. America did not receive a single colony, its interests were not taken into account. The US refused to join the League of Nations. Wilson lost the election.

The Treaty of Versailles was a fatal decision. He contributed to the flourishing of fascism in Germany.

In the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was listed as the only perpetrator of the war and was obliged to pay compensation to all participants. The amount was unbearable for Germany. Germany was obliged to pay it until 1988. The demand was seen as a humiliation.

Germany lost 1/8 of the territories, which went to the neighbors, lost all the colonies. A tenth of the population of Germany lived on this territory; after the loss of this territory, national minorities appeared. Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria. The German coal deposit went into the department of special bodies created to control Germany. Germany is now a completely controlled country.

Germany could not have an army of more than 100,000 volunteers, the General Staff was dissolved, military schools were closed, the fleet, aviation and artillery were banned. For the Germans, it was a huge psychological shock. The Treaty of Versailles was perceived as insulting, humiliating for Germany. The slogan "Down with Versailles!".

However, Germany did not feel like a defeated country, did not sign a surrender. Its territory was not occupied, there were no active hostilities on it, there was no feeling of an active war. And after Versailles, Germany longed for revenge. Throughout the 1920s, Russia and Germany were partners under the anti-Versailles slogan.

Lecture 2

Following the model of the Treaty of Versailles, agreements were drawn up with Germany's allies - with Austria, Turkey, etc. Here, too, it was locked up for military operations, etc.

A lot of questions arose: national minorities arose. A third of the Hungarians ended up in neighboring states - in Romania, in Yugoslavia. Many Germans ended up on the territory of Poland, Czechoslovakia. And after the 30s there were local border conflicts. National feelings are damaged, authoritarian charters have developed.

Division of colonies (Ottoman Empire and German Empire). The winners of the war resolved this issue in the following way: most of the colonies went to the strongest - England, France, the rest of the lands (minority) went to other countries. The Americans did not receive a single colony and felt disadvantaged.

Washington Conference for Solutions to the Pacific Issue. From November 1921 to February 1922. Soviet Russia was not again invited, although it was a Pacific power. On Far East hostilities had not yet ended, and this was the formal reason not to invite Russia.

In total, there were 9 participants at the Washington Conference. They came out with an agreement of four (on the inaccessibility of borders), an agreement of five (a treaty limiting the arms race, the first in history), an agreement of nine.

Britain's position strengthened, but by the end of the war England's debt to the United States was 4 million. And the role of the leading power passed to the United States. US rivalry with Japan navy). This confrontation continued in the Second World War.

A series of treaties was signed, the creation of the League of Nation, the division of the possessions of former empires, the sanctioned creation of new states. Formed the Versailles-Washington system international relations designed to settle life after the war. But this system proved fragile.

It is believed that in the 20th century there was one World War- from 1918 to 1945 with a break.

The contradictions between the winners of the First World War were smoothed out only temporarily. The main contradictions arose between the founders of the Versailles Conference - many were dissatisfied. France wanted to further weaken Germany, France was mortally afraid of the rebirth of Germany. Due to the weakening of France, Germany wanted to become the strongest power, to establish hegemony. But this desire was not fulfilled, the ambitions of France did not materialize.

Italy considered itself insulted (it violated the peace, took the side of the Entente in order to get the land). After the end of the war, Italy got a small part of the promised lands (Italy did not contribute great contribution to the victory of the Entente). The Italian soldiers were nicknamed "pasta" and were defeated among the winners.

The population of Japan was perceived by the Americans as a threat to interests. Contradictions between the winners are the first reason for the weakness of the Treaty of Versailles. The second reason is the disagreement between the winners and the losers. Rejection of treaties, sabotage of slander. The treaty was especially painfully accepted by Germany (the Nazi movement was born). The shortsightedness of the victors - the beginning of the war in one regime, the end - in another. The third reason is the violation of the principle of the nation's right to self-determination, which gave rise to a mass national conflicts. Local conflicts, local wars.

