The line of man separated from the trunk common with monkeys not earlier than 10 and not later than 6 million years ago. The first representatives of the genus Homo appeared about 2 million years ago, and modern man - no later than 50 thousand years ago. The oldest traces of labor activity date back to 2.5 - 2.8 million years (tools from Ethiopia). Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.
Three stages are distinguished in the evolution of a person (Homo) (in addition, some scientists also distinguish the species Homo habilis - a skilled person into a separate species):
1. The oldest people, which include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus and Heidelberg man (Homo erectus).
2. Ancient people - Neanderthals (the first representatives of the Homo sapiens species).
3. Modern (new) people, including fossil Cro-Magnons and modern people(species of a reasonable person - Homo sapiens).
Thus, the next after Australopithecus in the evolutionary ladder is already the first person, the first representative of the Homo genus. This is a skilled man (Homo habilis). In 1960, the English anthropologist Louis Leakey found in the Oldoway Gorge (Tanzania), next to the remains of a skilled man, the most ancient tools created by human hands. I must say that even a primitive stone ax looks the same next to them as an electric saw next to a stone axe. These tools are just pebbles split at a certain angle, slightly pointed. (In nature, such splits of stone do not occur.) The age of the Oldowan pebble culture, as scientists called it, is about 2.5 million years.
Man made discoveries and created tools, and these tools changed man himself, had a decisive influence on his evolution. For example, the use of fire made it possible to radically lighten the human skull and reduce its weight. Cooked food, unlike raw food, did not require such powerful muscles to chew it, and the weaker muscles no longer needed the parietal crest to attach to the skull. The tribes that made the best tools (like later more advanced civilizations) defeated the tribes lagging behind in their development and forced them into a barren area. The manufacture of more advanced tools complicated the internal relationships in the tribe, required greater development and brain size.
The pebble tools of a skilled man were gradually replaced by hand axes (stones chipped on both sides), and then by scrapers and tips.
Another branch of the evolution of the Homo genus, which, according to biologists, is higher than a skilled man, is the erect man (Homo erectus). The oldest people lived 2 million - 500 thousand years ago. This species includes Pithecanthropus (in Latin - ape-man), Sinanthropus (Chinese man - his remains were found in China) and some other subspecies.
Pithecanthropus is an ape-man. The remains were first discovered on about. Java in 1891 by E. Dubois, and then in a number of other places. Pithecanthropes walked on two legs, their brain volume increased. A low forehead, powerful brow ridges, a half-bent body with abundant hair - all this pointed to their recent (monkey) past.
Sinanthropus, whose remains were found in 1927 - 1937. in a cave near Beijing, in many respects similar to Pithecanthropus, this is a geographical version of Homo erectus.
They are often referred to as ape people. The upright man no longer ran in a panic from the fire, like all other animals, but he himself bred it (however, there is an assumption that a skilled man already kept the fire in smoldering stumps and termite mounds); not only split, but also hewn stones, used processed antelope skulls as dishes. The clothes of a skilled man, apparently, were the skins of dead animals. His right hand was more developed than his left. He probably spoke primitive articulate speech. Perhaps, from afar, he could be mistaken for a modern person.
The main factor in the evolution of ancient people was natural selection.
Ancient people characterize the next stage of anthropogenesis, when social factors also begin to play a role in evolution: labor activity in the groups they lived in, a joint struggle for life and the development of intellect. These include Neanderthals, whose remains were found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They got their name from the place of the first discovery in the valley of the river. Neander (Germany). Neanderthals lived in the Ice Age 200 - 35 thousand years ago in caves, where they constantly kept fire, dressed in skins. Neanderthal labor tools are much more perfect and have some specialization: knives, scrapers, percussion tools. The shape of the jaw testified to articulate speech. Neanderthals lived in groups of 50 to 100 people. Men collectively hunted, women and children gathered edible roots and fruits, old men made tools. The last Neanderthals lived among the first modern people, and then they were finally forced out by them. Some scientists consider Neanderthals a dead-end branch of hominin evolution that did not participate in the formation of modern man.
Modern people. The emergence of modern people physical type happened relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago. Their remains have been found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In the grotto of Cro-Magnon (France), several skeletons of fossil people of the modern type were discovered at once, who were called Cro-Magnons. They possessed all the complex of physical features that characterizes a modern person: articulate speech, as indicated by a developed chin protrusion; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock paintings), clothing, jewelry, perfect bone and stone tools, the first tamed animals - all indicate that this is a real person, completely isolated from his bestial ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern people form one species - Homo sapiens - reasonable man; this species was formed no later than 100 - 40 thousand years ago.
In the evolution of the Cro-Magnons great importance had social factors, immeasurably increased the role of education, transfer of experience.
Today, most scientists adhere to the theory of the African origin of man and believe that the future winner in the evolutionary race arose in Southeast Africa about 200 thousand years ago and settled from there throughout the planet.
Since man came out of Africa, it would seem that it goes without saying that our distant African ancestors were similar to the modern inhabitants of this continent. However, some researchers believe that the first people who appeared in Africa were closer to the Mongoloids.
The Mongoloid race has a number of archaic features, in particular in the structure of the teeth, which are characteristic of Neanderthals and Homo erectus (Human erectus). Populations of the Mongoloid type are highly adaptable to various habitat conditions, from the arctic tundra to equatorial humid forests, while children of the Negroid race in high latitudes with a lack of vitamin D quickly develop bone diseases, rickets, i.e. they are specialized to conditions of high insolation. If the first people had been like modern Africans, it is doubtful that they would have been able to successfully carry out migrations around the globe. However, this view is disputed by most anthropologists.
The concept of African ancestry is contrasted with the concept of multiregional ancestry, which assumes that our ancestral species Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens independently at different points on the globe.
Homo erectus appeared in Africa about 1.8 million years ago. He made the stone tools found by palaeontologists, and possibly even better bamboo tools. However, after millions of years, no trace remains of bamboo. Over several hundred thousand years, Homo erectus spread first through the Middle East, then into Europe and to the Pacific Ocean. The formation of Homo sapiens on the basis of the Pithecanthropus led to the coexistence of late forms of Neanderthals and the emerging small groups of modern people for several thousand years. The process of replacing the old species with a new one was quite lengthy and, consequently, complex.
Human evolution. In 2 books. Book 1. Monkeys, bones and genes.
Extremely interesting, informative, written in beautiful language, understandable to any literate person. Plus the author's humor, with no simplification and flattening. Popular, in the best sense of the word, presentation, without sacrificing content!
The book by Alexander Markov is a very fascinating story about the origin and structure of man, based on the latest research in anthropology, genetics and evolutionary psychology. The two-volume "Human Evolution" answers many questions that have long interested Homo sapiens. What does it mean to be human? When and why did we become human? In what are we superior to our neighbors on the planet, and in what are we inferior to them? And how can we better use our main difference and dignity - a huge, complex brain? One way is to read this book thoughtfully.
