General information
Official name - Syrian Arab Republic. The state is located in the Middle East, bordering Lebanon and Israel in the southwest, Jordan in the south, Iraq in the east and Turkey in the north. It is washed by the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The area is 185,180 km2. Population - 22 457 336 people. (for 2013). The official language is Arabic. The capital is Damascus. The monetary unit is the Syrian pound.
The Syrian Mediterranean is very different from the harsh nature of most of the country. On the coast, the climate is subtropical Mediterranean: humid mild winters (average January temperature is about +12°С) and dry summers (+26°С in July). The climate of the mountainous region of Syria is moderately warm. In winter, frosts occur in the mountains, snow falls. The climatic conditions of the Syrian desert are characterized by large seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations. In winter, nighttime temperatures can drop to -10°C, and rise to +20°C during the day. Frequent sandstorms in the desert are accompanied by intrusions of the shemal winter wind and the hot summer wind from the south, from the Arabian deserts.
Story
Phoenicia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, the Hittite Empire, Babylon, Persia, Rome, Byzantium, Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate - these names constantly flash in the description of the events that took place in Syria. The campaigns of Alexander the Great, the battles of the crusaders with Sapaddin (Salahad-Din), the conquests of Timur - all this is directly related to Syria. The Syrian lands are also mentioned in the Bible according to legend, Adam and Eve lived here, here they show the place of the murder of Abel and the grave of King Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, who started the construction of the Tower of Babel. Here, in Damascus, the Pharisee Saul, the future Saint Paul, was healed of blindness by Saint Ananias and converted to Christianity.
The famous French archaeologist Andre Parrot (1901-1980), who devoted many years to excavations in Syria (Marie, 1933-1968), is credited with the phrase: "Every cultured person has two homelands - his own and Syria." But in 1961, summing up his excavations at Marie, Parrot rashly wrote: "Really, it is unlikely that we will be able to make such finds that will surpass those already made."
Already in 1964, Italian archaeologists led by Paolo Mattie began to explore the hill, located 60 km from Aleppo. So the state was opened, whose influence in the XXV-XXIII centuries. BC e. spread throughout Syria, reaching in the south of Sinai, in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, in the east between the Tigris and Euphrates.
In 1968, the name of the state of Ebla was revealed. And in 1974, the first tablets with cuneiform texts were found, written in the ancient Canaanite language, which, presumably, became the basis for the emergence of the Amorite, Ugaritic, Phoenician and Hebrew languages.
In 1975, the largest of the royal archives of the 3rd millennium BC known so far was found. e. more than 20 thousand cuneiform clay tablets.
This discovery revealed to the world a culture that became the basis for the subsequent civilizations of Syria.
Diplomatic documents, chronicles, royal decrees, military reports, court sentences, descriptions of rites and rituals, texts on agriculture and animal husbandry, lists of animals, fish, geographical names, literary and historical texts, dictionaries, study guides, trade reports, lists of goods, the Ebla library has become a real encyclopedia of the life of a great state that existed more than four thousand years ago.
It turned out that the previous ideas about Syria as a territory located in the III millennium BC. e. under the influence of neighboring brilliant cultures and populated mainly by pastoralists, are absolutely wrong.
The rulers of Ebla signed agreements with ancient Assyria on an equal footing, traded with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, the biblical cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are mentioned in the documents of Ebla. It turned out that a school of scribes worked in Ebla, a state monopoly was introduced on the trade in precious metals, wood, textiles and pottery, and a system of state control over the quality of goods was created. A special service informed merchants about where their goods were needed and informed about the situation with sales and supply. By the way, Ebla turned out to be not even a monarchy, but a kind of "presidential republic" - the king was elected here for a seven-year term.
An obituary for this unique state was written by Naramsuen, king of Akkad and Sumer, around 2250 BC. e. he erected a monument with the inscription: "Naram-suen, the mighty conqueror of Ebla, which no one has been able to conquer before."
Sights of Syria
The history of civilization in Syria began "from the plow": the territory of modern Syria is part of the so-called Fertile Crescent - a region of the Middle East, where the first centers of ancient agriculture and cattle breeding and the first urban cultures arose in the Stone Age.
In 2008, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) unveiled a plan to list the Middle Eastern territories known as the Fertile Crescent as a World Heritage Site. Many scholars believe that the biblical Garden of Eden was located in the Fertile Crescent. According to a UNESCO statement, the Fertile Crescent can be included in the list of World Heritage Sites in 2011.