The winners did not keep their promises regarding India and China. India was the power of England, China has its own interests of the power. But after the war, the interests of these countries were ignored.

The failure of the League of Nations. The principle of collective responsibility for peace and security. The decisions of the League of Nations were taken by the leading powers based on their national or selfish interests, and not for the common good. The principle of equality was purely formal. world politics determined by several world powers. The decisions of the League of Nations were not binding, so few people followed them. The League of Nations proved to be ineffective, and the entire post-war system was fragile.

England, France - the two main winners who decided the issues of world politics.

According to the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, the 19th century begins in content in 1789, that is, with the French Revolution, and ends in 1913. In turn, the 20th century - not a calendar, but a historical 20th century - begins in 1914, with the First World War, and continues until 1991, when global changes took place in the world, primarily the unification of Germany in 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 -m. Such a chronology allowed Hobsbawm, and after him many other historians, to speak of a "long 19th century" and a "short 20th century."
Thus, the First World War is a kind of prologue to the short twentieth century. It was here that the key themes of the century were identified: social disagreements, geopolitical contradictions, ideological struggle, economic confrontation. This is despite the fact that turn of XIX and the twentieth century, it seemed to many that the wars in Europe had sunk into oblivion. If there are collisions, then only on the periphery, in the colonies. Development of science and technology, refined culture Fin de siecle, according to many contemporaries, did not envision the "carnage" that cost millions of lives and buried four great empires. This is the first war in the world that has a total character: all social strata of the population, all spheres of life were affected. There was nothing left that was not involved in this war.

balance of power

Crown Prince of Prussia; Photography from the Finckh – inheritance – See more at: http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/en/contributions/445#prettyPhoto

The main participants: the countries of the Entente, which included the Russian Empire, the French Republic and Great Britain, and the Central Powers, represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

The question arises: what united each of these countries? What were the aims of each of the parties to the conflict? These questions are all the more important because after the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919, all responsibility for unleashing the war will fall on Germany (Article 231). Of course, all this can be justified on the basis of the universal principle Vae victis. But is Germany alone to blame for this war? Was it only she and her allies who wanted this war? Of course not.

Germany wanted war just as much as France and Great Britain wanted war. Slightly less interested in this were Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, which turned out to be the weakest links in this conflict.

Interests of participating countries

In 1871, the triumphant unification of Germany took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. A second empire was formed. The proclamation took place against the backdrop of the Franco-Prussian War, when France was suffering a catastrophic defeat. This became a national disgrace: not only was Napoleon III, emperor of all the French, captured almost immediately, only ruins remained of the second empire in France. The Paris Commune arises, another revolution, as often happens in France. The war ends with France accepting Germany's defeat by signing the Frankfurt Treaty of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.

In addition, France undertakes to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs. To a large extent, this money went to the development of the German economy, which subsequently led to its unprecedented rise by the 1890s. But it's not even about financial side question, namely the national humiliation experienced by the French. And more than one generation will remember him from 1871 until 1914.

It was then that the ideas of revanchism arise, which unite the entire Third Republic, born in the crucibles of the Franco-Prussian war. It becomes unimportant who you are: a socialist, a monarchist, a centrist - everyone is united by the idea of revenge on Germany and the return of Alsace and Lorraine.

Britannia

Britain was preoccupied with German economic dominance in Europe and the world. By the 1890s, Germany ranks first in terms of GDP in Europe, pushing Britain into second place. The British government cannot accept this fact, given that for many centuries Britain was the "workshop of the world", the most economically developed country. Now Britain is seeking some sort of revenge, but economic.

Russia

For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of pan-Slavism, which gain momentum in the 1860s, in the 1870s lead to Russian-Turkish war, in the 1880s-1890s this idea remains, and so it passes into the 20th century, and finally embodied by 1915. The main idea was the return of Constantinople, to put a cross over Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And plus everything, of course, to push the Germans out of the Balkans.

As we can see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here at once. Thus, in consideration this issue equally important is the political level, and geopolitical, and economic, and cultural. Do not forget that during the war, at least in its first years, culture becomes the basic part of the ideology.