Alexander Markov - Doctor of Biological Sciences, Leading Researcher at the Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His book on the evolution of living beings, The Birth of Complexity (2010), has become an event in non-fiction literature and has been widely acclaimed by readers.
Human evolution. In 2 books. Book 2. Monkeys, neurons and the soul.
An absolutely amazing book. Even more interesting than the first part. The author managed to tell simply and with humor about everything that has been achieved by science in very far from ordinary person fields of biology and even in completely new disciplines, such as, for example, evolutionary religious studies.
Great book, reads like a detective story.
Evolution. The triumph of the idea. Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea
The evolution of life over four billion years is a majestic narrative full of conspiracy, intrigue, surprise and death. Matt Ridley, author of The Genome.
An amazing book. Here is not only about Darwin himself and his theory, but, even more importantly, about the development of Darwinism. About how modern science represents evolution today. What Darwin was wrong about and what he is clearly right about. A lot is becoming clear. Recommended. A big plus of the book is good paper and easy to read font.
One of today's finest scientific journalists, with his characteristic thoroughness, intelligibility and unfailing humor, gives a complete overview of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in the light of today's ideas and scientific discoveries.
This book gives an understanding not only of the main provisions of the theory of Charles Darwin, but tells about the latest research on the processes of evolution. Shows how modern science expands and deepens the theoretical heritage of the great scientist. In the book, we simply and majestically reveal the whole history of evolution, a process that still, like several billion years ago, drives the entire world around us.
A book for anyone who seeks to find answers to eternal questions: Why do disputes about the origin of life and man on Earth continue to this day? What was behind the ideas of the great man, painfully paving the way for new knowledge in a conservative society? How do evolutionary biologists put forward and test their hypotheses, and why do they categorically disagree with creationist arguments? In search of an answer to these questions, the reader makes many amazing discoveries about the life of animals, birds and insects, which make one think about human morals and ethics, about the place and purpose of man in the Universe.
Russian history. Grade 10.
Lesson topic. THE APPEARANCE OF MAN ON THE TERRITORY OF EASTERN EUROPE
Human development in the era of primitiveness
|
Period |
Features |
Reasons for change |
|
Paleolithic |
Early tribal community. Matriarchy. Dwellings: caves, huts, dugouts. Classes: driven hunting. Tools: chopped, scrapers, points, bone punctures. Origin religion, art The movement to the territory of modern Russia came from Central Europe and South Asia. Parking lots: on the Don, Oka, Kama, Desna, Ural, Yenisei, Angara, Lena |
Ice Age (100-30 thousand years ago) Glacier boundary: Middle reaches of the Dnieper and Don |
|
tribal community(allocation of elders and military leaders), the formation of tribes. period of matriarchy. Classes: hunting, gathering, fishing, domestication of the dog, the beginning of intercommunal exchange. Tools: bow and arrows, spearheads, thin knives (spear thrower, development of microlithic stone technology). Semi-sedentary lifestyle. Art: Sculptures (goddesses-progenitors of the clan, animals), drawings on the walls of cave-sanctuaries, decorations. Development Northern Europe, Northern Siberia, America |
Changing of the climate (melting of the glacier - the turn of the 13th-12th millennium), the invention of the bow |
|
|
Late birth community(tribal nobility, collective labor, tribal (collective) property). Transition to patriarchy Manufacturing economy. Tools: stone axes, adzes, chisels, hoes, sickles, grain graters, etc. Decoration of religious ideas, development of knowledge about nature, development of art Stopovers: from the shores of the White and Baltic Seas to the Sea of Azov and the North Caucasus. |
neolithic revolution(transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one) |
The main features of primitiveness:
1.primitive tools,
2. dependence of man on nature,
3. collective work,
4. joint housekeeping,
5. public form of ownership,
6.relatively egalitarian distribution of products of labor among members of the community, 7.absence of the state.
The periodization of the history of mankind at the stage of the primitive communal system is rather complicated. Several options are known. Most often used archaeological scheme. In accordance with it, the history of mankind is divided into three large stages, depending on the material from which the tools were made:
1. Stone Age: 3 million years ago - the end of the III millennium BC.
2. Bronze Age: end of III millennium - I millennium BC.
3. Iron Age: I millennium BC
The last two stages are associated with the emergence of the first state formations. The era of the primitive economy chronologically coincides mainly with the Stone Age, in which three periods are distinguished.
1. Paleolithic (ancient stone Age): 3 million - 12 thousand years BC
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): 12 thousand years BC-8 thousand years BC
3. Neolithic (new stone age): 8 thousand years BC-3 thousand years BC. Filling in the table.
Comparative characteristics of matriarchy and patriarchy
|
Questions for comparison |
Matriarchy |
Patriarchy |
|
Position of a woman |
Dominant: the head of the clan, the keeper of traditions, customs, religious cults, participates in public life and decision making |
Subordinate: predominantly does housework |
|
Position of a man |
Equally subordinate |
Dominant: the head of the clan, the main field of activity is production |
|
The principle of inheritance |
On the female line |
Through the male line |
|
Time of occurrence |
Early tribal community |
The stage of decomposition of tribal relations |
|
Type of marriage |
Double - the family does not constitute an economic unit, easily dissolvable |
Monogamy - monogamy |
Draw students' attention to discussions about the allocation of such a form of social relations as matriarchy.
5. Neolithic revolution.
Background of the Neolithic Revolution:
1. climate change at the end of the Ice Age;
2. improving the technique of making tools;
3. domestication of wild plants and domestication of animals.
The evolutionary history of man ended with the formation of a species qualitatively different from other animals inhabiting the Earth, however, the mechanisms and factors that acted during the evolution of the ancestors of Homo sapiens did not differ in any way from the mechanisms and factors of the evolution of any kind of living beings. Only from a certain stage of development in the evolution of mankind did social factors begin to play a greater role than biological ones. Therefore, the basic principles general theory evolutions are quite applicable to the problem of anthropogenesis. However, it has not yet been possible to solve all the problems of the origin of man. We cannot imagine in detail the process of the formation of mankind, although the main stages of its formation are traced quite clearly. In the study of the periods of anthropogenesis, modern archaeological methods of dating the found human remains are used. The most widely used radioisotope methods (radiocarbon potassium argon). In recent decades, methods of geochemistry, biochemistry, and genetics have been widely used in anthropology. The main stages of anthropogenesis are presented in Table 3.