The complex of monuments left by history in Syria is treated with due respect in this country - they carry out restoration, support museums and scientific research, and international archaeological expeditions have been working here for many years.
Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the oldest cities in the world. The age of the first mention of it is about four and a half thousand years. The old city of Damascus is entirely included in the World Heritage List as a unique object. The ancient layout is still preserved in it. Midhat Pasha Street was once called Via Recta - Straight Street. It still crosses the city from east to west. It was on this street that the future apostle Paul, who had gone blind on the road to Damascus, was brought to a certain Judas. The chapel of St. Ananias, where the first Christians once gathered, has been preserved and today belongs to the monastic order of the Franciscans.
When Caliph Al-Walid I took away the church of St. John the Baptist from the Christians, he returned the chapel of St. Ananias to the community as compensation. And on the basis of the temple of John the Baptist, one of the most magnificent mosques in the world, the Umayyad Mosque, was built. The head of John the Baptist, kept in a Christian church, was ordered to be placed in a marble tomb in a separate chapel, where Christians still go to pray.
IN National Museum in Damascus, the famous frescoes on biblical scenes from the synagogue of the ancient city of Dura-Europos are kept, which today are the pearl of the museum's collection. These frescoes, dating back to the 3rd century, depicting biblical heroes in Greek, Roman and Parthian clothes, confirm that not all Jewish communities observed the forbidden images of people.
The richest collection of items from excavations in Syria in the National Museum includes the world's first alphabet, created in the city-state of Ugarit, which existed in the 2nd millennium on the Mediterranean coast, in Northern Syria.
Excavations in Ugarit have shown that this highly developed trading civilization was able to build magnificent palaces, which even had running water, toilets and sewers, and furniture inlaid with gold, lapis lazuli and ivory. Finds from Ugarit are presented in the National Museum in the hall of Ancient Syria.
Constantly ongoing archaeological excavations in Syria bring new fundamental discoveries. So, the state of Qatna (halfway between Aleppo and Damascus), which existed 3500 years ago and created beautiful examples of architecture and jewelry art, has recently been returned to the history of mankind. Syrian, German and Italian archaeologists continue to explore ancient Qatna.
Syrian Cuisine
Syrian cuisine is a combination of a huge number of different ingredients. This diversity has historical and geographical background. But the real secret of the national Syrian cuisine is the joy of a joint meal and the festive atmosphere of every, even the simplest, everyday feast.
Every meal among the inhabitants of this country is a great opportunity to meet with family or friends. According to a long tradition, the participants of the meal sit on cushions or a low bench around the table. Syrians prefer silence to too lively conversation at the table. But after the meal, it's time for tea and conversation.
Syrian cuisine is famous for its skillful use of a variety of seasonings, spices and herbs, as well as excellent olive oil, which is added to many dishes. Syrian cuisine combines the culinary traditions of the Arab, Caucasian peoples and Arameans. In addition, a Mediterranean influence can be noted.
The Syrian's usual breakfast is bread, sheep's cheese, tomatoes, cucumbers, olives. Often, eggplant with walnuts or even lentil soup are prepared for breakfast. Snacks, or mezze, can be very different, but they are popular in all parts of the country.
Here are some of them:
Baba Ganoush, or Eggplant Paste with Tomatoes and Onions; spread on a cake; - kebbe, that is, minced lamb balls fried in oil with the addition of wheat, pine nuts and pomegranate; - hommus - mashed peas mixed with tahina, garlic and lemon juice; - mutabal is a paste resembling Baba Ganoush, but with a thicker consistency; in addition to eggplant, yogurt and olive oil are also added to it; - tabbouleh, for which whole wheat, tomatoes, parsley, mint leaves, sesame seeds, garlic, lemon and olive oil are taken; - fattoush - an analogue of taboula, but served with crispy croutons.
The appetizer is served with bread, with the help of which sauces or even pieces of meat are sometimes taken. Syrian spicy bread is very tasty.
And of course, Syrian baklava (pictured)! The first mention of it dates back to the 15th century, but, of course, it was prepared earlier, and the tradition of making special thin dough originated among the Assyrians. Not a single festive feast in Syria is complete without baklava.