The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question is whether he was ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war it would be? People who went through the First World War, lived in the conditions of this war, after its end became completely different. Not a trace will remain of beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, domestic politics, social politics. No country will ever be the same as it was in 1913.

Formal cause for conflict

The formal reason for the start of the war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were shot dead in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The killer turned out to be a terrorist from the Serbian nationalist organization Mlada Bosna. The Sarajevo assassination caused an unprecedented scandal, in which all the main participants in the conflict were involved and to what extent interested.

Austria-Hungary protests Serbia and asks for an investigation with the participation of the Austrian police in order to identify terrorist organizations directed against Austria-Hungary. Parallel to this, intense diplomatic secret consultations are taking place between Serbia and the Russian Empire on the one hand, and between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire on the other.

Was there a way out of the current impasse or not? It turned out that no. On July 23, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, giving it 48 hours to respond. In turn, Serbia agreed to all the conditions, except for one related to the fact that the secret services of Austria-Hungary would begin to make arrests and take out terrorists and suspicious persons to Austria-Hungary without notifying the Serbian side. Austria, reinforced by the support of Germany, declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. In response to this, the Russian Empire announces mobilization, to which the German Empire protests and demands to stop the mobilization, in case of non-cessation, the German side reserves the right to start its own mobilization. On July 31, a general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war has begun.

On August 3, France joins it, on August 4 - Great Britain, and all the main participants begin hostilities.

It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration on the non-conclusion of a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: what if someone breaks loose and concludes separate peace with the enemy side.

World War I as a new type of war

Germany waged war in accordance with the Schlieffen plan, developed by the Prussian Field Marshal General and leader of the German general staff von Schlieffen. It was supposed to concentrate all forces on the right flank, inflict a lightning strike on France, and only after that switch to the Russian front.

So, Schlieffen develops this plan just in late XIX century. As we can see, his tactics were based on blitzkrieg - delivering lightning strikes that stun the enemy, bring chaos and sow panic among the enemy troops.
Wilhelm II was sure that Germany would have time to defeat France before the general mobilization in Russia ended. After that, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and organize offensive operation already on Russian empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.

Forced deviations from this plan began already from the first days of the war. So, German troops moved too slowly through the territory of neutral Belgium. The main blow to France came from Belgium. In this case, Germany grossly violated international agreements and neglected the concept of neutrality. What will then be reflected in the Versailles Peace Treaty, as well as those crimes, primarily the export of cultural property from Belgian cities, and is regarded by the world community as nothing more than "German barbarism" and savagery.

To repel the German offensive, France asked the Russian Empire to hastily launch a counteroffensive in East Prussia, in order to pull part of the troops from the Western Front to the Eastern. Russia successfully carried out this operation, which largely saved France from the surrender of Paris.

Retreat in Russia

In 1914, Russia won a number of victories, primarily on the Southwestern Front. In fact, Russia inflicts a crushing defeat on Austria-Hungary, occupies Lviv (then it was the Austrian city of Lemberg), occupies Bukovina, that is, Chernivtsi, Galicia and approaches the Carpathians.

But already in 1915, a great retreat began, tragic for the Russian army. It turned out that there was a catastrophic lack of ammunition, according to the documents they should have been, but in fact they were not. In 1915, Russian Poland, that is, the Kingdom of Poland (Privislinsky region), was lost, the conquered Galicia, Vilna, modern western Belarus were lost. The Germans are actually approaching Riga, leaving Courland - for the Russian front it will be a disaster. And since 1916, in the army, especially among the soldiers, there has been a general fatigue from the war.

Discontent begins on the Russian front, of course, this will affect the disintegration of the army and play its tragic role in the revolutionary events of 1917. According to archival documents, we see that the censors, through whom the soldiers' letters passed, note decadent moods, the lack of fighting spirit in the Russian army since 1916. It is interesting that the Russian soldiers, who for the most part were peasants, begin to engage in self-mutilation - shoot themselves in the leg, in the arm in order to leave the front as soon as possible and end up in their native village.