There are 4 main stages in human evolution:
1. proanthrope - the predecessor of man (Australopithecus - Australopithecus);
2. archanthrope - the most ancient man (Homo habilis; Homo erectus);
3. paleoanthrope - ancient man (Homo neanderthalensis);
4. neoanthrope - modern man (Homo sapiens).
According to modern ideas, primates descended from the oldest insectivorous mammals. The evolution of the order of primates took place in the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic. The area of their distribution was quite extensive, it covered Europe, Africa, India, Transcaucasia. About 30 million years ago lived in the forests parapithecus. They led an arboreal lifestyle, they could also move on the ground. Perhaps they were the starting point for the further evolution of primates. Divergent development went in directions to Propliopitecus and Driopithecus. The former gave rise to modern gibbons, and dryopithecus gave rise to modern gorillas and were the ancestors of chimpanzees. One of the types of driopithecus was the original ancestral form of modern hominids.
An intermediate form is considered to be large fossil monkeys - Ramapithecus who lived 10-14 million years ago in India. They were omnivorous animals with poor canine development and a long period of childhood preceding puberty. The Ramapithecines moved to
Table 3. Main stages of human evolution:
mostly on two legs. The freed upper limbs began to be used for the use of natural objects (sticks, stones, bones) as tools for obtaining food and protection. In parallel, there was a progressive development of higher nervous activity.
The immediate predecessor of man is considered to be the ancient primates - Australopithecus - southern monkeys. They were first described by R. Dart in 1924. The structure of the Australopithecus skeleton is more similar to humans than to modern great apes. They moved on two legs and were mostly right-handed. Hands were used as an organ of labor, but they used ready-made natural tools. Australopithecus represented a fairly diverse group. There are African Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus), Afar Australopithecus (Ausntralopithecus afarensis), mighty Australopithecus (Australopithecus robustus). A review of the latest finds indicates that in the process of transition from Australopithecus to man, one can see, as it were, a flash of morphogenesis. Many of the ancestors coexist with their descendants - with humans. Its cradle was East and South Africa. Fossil remains of prehuman are absent in West and Equatorial Africa. Its close relatives - chimpanzees and gorillas - lived and still live here.
In 1959-1960. Anthropologists Leakey's wife in Tanzania discovered the skull of a higher primate more progressive than Australopithecus. Primitive stone tools made of pebbles, cleaved at one angle (Olduvai culture) were also found here. The age of this primate is about 1.75-2.0 million years. He was given the specific name Homo habilis - a skilled man, since the ability to produce artificial tools is not inherent in any animal species.
For a long period of the Anthropogenic era, the most ancient people, the archanthropes, existed in the vast territory of the Eastern Hemisphere. The first find of bone remains was made on about. Java by the Dutch physician and anatomist E. Dubois in 1891-1893. These include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man. The earliest forms appeared about 700 thousand years ago, on the eve of the great continental glaciations. Currently, all of them are combined into one species of Homo erectus - Homo erectus. They used fire and stone tools, hunted collectively, and had a primitive speech (Acheulean culture). The most ancient people settled widely on the Earth, occupying the territories of Europe, Africa, Asia. Despite the significant progress of Homo erectus, the evolution of archanthropes was driven solely by biological factors, including harsh natural selection and a fierce intraspecific struggle for existence.
Antecedent of modern man Western Europe was a Neanderthal (paleoanthropist)– Homo neandertalensis, which alone inhabited this area during the first Wurm glaciation (70-40 thousand years ago). Fossil remains of it were found in the Neandertal river valley near Düsseldorf in Germany in 1848, and belong to the Middle Paleolithic period about 200 thousand years ago. The classic Neanderthal had a large brain. The Neanderthal was still somewhat similar to Homo erectus with its powerful supraorbital ridges and sloping forehead. He had a well-defined occiput, to which the neck muscles were attached. The wide front part is strongly pushed forward. They were short, muscular and stocky. Physical data and advanced techniques allowed them to exist in a cold climate. Despite this, this group apparently died out about 30 thousand years ago. Some scientists believe that they were destroyed by a new modern type of man, or could interbreed with him.
Neanderthals also lived in Southwest Asia and possibly Africa, but some of them lacked those coarse features that were characteristic of the classical European form. Neanderthal tools are called Mousterian tools from finds in the Le Moustier cave in France. They were a step forward from earlier ax and chopper cultures. Major innovations include a variety of specialized, finely crafted stone tools. Their products could serve various purposes: for slaughtering game, skinning and butchering carcasses, making wooden tools and clothing.
European Neanderthals were able to survive the harsh winters of the Ice Age by creating a warm microclimate for themselves with clothing and heated dwellings. Burials, rituals, and the beginnings of art suggest that Neanderthals were more self-aware, more social, and generally more capable of abstract thought than their ancestor Homo erectus.
Apparently, the classical Neanderthals were a dead-end branch in the human genealogy, however, not being separated from the progressive forms of paleoanthropes by a specific reproductive barrier, they could partially merge with the latter. It is believed that the ancestors of modern man were progressive forms of Neanderthals, bone remains were found in the Middle East in Palestine. The Mediterranean area was also more favorable for habitation. Progressive evolution was intensively going on here, as evidenced by the finds in the caves of Mount Carmel. The structure of their skull combines some typical Neanderthal features (protruding supraorbital ridge, considerable width of the occiput) with the features of a new, modern person (more straight forehead, protruding chin, higher cranial vault). Some representatives of Asian and African Neanderthals had straighter and thinner limbs, less pronounced supraorbital ridges and shortened, less massive skulls. Approximately 40 thousand years ago, the last Neanderthals of Southwest Asia apparently existed simultaneously with people of the modern type.
Modern people - neoanthropes appeared in the Upper Paleolithic (100-50 thousand years ago). According to the compromise theory, modern man appeared in one place, but his crossing with more ancient local forms led to the emergence of modern races. The earliest representatives of them are the Cro-Magnons (found in France in the Cro-Magnon grotto in 1868). This early form Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) It was characterized by the large size of the skull (about 1400 cm 3), the development of the frontal part, the absence of supraorbital ridges, and the protruding chin. The average height is about 180 cm, the bones of the skeleton are more massive than those of a modern person. Compared with Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons have a longer childhood period, which required more advanced forms of its organization and made it possible to learn and other social forms of inheritance. Between paleoanthropes and neoanthropes, a qualitative leap is clearly visible in the development of not only the physical type, but also material culture and social relations.
During this period, complex composite tools appeared - dart tips, flint liners, spear throwers. Tools for the production of tools appear. This indicates high intelligence and consciousness. Art arises: drawings of animals, group compositions, hunting scenes were found on the walls of the caves. Cave painting is distinguished by realism and dynamism. There are also sculptural images of animals and birds, female statues. At the sites of the Upper Paleolithic, burials were found with objects with rich decorations placed in the grave. Consequently, the people of this era had complex ideological ideas, reflected in the rituals.