Syria on the map
4 1583. Pages of history. Syria is a country of ancient civilization. Archaeological excavations show that here for several millennia BC. e. there were human settlements. The ruins of the city of Ugarit, discovered near the town of Ras Shamra (15 km from Latakia), belong to this period. Monuments of material culture found in the sandy ancient city of Mari (near the Syrian-Iraqi border) show that it existed as early as the 4th millennium BC. e. At the turn of III and II millennia BC. e. Slave-owning states emerge in Syria. From the middle of the II millennium BC. e. they become the object of the aggressive aspirations of the great states of antiquity. In the XVI - XV centuries. Syria was conquered by the Egyptian pharaohs, and in the XIV century BC. e. - The Hittite state that arose in Asia Minor. By this time, a new ethnic element had penetrated into the country and became widespread - the Aramean tribes, who spoke a language close to Amorite. Later, already in the I millennium BC. e. the language of the Arameans became the language of interethnic communication in a significant part of the territory of Southwest Asia. At the beginning of the X century. BC e. in Syria, a strong slave state arises - the Kingdom of Damascus. Starting from the 8th century BC e. it is successively included in the composition of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the power of Alexander the Great, the Ellipistic state of the Seleucids. In 64 BC. e. Syria is captured by the Romans, who crushed the Pamir kingdom, which stretched from Egypt to Asia Minor and occupied a significant part of Syrian history. The ruins of his capital Palmyra have survived to this day. In the IV - VII centuries. - Syria is a province of the Byzantine Empire, and in the 8th century it was conquered by the Arabs. In 601750 Damascus becomes the capital of the feudal Umayyad Caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria perceives the Arabic language and converts to Islam. In the VIII - XI centuries. in connection with the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, Syria lost its privileged position, although it continued to play a significant role in the caliphate. In the X - XI centuries, most of it fell under the rule of the Turks - Seljuks. In the XI - XIII centuries, Syria was subjected to invasions of European knights - the crusaders, who created their principalities on its territory. In 1920-1943 Syria was a French mandated territory. In 1925-1927, the national liberation movement of the Syrians developed into a nationwide anti-imperialist uprising, brutally suppressed by the French colonialists. At the beginning of the Second World War, the country fell under the control of fascist countries, but already in the summer of 1941, the troops of England and France entered its territory. In November of that year, France was forced to recognize the independence of Syria. In February 1958, Syria and Egypt united into the United Arab Republic (UAR), but in the fall of 1961, Syria withdrew from the republic and became known as the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). On July 5, 1967, Israel launched an aggression against Syria and captured the Dutch heights. In 1973 there was a new outbreak of hostilities. In 1974, in accordance with the agreement, part of the Syrian Arab Republic was returned, while the other part remained with Israel. The new border between these countries runs on the Dutch heights. 5. Economic-geographical and political-geographical position The Syrian Arab Republic is located in Southwest Asia, or, as it is commonly called, in the Middle East. Its territory is 185.2 thousand square meters. km (Golan Heights - about 1370 sq. km, occupied since 1967 by Israel). The EGP and GWP of Syria is relatively favorable, it has its pluses and minuses. In the north, Syria borders on Turkey (the length of the border is 845 km), in the west - on Lebanon (356 km) and Israel (74 km), in the east - on Iraq (596 km), in the south - on Jordan (356 km). In the northwest, for 183 km, the country's territory is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which Syria can carry out external economic relations. These are the advantages of the EGP and GWP of Syria. The climatic conditions of Syria are not favorable. The climate of Syria is subtropical, Mediterranean type. In the area of the Mediterranean coast, the climate has a maritime character, with a large amount of precipitation, in the center of the country it is dry, continental. In the central part of the country, dry and hot summers give way to cold, harsh winters. There are sharp fluctuations in winter and summer temperatures, temperature fluctuations at night and during the day. High average annual air temperature is typical for almost the entire country (for the Mediterranean coast + 19 degrees, the southeastern part of Syria - more than + 20 degrees, the rest of the + 15-20 degrees). Only in mountainous areas located at an altitude of more than 1000 meters above sea level, the average annual temperature does not reach +15 degrees. Precipitation is distributed very unevenly throughout the country. Their greatest number is typical for the western and northern regions of the country, and in the eastern and southern regions their number is sharply reduced. The greatest amount of precipitation is typical for the Mediterranean coast of Syria (600-900 mm per year, and on the slopes mountain range Ansaria - 1500 mm) and the mountainous regions of the country (over 1000 mm per year). In areas located inland, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 500 mm per year, because. mountain barriers prevent the penetration of moist sea winds there. On the steppe plateaus in the southeastern part of Syria, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 250-100 mm. Syria is dominated by western and northwestern winds, which carry moisture from the Mediterranean Sea. However, in spring, early summer and autumn, a hot wind, khamsin, blows from the Arabian Desert. It carries with it a huge amount of sandy dust and raises the temperature by 10-15 degrees. Syria is not rich in minerals. On its territory there are mainly deposits of oil and phosphorites. Therefore, Syria's raw materials have to be exported. In relation to hot spots, Syria also occupies an unfavorable position. Until recently, she herself was a hot spot. The EGP of Syria has changed over time. Last changes occurred in 1974, when Syria concluded an agreement with Israel, and part of its territory was ceded to Israel. 