The total nature of war

One of the main tragedies of the war will be the use of poisonous gases in 1915. On the Western Front, at the Battle of Ypres, for the first time in history, chlorine was used by German troops, resulting in the death of 5,000 people. The First World War is technological, it is a war of engineering systems, inventions, high technologies. This war is not only on land, it is under water. So, German submarines dealt crushing blows to the British fleet.

This is a war in the air: aviation was used both as a means of finding out the positions of the enemy (reconnaissance function), and for delivering strikes, that is, bombing.

The First World War is a war where there is no longer much room for valor and courage. Due to the fact that the war already in 1915 took on a positional character, there were no direct clashes when one could see the face of the enemy, look into his eyes. There is no enemy in sight. Death begins to be perceived in a completely different way, because it appears out of nowhere. In this sense, the gas attack is a symbol of this desacralized and demystified death.

History of the Great War, based on official documents. Medical Services, diseases of the war, volume II. London: HMSO, 1923. Map 1, German cloud gas attack April 30th, 1916. — See more at: http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/en/europeana/reco...rd_L0029690#prettyPhoto

The First World War is a colossal number of victims, unprecedented before. We can recall the so-called "Verdun meat grinder", where there were 750 thousand killed by France and England, by Germany - 450 thousand, that is, the total losses of the parties amounted to more than a million people! Bloodshed on this scale history has not yet known.

The horror of what is happening, the presence of death from nowhere cause aggression and frustration. That is why, in the end, all this causes such bitterness, which will result in outbreaks of aggression and violence already in peacetime after the First World War. Compared with 1913, there is an increase in cases of domestic violence: fights in the streets, domestic violence, conflicts at work, etc.

In many ways, this allows researchers to talk about the readiness of the population for totalitarianism and violent, repressive practices. Here we can recall, first of all, the experience of Germany, where in 1933 National Socialism was victorious. This is also a kind of continuation of the First World War.

That is why there is an opinion that it is impossible to separate the First and Second World Wars. That it was one war that began in 1914 and ended only in 1945. And what happened from 1919 to 1939 was just a truce, because the population was still living with the ideas of war and was ready to fight further.

Aftermath of World War I

The war, which began on August 1, 1914, continued until November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. By 1918, the Entente was represented by France and Great Britain. The Russian Empire will leave this union in 1917, when in October there will be a Bolshevik coup of a revolutionary type. The first decree of Lenin will be the Decree on peace without annexations and indemnities to all warring powers on October 25, 1917. True, none of the warring powers will support this decree, except for Soviet Russia.

At the same time, Russia will officially withdraw from the war only on March 3, 1918, when the famous Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 will be signed in Brest-Litovsk, according to which Germany and its allies, on the one hand and Soviet Russia on the other hand, they stopped hostilities against each other. At the same time, Soviet Russia lost part of its territories, primarily Ukraine, Belarus and the entire Baltic. No one even thought about Poland, and, in fact, no one needed it. The logic of Lenin and Trotsky in this matter was very simple: we do not bargain for territories, because the world revolution will win anyway. Moreover, in August 1918, an additional agreement to the Brest Peace would be signed, according to which Russia would undertake to pay indemnities to Germany, and even the first transfer would be made - 93 tons of gold. So, Russia leaves, which will be a violation of the allied obligations that the tsarist government assumed and to which the Provisional Government was loyal.

US role

In 1917, the United States of America enters the war. Subsequently, President Woodrow Wilson will play one of the key roles in the post-war world order. It was he who came up with the idea of creating the League of Nations - an international organization designed to prevent new military conflicts and clashes.

End of the war

By 1918, the need for finding a way to compromise with the Entente countries became obvious to the leadership of Germany. At the same time, I wanted to lose as little as possible. It was for this purpose that a counteroffensive was proposed on the Western Front in the spring and summer of 1918. The operation was extremely unsuccessful for Germany, which only increased discontent among the troops and among the civilian population. In addition, a revolution took place in Germany on November 9th. Its instigators were sailors in Kiel, who revolted, not wanting to follow the order of the command.