The primitive communal system is characterized by a tribal organization. Improving material culture, a person adapted to the environment better and better, protecting himself from adverse conditions. Increasingly, not biological, but social factors began to exert an increasing influence.
From the fossil remains it is impossible to establish why our subspecies was so lucky. Indeed, over 10 thousand years ago, in the Paleolithic era, our ancestors still roamed in herds, hunting and gathering. And yet they were able to master all the continents, with the exception of Antarctica, and created such tools, techniques and new forms of behavior that were to radically transform the lifestyle of people and cause a sharp increase in population.
Geological history of the Earth
The name of our planet - Earth - comes from the Slavic "zem" - floor, bottom. The biggest difference between Earth and other planets solar system is the existence of life on it, which has reached high forms of development.
The geological history of the Earth is usually divided into two stages of unequal size: cryptozoic(a large interval of time devoid of obvious remains of skeletal living beings), or Precambrian, and Phanerozoic(literally - clear life). Together they make up about 3570 million years. More early time attributed to the pregeological history of the Earth (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1. Geological zones, eras and periods
In the Archean era the most ancient endogenous deposits of chromium, copper, nickel and gold ores were formed, as well as the oldest metamorphogenic deposits of ferruginous quartzites and metamorphogenic mica and rare metal pegmatites. In the Late Archean, due to the accumulation of multicellular algae, deposits of oil shale began to form.
During the Proterozoic era(2600 - 570 million years) in connection with basalt magmatism, igneous deposits of ores of chromium, iron, titanium, copper, nickel and platinum arose, and in connection with granitic magmatism, deposits of ores of non-ferrous, rare and noble metals. In the same epoch, metamorphogenic deposits were formed, represented by the largest deposits of ferruginous quartzites of the Krivoy Rog and KMA types, as well as gold-uranium conglomerates.
During the Phanerozoic era(570 million years - the modern era), exogenous deposits of oil shale, coal, oil and gas, salts, phosphorites, and sulfur appeared and developed in increasing quantities. Numerous endogenous deposits of ores of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare, precious and radioactive metals arose in the mobile zones.
The most important event of the Cenozoic era was the appearance of man. It is believed that the oldest man appeared on earth 1 - 2 million years ago, in the early Paleolithic era, and man modern look(Homo sapiens, reasonable man) - no less than 40 thousand years ago, and maybe more.
Recent studies have shown that the ancestors of fossil humans - australopithecines- appeared 5 million years ago in East Africa and about 2.6 million years ago they began to primitively process stone (mainly upholstering pebbles). primitive people - archanthropes- also appeared in Africa 1.4 - 1.2 million years ago and gradually spread to Europe and Asia. Stone axes and scrapers were found near their remains. The time of existence of archanthropes - the early Paleolithic - ended 350-400 thousand years ago.
Figure 2.2. Human evolution.
They were replaced paleoanthropes or neanderthals, they lived in the Middle Paleolithic (up to 35 thousand years ago). Behind them were neoanthropes, people of the modern type, who have achieved success in stone processing. About 10 thousand years ago, the Mesolithic began, and about 6 thousand years ago, the Neolithic. At this time, man already knew the first metals - copper and gold. About 5 thousand years ago, the first bronze items appeared (the Bronze Age), then 3-2.5 thousand years ago, the Iron Age began, which continues to this day. The chronology of human civilization is presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Timeline of human civilization
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Geological history of the Earth The name of our planet - Earth - comes from the Slavic "zem" - floor, bottom. The biggest difference between the Earth and other planets of the solar system is the existence of life on it, which has reached high forms of development. Geological… [read more]
The main stages of human development.
Most scientists adhere to the evolutionary theory, which is confirmed by the latest biochemical and genetic studies. The supposed common ancestor of humans and great apes lived between 5 million and 10 million years ago.
During excavations on Lake Chad in 2002, a skull of an anthropoid creature with signs of apes and humans was discovered, whose age is estimated at 7 million years. The creature was named "Sahelantropus from Chad" (Sahelantropus tchadeensis).
It is assumed that Sahelontrop, like man, was upright. But some anthropologists believe that this is an ape-like creature, not a human-like one. Australopithecus (from lat.
australis - southern and Greek. pithekos - monkey), who lived in Africa 4.2-1 million years ago, is considered the closest to the ancestral form of man. The body of Australopithecus was covered with hair, and appearance he looks more like an ape than a man. However, he walked on two legs and used various objects as tools, which was facilitated by the outstretched thumb.
The volume of the brain (in relation to the volume of the body) was less than that of humans, but larger than that of modern great apes.
skillful man(homo habilis), so named because of the ability to make the simplest stone tools, is considered the very first representative of the genus Homo. His brain is a third larger than the brain of an Australopithecus, and the biological features of the brain speak, and the possible rudiments of speech. Otherwise, the skilled man was more like an Australopithecus than a modern man.
Homo erectus made more complex tools and knew how to use fire.
His brain is close in size to the brain of a modern person, he was able to organize collective activities (for example, hunting for large animals) and began to use speech.
In the period from 500 thousand to 200 thousand years ago, there was a transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. It is rather difficult to detect the border when one species replaces another, therefore representatives of this transitional period are sometimes called the most ancient rational man.
A century and a half ago, the remains of a primitive man named Neanderthal (named after a locality in Germany).
The volume of the Neanderthal brain corresponded to the modern one (and even slightly exceeded it), the excavations also testified to a fairly developed culture, including rituals, the beginnings of art and morality (care for fellow tribesmen). Previously, it was believed that the Neanderthal man is the direct ancestor of modern man, but now scientists are inclined to believe that he is a dead end, blind branch of evolution.
The new Homo sapiens, that is, the modern man, appeared in Africa about 130,000 years ago.
(impossible, and more) years ago, for a short time this one settled in Asia and Europe: the fossil "new people" at the place of the first find (Cro-Magnon in France) were called Cro-Magnons.
Cro-Magnons outwardly differed little from modern man. They left numerous artifacts that allow us to judge the high development of their culture, cave paintings, miniature sculpture, engravings, jewelry, etc.
Homo sapiens populated the entire Earth 15-10 thousand years ago.
years ago. Tools were gradually improved and his life historical experience was accumulated, a person moved to a productive economy (agriculture and animal husbandry). The first large settlements arose, and in many areas mankind entered the era of civilizations.
The main factors of anthropogenesis
Biological factors:
- upright posture;
- hand development;
- big brain;
- ability for articulate speech.
Social factors(forms of activity) :
- work;
- collective activity;
- thinking;
- language and communication;
- moral.
It is believed that of these factors, the leading role in the process of human development was played by labor, on the example of which the interconnection of other biological and social factors is clearly shown.