6. Nature Most of Syria is an elevated plateau, the height of which ranges from 200 to 700 m above sea level. West Side The plateau has a rather pronounced mountainous relief. Here stretch 2 ridges of mountain ranges, separated by a longitudinal depression - the Syrian graben 15-20 km wide; the river El Asi (Orontes) flows along its bottom. One of these massifs, located in the west, is called Ansaria, its highest point reaches 1562 m. This massif is almost parallel to the sea coast of the country. To the east of the El-Gab depression, a group of mountain ranges Jebel Akard, Ez Zawiya, Jebel el-Sharki and others extend. The slopes of these massifs abruptly end in the direction of the El-Gab tectonic basin. In the northeast direction, low ridges depart from the Jebel ash-Sharki mountain range, some of which reach the Euphrates. These are the so-called Palmyrene mountain folds. The eastern, most of the territory of Syria, is occupied by a plateau with a height of 500-800 m. Its southeastern part is called the Syrian Desert (a plateau with a monotonous landscape, also extending into the territory of Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia; its height above sea level is 650 m), and the northeast by the desert of Djedire. The surface of the desert is covered with a network of small valleys - wadis, often lost in vast depressions, in poorly defined folds of the relief. On the plateau there are groups of extinct volcanoes and individual flat-topped massifs. In the south-west of Syria, on the border with Jordan, the Ed-Druze massif stands out, in the current Syrian cartography called Jabal al-Arab. The highest peak of this massif, Mount El Jaina, reaches 1803 m. Separated by mountain ranges from the interior of the country, the coastal plain stretching from the Turkish border to Lebanon is a narrow strip of land (no more than 32 km in its places almost completely disappears with the direct exit of the mountains to the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers of Syria mainly belong to the basins of the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. The largest river in Syria is the Euphrates (in Arabic - Shattel-Firat). It starts in Turkey and crosses the territory of Syria from the northwest to the southeast for 675 km, after which it heads to Iraq. The width of the Euphrates valley in Syria ranges from 4 to 15 km. In Syria, the Euphrates receives 2 left tributaries: Khabur (460 km) and Belikh (105 km). The water level in previous years was mostly unstable, there were frequent floods, especially during the snowmelt period. However, since 1973, the gigantic dam built with the assistance of the USSR has made it possible to regulate the flow of the river. El Asi is the second largest river in Syria. It originates in Lebanon (in the Baalbek Mountains) and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Through the territory of Syria, El Asi flows for 325 km, crossing the country from south to north. This river is fed by mountain springs, melted snow and has significant water reserves. The waters of this river irrigate the fertile plains of Homs, Hama, El-Gab. In places the river forms lakes and marshes. The largest lake is Homs, swamps are Asharna and Gab. On the Tigris River (in Arabic Ed-Dijla) for 50 km passes the state border of Syria with Turkey and Iraq. In the south-west of Syria, the Barada River (71 km) flows, flowing into Lake Buhair al-Uteiba. The waters of the Barada River irrigate the territory of the Damascus Guta oasis, where the capital of Syria, Damascus, is located. Syria also owns the right bank of the Yarmuk River, which borders Jordan. Vegetation in most of the country has a desert and semi-desert character. It is represented by cereals, prickly herbs and shrubs, wormwood, astragalus, spring ephemera. Mediterranean vegetation prevails in the coastal strip of Syria: evergreen oaks, laurels, myrtles, oleanders, small cedar groves. There are many plantations of olive and mulberry trees, figs, citrus fruits, and grapes. Evergreen oaks, cypresses grow in the mountains, the higher parts of the mountains are covered with alpine vegetation. On the western slopes of the Ansaria Ridge, broad-leaved oak forests are common, as well as shrubs and low trees - shrub oaks and junipers, cypresses, pines, and cedar groves. On the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh ranges, bushy mountain steppes predominate, turning into semi-deserts in the lower mountain belt. The oases in the southeast are dominated by date palm and citrus. Horticulture and viticulture are developed, cotton and subtropical crops are cultivated. In the Euphrates valley, the remains of floodplain forests of poplar, tamarisk, weeping Babylonian willow have been preserved. Animal world Syria is comparatively poor. At a minimum level, the existence of small animals, such as porcupine, hedgehog, squirrel, hare, is maintained. The most common are rodents (gerbils, jerboas), predators (striped hyena, steppe lynx, panther, jackal), ungulates (onager, antelope, gazelle), reptiles (agama lizard, steppe boa), many snakes and chameleons. Many migratory birds settle for wintering in the Euphrates valley and in some other areas of the country where there are open reservoirs. There you can meet colonies of flamingos, storks. Seagulls and herons nest there. Ducks, geese, pelicans are found on the banks of rivers and lakes. There are many birds in cities and villages - sparrows, pigeons, larks, cuckoos. Of the birds of prey, eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls are common. 