On November 11, 1918, the Armistice of Compiègne was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. It should be noted that the armistice is signed in Compiègne in Marshal Foch's carriage not by chance. This will be done at the insistence of the French side, for which it was very important to overcome the defeat complex in the Franco-Prussian War. France will insist on this place in order for an act of revenge to take place, that is, satisfaction will occur. It must be said that the carriage will surface again in 1940, when it will be brought in again so that Hitler accepts the surrender of France in it.

truce

Under the terms of the armistice, under which Germany ceases all hostilities, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is denounced. In addition, Germany undertakes to withdraw its troops from the territory of Belgium and gives Alsace and Lorraine to France. The troops of the Entente countries occupy the territory of the left bank of the Rhine. For the final settlement of the conflict, a conference is convened, which should put an end to the war. On January 18, 1918, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 opened.

Second album of photos by Max Jacoby of the Eastern Front - See more at: http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/en/contributions/4206#sthash.iekWbiyg.dpuf

On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty with Germany is signed. It was a humiliating world for her, she was losing all her overseas colonies, part of Schleswig, Silesia and Prussia. Germany was forbidden to have a submarine fleet, develop and have latest systems weapons. The contract, however, did not specify the amount that Germany had to pay as reparations, since France and Britain could not agree among themselves due to France's excessive appetites. It was unprofitable for Britain to create such a strong France. Therefore, the amount was not entered in the end. It was finally determined only in 1921. Under the London Accords of 1921, Germany had to pay 132 billion gold marks.

Germany was declared the sole culprit in unleashing the conflict. And, in fact, all the restrictions and sanctions imposed on it followed from this.

The Treaty of Versailles had disastrous consequences for Germany. The Germans felt insulted and humiliated, which led to the rise of nationalist forces. During the 14 difficult years of the Weimar Republic - from 1919 to 1933 - any political force set as its goal the revision of the Treaty of Versailles. First of all, no one recognized the eastern borders. The Germans turned into a divided people, part of which remained in the Reich, in Germany, part in Czechoslovakia (Sudetland), part in Poland. And in order to feel national unity, it is necessary to reunite the great German people. This formed the basis of the political slogans of the National Socialists, the Social Democrats, the moderate conservatives, and other political forces.

The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of great powers

For Austria-Hungary, the consequences of defeat in the war turned into a national catastrophe and the collapse of the multinational Habsburg empire. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I, who over the 68 years of his reign became a kind of symbol of the empire, died in 1916. He was replaced by Charles I, who failed to stop the centrifugal national forces empire, which, coupled with military defeats, led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary.

Four of the greatest empires perished in the crucibles of the First World War: Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and German. New states will emerge in their place: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

At the same time, grievances and disagreements, as well as territorial claims of new countries to each other, remained.

Hungary was dissatisfied with the borders that were determined for it in accordance with the agreements reached, because Greater Hungary should also include Croatia.

Bulgaria is dissatisfied with the borders that she got, because Great Bulgaria should include almost all the territories up to Constantinople.

The Serbs also considered themselves deprived. In Poland, the idea of a Greater Poland from sea to sea is gaining ground.

Perhaps Czechoslovakia was the only happy exception of all the new Eastern European states, which was happy with everything.

After the First World War, in many European countries, the idea of \u200b\u200btheir own greatness and significance arose, which led to the creation of myths about national exceptionalism and their political formulation in the interwar period.

It seemed to everyone that the First World War would solve the problems, but it created new ones and deepened the old ones.

Articledevoted tosomemeconomicallym, territorialmand demographicmaftermath of World War I 1914– 1918 - a war that radically changed the face and fate of old Europe.

World War I 1914 – 1918 was one of the most global and destructive conflicts in human history. Some impression about the scale of the consequences of this world confrontation will help to make the following figures and facts.