So, bipedalism freed the hands for the use and manufacture of tools, the structure of the hand (thumb, flexibility) made it possible to use them effectively. In the process of joint work, close relations developed between members of the team, which led to the curbing of individualism, care for members of the tribe (a system of prohibitions and norms), and the need for communication (the appearance of speech). Language contributed to the development of thinking, allowing to express more and more abstract concepts; the development of thinking, in turn, enriched the language with new words.
The language also made it possible to transfer experience from generation to generation, preserving and increasing the knowledge of mankind.
Thus, biological factors and forms social activities are closely interrelated and dependent on each other. In general, a person cannot be reduced solely to biological characteristics, since only society can make a person a person (confirmation of this is children raised by animals).
But it cannot be reduced only to social qualities, since biological prerequisites are necessary for human development ( developed brain, upright posture, etc.). A person lives simultaneously in two worlds - natural and social, being a biosocial being.
Human definitions.
human nature - it is a set of features and characteristics that distinguish a person from other living beings.Special qualities of a person : mind, ability to work, collective activity, language, morality, creativity, spirituality, faith, imagination, fantasy, laughter, awareness of one's mortality and many, many other specific qualities and properties.
human evolution
When Plato gave the following definition to man: “Man is an animal with two legs, devoid of feathers,” Diogenes plucked a rooster and brought it to school, announcing: “Here is the Platonic man!” After that, the definition was added: "And with wide nails."
The essence of man – this is the main quality that determines the inner content of a person.
Various scientists gave a variety of definitions of the essence of man, who saw it in social activities, mind, creativity, play or faith.
There are many definitions of the term "person".
Aristotle called a person a political animal (zoonpolitikon), emphasizing that a person realizes his essence only in social life, entering into economic, political, cultural relations with other members of society (the state).
Karl Marx also emphasized the social essence of a person: “The essence of a person is not an abstract inherent in a separate individual.
In its activity it is the totality of all social relations.
Homo sapiens (reasonable person). This definition, which sees the essence of man only in the mind, also goes back to Aristotle. In modern times, it became generally accepted, Rene Descartes called a person a “thinking thing”, and after the advent of biological classification, it became the standard species designation for a modern person.
In the vast world, he is distinguished from the animal kingdom by his ability to think logically and be aware of himself and the world around him.
Homo faber (creative person). This concept was introduced by the Dutch philosopher J. Huizinge (1872-1945). A person, unlike an animal, actively produces, creates, creates, and his activity is purposeful, has a value meaning and is creatively organized.
Creation is the basis of all the diverse activities performed by man: production, upbringing, education, politics, etc. Man became a man in this sense when he first made a primitive tool. The improvement of tools - from stone scrapers to computers - has created a special artificial environment for a person, which largely determines his life.
We can say that modern man lives in the world of technology and culture, of which he is the creator.
Homo ludens (playing person). This concept was also introduced by J. Huizinge, who believes that not a single type can do without game components. cultural activities human - justice, war, philosophy, art, etc. Culture arises from the game, it creates a special symbolic sphere of human existence. It was not so much work that made a man a man, but free play time, where he could realize his fantasies, develop his imagination, create artistic values, communicate with others, and voluntarily accept common rules for all.
Homo religiosus (religious person).
Here man is understood primarily as "the image and likeness of God." According to Christian ideas, a person is a free being, endowed with the ability to choose between good and evil. The goal and realization of man is the movement towards goodness, which is God. The essence of man, therefore, is manifested in faith; disbelief and evil are the path leading a person away from his generic essence.
And, for example, Ernest Kasirer, called a person a “symbolic animal”, Ernest Bloch “a dreaming person”, Norbert Wiener “a person communicating”, Martin Heidegger “a bored person”, who see the essence of a person in the creation of symbols, the ability to dream, communicate, etc. .
Friedrich Nietzsche called a person a "sick animal", emphasizing his lack of initiative. Herdness, the need for submission. He considers the history of society as a gradual degeneration of man. Some modern philosophers talk about the aggressiveness of man, which manifests itself in endless wars of crimes, his unreasonableness, which leads to the destruction of the habitat, the accumulation of weapons of mass destruction, overpopulation, man-made disasters, and, as a result, to the death of all mankind.
“Man is a crazy monkey who was given a razor in his hands” - S. Lem.
Definitions of the concept of "man", taken from philosophical dictionaries.
Human - This the highest level living organisms on Earth, the subject of socio-historical activity and culture.
Human – it is a biosocial creature with articulate speech, consciousness, higher mental functions (abstract-logical thinking, logical memory, etc.), capable of creating tools of labor and using them in the process of social labor.
Thus, the nature and essence of man are so deep and multifaceted that it is necessary to talk about the fundamental uncertainty and indefinability of the essence of man.
F.M. Dostoevsky said: “Man is a mystery…”.
Stages of human development table
Answers:
Stages of human development. 1) Period: Primitiveness, Chronology: 40 thousand years ago
years ago, Summary: The formation of man, the improvement of tools, the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding from hunting and gathering. 2) Period: Ancient World, Chronology: 4th century BC
- 5th century AD, Summary: The split of society into rulers and ruled, the spread of slavery, cultural upsurge. 3) Period: Middle Ages, Chronology: 5th century AD - 15th century AD, Summary: The establishment of the estate system in Europe, religion, urbanization, the formation of large feudal states are of great importance.
4) Period: New time, Chronology: 15th century - early 20th century, Summary: The formation of an industrial capitalist civilization, the emergence of colonial empires, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, the development of the world market and its fall, production crises, social. contradictions, the redivision of the world. 5) Period: Recent history, Chronology: end of the 20th century - our days, Summary: sovereign rivalry, invention nuclear weapons, the spread of computers, the change in the nature of labor activity, the restoration of the integrity of the world market, the formation of a global system of infocommunications.
Following the Greek historical nest, new historical nests arose in which the formation of the servar (ancient) mode of production took place: Etruscan, Carthaginian, Latin.
Antique sociohistorical organisms taken together formed a new historical arena - the Mediterranean, to which the role of the center of world historical development passed.
With the advent of the new world system, humanity as a whole has risen to a new stage of historical development. There was a change of world eras: the era of the Ancient East was replaced by the Antique.
In the subsequent development, in the IV century. BC. the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean historical arenas taken together formed a sociological supersystem - the central historical space (central space), and as a result, became its two historical zones.
The Mediterranean zone was the historical center, the Middle East - the inner periphery.
Outside the central historical space was the outer periphery, which was divided into primitive (including pre-class) and political. But in contrast to the era of the Ancient East, the political periphery existed in ancient times in the form of not isolated historical nests, but a significant number of historical arenas, between which various kinds of connections arose.
In the Old World, East Asian, Indonesian, Indian, Central Asian arenas were formed, and, finally, the great steppe, in the expanses of which nomadic empires arose and disappeared. In the New World in the 1st millennium BC. formed the Andean and Mesoamerican historical arenas.
The transition to the ancient society was marked by a significant progress in the productive forces.
But almost the entire increase in the productivity of social production was achieved not so much by improving technology, but by increasing the proportion of workers in the population of society. This is a demographic way of raising the level of productive forces.
In the pre-industrial era, the increase in the number of producers of material goods within a sociohistorical organism, without an increase in the same proportion of its entire population, could occur in only one way - through an influx of ready-made workers from outside, who, moreover, did not have the right to have families and acquire offspring.
The constant influx of workers from outside into the composition of this or that sociohistorical organism necessarily presupposed equally systematic exclusion of them from the composition of other sociologists.
The World History
All this was impossible without the use of direct violence. Workers brought in from outside could only be slaves. The considered method of increasing the productivity of social production consisted in the approval of exogenous (from the Greek. exo - outside, outside) slavery. Only a constant influx of slaves from outside could make possible the emergence of an independent mode of production based on the labor of such dependent workers.
For the first time, this method of production was established only in the heyday of ancient society, in connection with which it is customary to call it antique. In chapter VI "Basic and non-basic methods of production" it was called servar.
Thus, a necessary condition for the existence of ancient society was the continuous pumping of human resources from other sociohistorical organisms. And these other sociors had to belong to types different from the given one, and more preferably to a pre-class society.
The existence of a system of societies of the ancient type was impossible without the existence of a vast periphery, consisting mainly of barbarian sociohistorical organisms.
The continuous expansion that was a necessary condition for the existence of server societies could not continue indefinitely. Sooner or later it became impossible. The demographic method of increasing the productivity of social production, as well as the temporal one, was a dead end.
Ancient society, as well as political society, was incapable of transforming itself into a society of a higher type. But if the political historical world continued to exist almost to the present day, even after leaving the historical highway as an inferior one, then the ancient historical world has disappeared forever. But, dying, the ancient society passed the baton to other societies.
The transition of mankind to a higher stage of social development again took place in a way that was above called formational superelevation, or ultrasuperiorization.
The era of the Middle Ages (VI-XV centuries).
Undermined by internal contradictions, the Western Roman Empire collapsed under the onslaught of the Germans. There was a superposition of the Germanic pre-class demo-social organisms, which belonged to a pro-formation different from the proto-political one, namely the proto-militomagnar one, on the fragments of the Western Roman geo-social organism. As a result, on the same territory, some people lived as part of demo-social pre-class organisms, while the other part lived as part of a half-destroyed class geo-social organism.
Such coexistence of two qualitatively different socio-economic and other social structures could not last too long. Either the destruction of the demosocial structures and the victory of the geosocial, or the disintegration of the geosocial and the triumph of the demosocial, or, finally, the synthesis of both had to take place.
On the territory of the lost Western Roman Empire, what historians call the Romano-Germanic synthesis took place. As a result, a new, more progressive mode of production was born - the feudal and, accordingly, a new socio-economic formation.
The Western European feudal system arose, which became the center of world-historical development.
The ancient era was replaced by a new one - the era of the Middle Ages. The Western European world system existed as one of the zones of the preserved, but at the same time rebuilt central historical space. This space included the Byzantine and Middle Eastern zones as an inner periphery.
The latter as a result of the Arab conquests of the 7th-8th centuries. increased significantly, including part of the Byzantine zone, and turned into an Islamic zone. Then the expansion of the central historical space began at the expense of the territory of the Northern, Central and of Eastern Europe, filled with pre-class socio-historical organisms, which also belonged to the same pro-formation as the German pre-class societies - protomilitomagnar.
These societies, some under the influence of Byzantium, others under the influence of Western Europe, began to transform and turned into class sociohistorical organisms.
But if ultra-superiorization took place on the territory of Western Europe and a new formation appeared - the feudal one, then a process took place here, which was above called literalization.
As a result, two close socio-economic paraformations arose, which, without going into details, can be conditionally characterized as parafeudal (from the Greek.
a pair - near, about): one included the Sociors of Northern Europe, the other - Central and Eastern. Two new peripheral zones of the central historical space arose: the North European and the Central-East European, which also included Rus'. Primitive societies and the same political historical arenas continued to exist in the outer periphery as in antiquity.
As a result of the Mongol conquest (XIII century), North-Western Rus' and North-Eastern Rus', taken together, were torn out of the central historical space.
The Central-East European zone has narrowed to the Central European. After getting rid of Tatar-Mongol yoke(XV century) Northern Rus', which later received the name of Russia, returned to the central historical space, but already as its special peripheral zone - Russian, which later turned into Eurasian.
New time (1600-1917).
On the verge of the 15th and 16th centuries capitalism began to take shape in Western Europe. The Western European feudal world system was replaced by the Western European capitalist system, which became the center of world historical development. The Middle Ages were followed by the New Age. Capitalism developed in this era both inward and outward.
The first was expressed in the maturation and establishment of the capitalist structure, in the victory of the bourgeois socio-political revolutions (the Dutch 16th century, the English 17th century, the Great French 18th century).
Already with the emergence of cities (10th-12th centuries), Western European society embarked on the only path that was capable of ensuring, in principle, the unlimited development of the productive forces - the growth of labor productivity through the improvement of production technology.
The technical method of ensuring the growth of the productivity of social production finally prevailed after the industrial revolution, which began in the last third of the 18th century.
Capitalism arose as a result of the natural development of the society that preceded it in only one place on the globe - in Western Europe. As a result, mankind was divided into two main historical worlds: the capitalist world and the non-capitalist world, which included primitive (including pre-class), political and parafeudal societies.
Along with the development of capitalism in depth, it developed in breadth.
The capitalist world system gradually drew all peoples and countries into the orbit of its influence. The central historical space has turned into a global historical space (worldspace). Along with the formation of the world historical space, capitalism spread throughout the world, the formation of the world capitalist market.
The whole world began to turn into a capitalist one. For all socio-historical organisms lagging behind in their development, no matter at what stage of evolution they lingered: primitive, political or parafeudal, only one path of development became possible - to capitalism.
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Vitaly Asher
The history of mankind as a result of the development of desires
Reflecting on the solution to the purpose of human existence, scientists and philosophers put forward various contradictory hypotheses, and yet the problem remains insoluble - whether humanity develops according to a certain program or its path is elemental and does not have an ultimate goal.
There are several approaches to interpreting historical process.
History is considered like a sequence of events, dynasties, wars and legislations. In this form, history is usually taught in schools.
Widely known marxist economic approach, according to which the course of history is determined by the mode of production of goods.