1. Out of 59 independent states 34 of the world were involved in the war and only 25 remained neutral. 91% of the world's population was involved in the war.

results of the world war. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

2. Germany, which had 540.8 thousand square meters before the war km of territory, lost 13.44% of the main territory (where 9.5% of the population of the Second Reich lived) and 100% of the colonies. The largest acquisitions at the expense of Germany were made by: Poland (43.6 thousand sq. km from 2.95 million inhabitants - 8.1% of the territory and 4.5% of the population), France (14.5 thousand sq. km from 1, 82 million inhabitants - 2.7% of the territory and 2.8% of the population) and Denmark (3.9 thousand square kilometers with 160 thousand inhabitants - 0.7 of the territory and 0.24% of the population).

England captured 74.1% of the German colonies (65.6% of the colonial population), France annexed 25.8% of the German colonies (31.6% of the colonial population) and 0.1% of the German colonies (2.8% of the colonial population) became booty Japan.

"Have mercy." The Great War in Images and Pictures. Issue. 13. Ed. Makovsky D. Ya. - M., 1917.

3. Austria-Hungary, which in 1914 had an area of 676.6 thousand square meters. km, disappeared from political map peace. It is significant that Austria and Hungary proper became the heirs of only a small part of the territory of the empire: Hungary is located on 88 thousand square meters. km (13% of the area of the empire with 15.1% of its population), and Austria - by 84 thousand square meters. km (12.4% of the area of the empire with 12.9% of its population). The largest territories of the Dual Monarchy became part of Yugoslavia (146.5 thousand sq. km - 21.7% of the empire's area with 15% of the population), Czechoslovakia (140.3 thousand sq. km - 20.7% of the empire's area with 26, 8% of the population) and Romania (113.4 thousand sq. km - 16.8% of the area of the empire with 11% of the population).

Former Austro-Hungarian territories in context new Europe. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

4. The territorial and human losses of Turkey were catastrophic. In 1915, the Ottoman Empire had an area of 1.79 million square meters. km (21.9 million inhabitants) - following the results of the war, Turkey (no longer an empire) lost 1.22 million square meters. km of its territory (68.2%) and 10 million 250 thousand inhabitants (46.1%). The largest acquisitions at its expense were made by: England and its "vassal" states (51.2% of the territory and 17.8% of the population), France (8.9% of the territory and 13.6% of the population) and Armenia (5.3% of the territory and 6.4% of the population).

Middle East and World War II. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

5. Bulgaria got off relatively easy, from which only 7.7% of the territory was “pinched off” (9 thousand square kilometers from 400 thousand people) from 8.2% of the population: 6.5 thousand square meters. km (300 thousand inhabitants) went to Greece and 2.1 thousand square meters. km (100 thousand inhabitants) - Yugoslavia.

Bulgarian soldiers celebrate the end of the war.
Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

6. The failed victorious power and a key participant in the Entente at the first stage of the world war, Russia, suffered the heaviest damage. She lost 842 thousand square meters. km (15.4% of the territory of the empire), where 31.5 million inhabitants lived (23.3% of the population of the empire). The largest territories became part of Poland (246 thousand sq. km), went to Finland (390 thousand sq. km) and Latvia (65 thousand sq. km). And even Romania managed to grab 46 thousand square meters. km of former Russian territory. Only in 1939-1944. The USSR was able to return part of these lands.

The end of the army is the death of the great and indivisible Russia. Rally at the front, 1917
The Great War in Images and Pictures. Issue. 14. Ed. Makovsky D. Ya. - M., 1917.

7. According to averaged data (according to Professor Gikman), the First World War cost the population of our planet 37 million 50 thousand people (of which over 10 million were killed). The Entente and its allies lost 23 million 350 thousand, and the German bloc - 13 million 700 thousand people.

Demographic consequences of the World War. J. Gross. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

8. During the years of the World War, valuables were destroyed (taking into account the productivity of the dead and maimed people) in the amount of 1 trillion 200 billion gold marks (by 1914, all world wealth was estimated at 2 trillion 400 billion gold marks). Moreover (for comparison) the damage from all wars on the globe for the period 1793–1905. amounted to only 83 billion marks.