The mode of production entails a change in the social institutions of the country - its ideology, ethics, morality.
Sigmund Freud founded a method that explains history as the result of suppression of subconscious impulses. The approach links forms of culture as derivatives of the success of impulse control.
O. Spengler and A. Toynbee consider the scheme of development of civilization.
The duration of the life of a civilization, in their opinion, depends on the ideas and ideals on which it is based. Such a comprehension of history seeks to reveal the internal sources of the development of societies, trying to discover their inherent features.
The progress of science and technological advances have not led humanity to confidence in its future. On the contrary, our life is filled with a premonition of a catastrophe, we are aware of the environmental danger that threatens the planet. In this inconsistency of existence, something mysterious is hidden, a certain mystery of the destiny of a person, when the growth of egoistic desire gets in the way of his boundless desire for the improvement of being and creative growth.
He, mastering the laws of nature, expanding the boundaries of knowledge of the universe, is trying in vain to understand the meaning of his existence.
IN modern world the contradictory properties of a person's nature, the versatility of his nature, are more noticeably manifested.
Logical processing, generalization of the factual material of observations and empirical research allows one to penetrate into the depth of the content, to reveal the pattern of development. In our description of the historical process, we tried to use a macro-anthropological approach based on the science of Kabbalah. This approach to the study of the interaction of the "man-nature" system is currently gaining great importance as an interdisciplinary means of studying the integral phenomena of nature, society, group and personality.
We can say that the subject of our research is the study and description of the most effective forms of interaction between people in society, which would most optimally contribute to the process of natural development of man, nature and society, lead to the creation of conditions for the formation and development of the optimal form of coexistence of external and internal forces of development. nature.
New trends in understanding the historical process
Mankind develops gradually, and the force of its development is the growing egoism in it.
If egoism had not developed in people, the past generation would not have differed in any way from the present, just as we observe it in animals. Egoistic desire is the essential nature of creation at all its levels - it is the only thing that was created in the act of creation of the universe. We have called it "the desire to receive pleasure" or "selfishness".
Egoistic desire evolves only in man, while in all other parts of creation (inanimate, vegetative, animal) it is unchanged.
It is the growing desire for new pleasures and finding ways to satisfy them that determine the level of development of civilization and all that we call the word "progress". Due to the fact that desires are constantly growing in us, humanity moves forward. selfishness develops along the time axis gradually and unceasingly: it increases quantitatively, and as it grows, it turns into qualitatively different desires.
Macro-anthropology divides the whole complex of human desires into five levels, each of which develops its own kind of pleasure:
primary desires are bodily (food, shelter, procreation);
2. desire for wealth;
3. desire for honor, power and glory;
4. thirst for knowledge;
5. spiritual level - the desire to comprehend the meaning of life, the idea of creation.
These levels consistently manifest themselves in man over thousands of years and form the stages of human development.
Primal desires are also called "animal desires" because they are also inherent in animals. Even being in complete isolation, a person experiences hunger and sexual desire.
The desires for wealth, power and knowledge are already “human desires”, as they arise under the influence of the social environment, and in order to satisfy them, a person must be in a society of his own kind, which allows the formation of classes and all kinds of hierarchical structures.
In the light of this concept, an overview of such areas human activity, as culture, education, science and technology, leads us to the conclusion that it is precisely the developing in man selfishness gave birth to all our ideas, inventions and innovations.
In essence, they are only "technical tools", "means of service", created by man solely to satisfy the needs that arise under pressure. desire to receive .
Development Framework
The whole development of mankind is like the development of one person, passing through the stages of childhood, adolescence and maturity - when he really uses the potential originally inherent in himself.
Let us analyze the characteristic differences of each of the three stages.
First of all, it should be remembered that the development of mankind is based on the development and updating of internal needs, i.e.
on the growth of the ego. The more ego, the more needs, which is a stimulus for the development of intelligence and the ability to perceive the surrounding reality in a deeper way.
Let us briefly consider the stages of development of history. The dates here are approximate, just to outline the main milestones:
1 .Primary desires ( 4500 - 1200 BC e. )
4500–2400 BC e. Civilization Sumer and Akad
2000–1200 BC e. Babylonian empire.
The Age of the Patriarchs
During the first period, humanity as a whole was immersed exclusively in vital bodily desires. More developed human desires, striving for power, honors and knowledge, were revealed only in individuals. Therefore, the development achieved at this stage is a store of accumulated impressions from the difficulties of existence and no more. Throughout the ages, humanity has evolved unconsciously.
At the end of this period, Abraham was born - the first who comprehended the integral picture of nature.
Its achievement symbolizes the transition to the next stage of development.
2 . The pursuit of wealth(1200 BC - 200 AD)
1200–600 Assyrian Empire. Founding of Israel
500–300 Persian Empire
400–300 Macedonian Empire
100 BC–200 AD
The World History
The Roman Empire. The birth of Christianity
During the second period, the power grows selfishness, as a result of which humanity is gradually acquiring the structure of peoples and states. The peak of this development falls on the time when the great empires - Greece and Rome - flourish and collapse, and the world is overwhelmed by wars.
Striving for honor, power and glory (200-1500)
200–600 decline of civilization
600–1000 Muslim empire
800–1100 dark period of the Middle Ages
1100–1300 Crusades
1300–1500 Renaissance
New ideas don't come out of nowhere. They grow only on well-prepared intellectual soil. The achievements of scientific thought, lost during the decline of Greek civilization, received a revival in the 12th-15th centuries thanks to the works of Abraham Bar Khiya, Ibn Latif, Raymond Lull, Immanuel Bonfils, Pico del Mirandola.
At this time, important scientific works were translated into Latin from Hebrew, Greek and Arabic.
Ibn Litif and Lull tried to present a unified system of sciences.
Between 1320 and 1520, Italy became the center of humanistic renewal. Leonardo da Vinci, Bellini, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Titian, Michelangelo and others were able to embody the new aspirations of society.
The Renaissance freed people from old ideas about the world, made them think differently and change the established order of things.
At the turn of these stages, the rapid growth of science is born.
4. Thirst for knowledge (1500–1995)
1500–1700 Reformation. Science and technology
1700–1800 Growth of industry
1800–1900 Industrial Revolution
1900–2000 World Wars
This period is characterized by the accelerated development of the desire for knowledge. The revolutionary works of Spinoza and Rene Descartes contributed to the birth of modern science.
It was at this time that the religious reformer Martin Luther, a critical thinker, whose ideas excited Europe of that time, appeared.
The new outlook was beneficial for the development of classical mechanics and technology.
The discoveries followed one after another, so that practically over the last two centuries the material world around us has changed beyond recognition. However, technological progress has not led to the desired solution to the problems of global society.
5. Spiritual level (1995–)
Approximately since 1995, the need for spiritual fulfillment began to manifest itself in humanity. Spiritual need is not a religious concept.
It is the need to maintain balance with nature. And since nature is altruistic, and man is not, then a discrepancy arises, which a person feels as suffering.
Reaching the top of the pyramid is not the end of development, but the beginning of a new world. This is the transition of the system to the next level, where the vector of forces in a person changes and such opportunities open up that he did not even suspect. Those. humanity, having realized the last need, does not pass into a state in which major needs disappear.
On the contrary, having realized the last egoistic need, it goes into a state of continuous realization of the first altruistic need.
Lecture Search
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY
It has become generally accepted to divide the historical path of mankind into:
1. Primitive era;
2. History of the Ancient World;
3. History of the Middle Ages;
New time (New history);)
5. Recent times Recent history).
Length primitive era defined in more than 1.5 million
years. During this era, the formation of a modern type of man takes place (about 40-30 thousand years ago), tools of labor are gradually improved, the transition from hunting, fishing and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding begins.
History countdown ancient world has been going on since the emergence of states (IV-III millennium BC). This was the time of the split of society into rulers and ruled, haves and have-nots, widespread slavery (although not in all states of antiquity it was of great economic importance).
Open Library - an open library of educational information
The flourishing of the slave system reached during the period of antiquity (I millennium BC - the beginning of AD), the rise of civilizations Ancient Greece And ancient rome .
In recent years, attempts by the mathematician D.T.
Fomenko, to propose his own chronology of the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. They argue that the reconstruction by historians of many events that occurred earlier than the 16th-17th centuries, before the widespread use of printing, is not indisputable, and other variants of it are possible.
The era of the Middle Ages determined by time frame 5th–17th centuries
1st period era (V-XI centuries) marked by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the emergence of a new type of social relations - the establishment of a class system in Europe (each class has its own rights and obligations).
The predominance of subsistence farming and the special role of religion are characteristic.
II period (mid-XI - end of XV century)- the formation of large feudal states and the growth of the importance of cities - centers of crafts, trade, spiritual life, which is becoming more and more secular.
ІІІ-th period (XV - the middle of the XVII century)- early New time, the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system.
The creation of colonial empires, the development of TAR, the spread of manufactory production, the complication of social structure society, which is in conflict with class division. The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation mark a new stage in spiritual life.
In the context of the growth of social and religious contradictions, the central power is strengthened, absolute monarchies arise.
Civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages within theories of "growth stages" ( E. Toffler) not demarcated , they are treated as "traditional society" the basis of the economy, life, culture, family structure and politics was the land, subsistence and semi-subsistence agrarian-handicraft economy.
In all these countries, life was organized around the village settlement, there was a simple division of labor and well-defined castes and classes: nobility, priests, warriors, slaves or serfs, and the authoritarian nature of power.
Exceptions to the rules described above are considered as special variants of a single phenomenon - an agrarian civilization.
The era of modern times - the era of the formation and establishment of industrial capitalist civilization.
1st period (from the middle of the 17th century)- the time of revolutions that destroyed the foundations of the estate system (the first of them was the revolution in England in 1640-1660s).
Of great importance was the Age of Enlightenment, associated with the spiritual emancipation of man, gaining faith in the power of reason.
II period comes after Great French Revolution(1789-1794). industrial revolution, which began in England, covers the countries of continental Europe, where the formation of capitalist relations is proceeding at a rapid pace.
This is a time of rapid growth of colonial empires, the world market, the system of international division of labor. With the completion of the formation of large bourgeois states, the ideology of nationalism and national interest is being established in most of them.
3rd period (from the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century)- the rapid development of industrial civilization "in breadth" slows down, due to the development of new territories by it.
The capacity of world markets is insufficient to absorb the growing volumes of manufactured products. Time of world crises of overproduction and growth social contradictions in industrial countries.
Aggravation of the struggle for the redivision of the world.
Contemporaries perceived this time as a period of crisis of industrial, capitalist civilization. The indicator was the 1st World War of 1914-1918. and the revolution of 1917 in Russia.
Periodization and the term Recent history are among the controversial modern science. For Soviet historians and philosophers, the revolution of 1917 marked the transition to the era of the formation of the communist formation, it was with it that the onset of modern times was associated.
Proponents of other approaches to the periodization of history used the term "Modern Time" to imply a period associated with the history of modernity in the 20th century.
Within the framework of the history of modern times, it stands out II main period.
1st period (first half of the 20th century) - early modern times - the process of deepening the crisis of industrial civilization (the Great Crisis of 1929-1932) brought the economies of developed countries to the brink of collapse.
Sovereign rivalry, the struggle for colonies and markets for products led to the Second World War of 1939-1945. The colonial system of the European powers is collapsing.
The conditions of the "cold war" break the unity of the world market. With the invention of nuclear weapons, the crisis of industrial civilization began to threaten the death of mankind.
II period (second half - end of the 20th century) - qualitative changes associated with the change in the nature of the social, socio-political development of the leading states of the world.
With the spread of computers and industrial robots changing nature of work The central figure of production is becoming an intellectual worker.
In developed countries, there is socially oriented market economy, changing the nature of human life and leisure. In the international arena, integration processes are underway, the creation of common economic spaces (Western European, North American), the development of the processes of globalization of economic life and the creation of a global system of information communications.
Questions for self-examination:
What functions does historical science what methods and principles she uses in the study historical facts and events?
2. What are the main stages in its development of historical science? Name its leading schools and major representatives.
3. What options for periodization of historical development can you name? Which one seems to you the most reasonable?
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The reference table contains the main stages of human development from primitive society to modern history, indicating the chronological framework, the duration of each of the stages and brief description. This material will be useful to schoolchildren, students, when doing homework, exams and the exam.
|
Stages (period) of history |
Chronological framework |
Period duration |
a brief description of |
|
about 2 million years ago - 4th millennium BC |
about 2 million years (20,000 centuries) |
The formation of man, the improvement of tools, the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding from hunting and gathering. |
|
|
4th millennium BC -mid 1st millennium AD |
about 4 thousand years (40 centuries) |
The split of society into rulers and ruled, the spread of slavery, cultural upsurge, the fall of the Roman Empire |
|
|
476 - the middle of the 17th century. |
about 1200 years (12 centuries) |
The beginning of the era of great geographical discoveries. The establishment of the estate system in Europe, religion, urbanization, the formation of large feudal states are of great importance. |
|
|
mid 17th century - early 20th century |
about 300 years (3 centuries) |
The formation of an industrial capitalist civilization, the emergence of colonial empires, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, the development of the world market and its fall, production crises, social. contradictions, redistribution of the world, ending |