Distribution of bread on the streets of Vienna. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

9. The national wealth of most states (both winners and losers) has significantly decreased. In 1914 and 1919 they amounted to: for England 325 and 275, for France 260 and 180, for Russia 250 and 100, for Germany 375 and 250, for Austria-Hungary 170 and 100, for Italy 100 and 80 billion gold marks. Only the United States and Japan have benefited in this respect. For them, the balance turned out to be 850 and 1200 and 80 and 100 billion gold marks, respectively.

military costs. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925

10. The damage to the world economy was extremely heavy. The sown areas decreased by 22.6%, grain harvest by 37.2% from pre-war figures. In France alone, 319 thousand houses, 7985 km of railways, 4875 bridges, 20603 factories were completely destroyed.

Metal smelting was significantly reduced (in 1921, 43.2% of the pre-war level - and taking into account the USA), mining, etc. The public debts of most states increased (for example, Germany by 63 times, and even England - by 8.7 times) . The fall of world currencies was unprecedented - for example, the pound sterling, which cost 25 francs before the war, was estimated at 60 francs in 1920. And these are the currencies of the victorious powers! The ratio of currencies in relation to the vanquished was different. So, for 1 pound sterling in 1921 they gave 20 thousand (!) German marks.

World War and Birth. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

Thus, no other war had such an impact on the fate of Europe as the First World War.

Consequences of the First World War. The war, during which the Allies came close to defeat at least four times, is over. At the end of it, the Central Powers fought against states that had superior

financial, military and human resources of the world. Also, the allies completely controlled the seas, and in the last phase of the war they had an advantage in the air. Aviation in this war was used not so much for bombing, but for conducting aerial reconnaissance for the movement of the enemy army.

The two huge mistakes made by Germany, the invasion of neutral Belgium and the waging of "unrestricted" submarine warfare, united most countries against her in order to secure the world from German militarism. Both of these actions of Germany were a challenge to the moral principles of most nations and could not be left without punishment.

Disadvantages of interaction allied states was that for a long time they could not unite their efforts, and their constant competition for leadership in the anti-German coalition almost cost them victory.

Consequences of the war

As a result of the war, about 10 million soldiers died

(Including 1 million of those who went missing), and up to 21 million were injured:

Germany - 1,800,000 killed

Russia - 1.7 million

France - 1.4 million

Austria-Hungary - 1.2 million

Great Britain - 950 thousand

Italy - 460 thousand

USA - 115 thousand

Canada - 60 thousand

Australia - 60 thousand

New Zealand - 16.781 thousand

Every minute of the war took the lives of 4 soldiers, and another 9 were injured. Some of those crippled in the war eventually returned to normal life, but most of them ended their lives in hospitals and hospitals

To a war in which 34 states with a population of about 1 billion people participated. (67% of the world's population), about 65 million people were mobilized.

5 million civilians died.

At least 6 million people, weakened by the difficulties of the war, died after the war as a result of a terrible influenza epidemic in 1918-1919 pp.

In relation to the population, greatest casualties on the altar of war was laid:

Serbia - 6% of the population died;

France - 3.4%

Romania - 3.3%

Germany - 3.0%

On shoulders ordinary people bear the burden of the economic damage from the war. The war delayed the economic and even cultural development of an entire generation. The largest economic losses from the war suffered:

UK - 30%

Germany - 20%

France - 15%

The territories where the fighting took place, especially in France, Belgium, Russia, were destroyed

During the occupation occupied territories mercilessly plundered; the local population was motivated to build defensive structures and trench-digging Two new factors have emerged that will shape the events of the post-war era: the spread of communism and US leadership

The war put an end to the existence of Europe as the center of the colonial world. Disappeared Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian, Turkish empires

Europe in 1918 just as little resembled Europe in 1914, as Europe in 1815 - Europe in 1789. New states arose: Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Czechoslovakchyna, Hungary, Austria, Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian kingdom . Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan and the Central Asian emirates failed to defend their independence

The processes that began at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries were destroyed, class, interstate and ethnic contradictions aggravated

The world was divided into democratic and totalitarian

The war destroyed the pre-war international legal order, giving birth to a new international legal system.

candidate historical sciences, Head of the Middle East Department of the HSE School of Oriental Studies, Senior Research Fellow at the Institute world history RAS, member of the School historical research Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, Board member in International Syriac Language project

Thus, the First World War is a kind of prologue to the short twentieth century. It was here that the key themes of the century were identified: social disagreements, geopolitical contradictions, ideological struggle, economic confrontation. This is despite the fact that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries it seemed to many that the wars in Europe had sunk into oblivion. If there are collisions, then only on the periphery, in the colonies. The development of science and technology, the refined culture of the Fin de siècle, according to many contemporaries, did not imply a "carnage" that cost millions of lives and buried four great empires. This is the first war in the world that has a total character: all social strata of the population, all spheres of life were affected. There was nothing left that was not involved in this war.

The question arises: what united each of these countries? What were the aims of each of the parties to the conflict? These questions are all the more important because after the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919, all responsibility for unleashing the war will fall on Germany (Article 231). Of course, all this can be justified on the basis of the universal principle of Vae victis. But is Germany alone to blame for this war? Was it only she and her allies who wanted this war? Of course not.

Interests of participating countries

The war ends with France accepting Germany's defeat by signing the Frankfurt Treaty of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.

In addition, France undertakes to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs. To a large extent, this money went to the development of the German economy, which subsequently led to its unprecedented rise by the 1890s. But the point is not even in the financial side of the issue, but in the national humiliation experienced by the French. And more than one generation will remember him from 1871 until 1914.

Britannia

Russia

For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of pan-Slavism, which gain momentum in the 1860s, lead to the Russian-Turkish war in the 1870s, this idea remains in the 1880s–1890s, and so it passes into the 20th century, and finally embodied by 1915. The main idea was the return of Constantinople, to put a cross over Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And plus everything, of course, to push the Germans out of the Balkans.

As we can see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here at once. Thus, in considering this issue, the political, geopolitical, economic, and cultural levels are equally important. Do not forget that during the war, at least in its first years, culture becomes the basic part of the ideology. The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question is whether he was ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war it would be? People who went through the First World War, lived in the conditions of this war, after its end became completely different. Not a trace will remain of beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, domestic policy, social policy. No country will ever be the same as it was in 1913.

It is important to note that when announcing mobilization, no one talks about their selfish interests. Everyone proclaims the lofty ideals behind this war. For example, help to the fraternal Slavic peoples, help to the fraternal German peoples and the empire. Accordingly, France and Russia are bound by allied treaties, this is allied assistance. This also applies to Britain. It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration on the non-conclusion of a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: what if someone breaks loose and concludes a separate peace with the enemy side.

World War I as a new type of war

Germany waged war in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan, developed by the Prussian Field Marshal General and member of the German General Staff von Schlieffen. It was supposed to concentrate all forces on the right flank, inflict a lightning strike on France, and only after that switch to the Russian front.

So, Schlieffen develops this plan just at the end of the 19th century. As we can see, his tactics were based on blitzkrieg - delivering lightning strikes that stun the enemy, bring chaos and sow panic among the enemy troops.

Wilhelm II was sure that Germany would have time to defeat France before the general mobilization in Russia ended. After that, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and organize an offensive operation already against the Russian Empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.

Forced deviations from this plan began already from the first days of the war. So, the German troops moved too slowly through the territory of neutral Belgium. The main blow to France came from Belgium. In this case, Germany grossly violated international agreements and neglected the concept of neutrality. What will then be reflected in the Versailles Peace Treaty, as well as those crimes, primarily the export of cultural property from Belgian cities, and is regarded by the world community as nothing more than "German barbarism" and savagery.