7. Population The demographic factor in Syria has an increasingly active impact on the social – economic development countries and to address issues such as growing needs for housing, health care, employment, education, food, energy, etc. In the middle of 1996, the country's population was 16,098 thousand people, including 8,075 thousand men and 8,023 thousand women. Among the Arab countries, Syria is distinguished by one of the highest birth rates (reproduction rate over 3), high population growth (over 3% per year) and belongs to the second type of reproduction, i.e. with high birth rate and relatively low mortality. An analysis of the dynamics of the demographic system over the past decades shows the intensity of population growth rates, accompanied by a constant decrease in the mortality rate for all age groups and an increase in average life expectancy. The age structure of the population of Syria retains the features inherent in most developing countries. In the mid-90s, people under the age of 14 accounted for 44.8% of the population, from 15 to 64 years old - 52%, from 65 years and older - 4%. Thus, the age structure has the form of a regular pyramid, wide at the bottom (groups from 0 to 14 years old) and sharply narrowing at the top (persons over 65 years old). The average population density in Syria is 74 people per square kilometer. km. The current demographic situation in the country is directly related to the process of urbanization. Urban population growth occurs mainly in large cities. This situation is explained by the fact that recently there has been a significant outflow of rural residents to large cities and regional centers. The growth in the number of members of peasant families is not accompanied, as a rule, by the expansion of the land allotment, as a result of which the productivity of labor of those employed in the family economy decreases, periods of forced unemployment lengthen, dependence on side earnings increases, etc. The natural growth of the rural population increases the size of the agrarian overpopulation and encourages rural residents to migrate to the cities. The ratio between the economically active and the total population of the country is expressed by a threefold excess of the latter. This phenomenon is inherent in the demographic situation in the country during the last 20 years. In practice, this means that there are, on average, three dependents for every employed person. Such a high "demographic load" determines the relatively low level of the population involved in production and the low coefficient of productive use of national labor resources. Since by the year 2000, Syria, according to the plans of its leadership, should become a country of complete literacy (primary education is already considered compulsory) and since a certain tendency to reduce the birth rate appears with an increase in the educational and cultural level in society, Syrian demographers suggest some possible slowdown in growth rates the population of the country. But there are also a number of factors that have a directly opposite effect on these rates. So, they include, for example, urbanization, since in urban conditions the health care system functions much better than in rural areas, and, consequently, the mortality rate in general, and child mortality in particular, is reduced. The elimination of illiteracy, especially among women, leads to the same results, since it has been established that an illiterate mother, who also does not have elementary sanitary and hygienic skills, due to the lack of proper care, children die 2 times more often than a literate one. The vast majority of the Syrian population (up to 90%) are Arabs. Syrian statistics do not keep records of the population by nationality, but, according to some sources, in the mountainous regions of the country, east and northeast of Aleppo, there are at least 700 thousand Kurds - the largest national minority in Syria. About 120,000 Armenians also live in the country - descendants of ancient settlers and refugees from Turkey, living mainly in Aleppo, Damascus and Hasek. In addition, about 4 thousand Jews live in Syria, mainly in Damascus and Aleppo. There are also Circassians, Assyrians, Turkmens, Turks, Aisors. The official language is Arabic. Administratively, the country is divided into 14 governorates (governors). 8. Economy As a legacy of the colonial past, Syria received an extremely backward economy. Foreign capital, mainly French, which controlled the main branches of the country's economy, hindered the development of productive forces and industrial relations. Agriculture - the basis of the Syrian economy - was characterized by a low level of productive forces and the dominance of semi-feudal relations. Industrial production in the country was very poorly developed: it was represented mainly by light industries. After the Syrian conquest political independence in 1946, measures were taken in the country aimed at eliminating the grave consequences of colonialism, and the development of the national economy began. Syria was the first country in the Arab East to embark on the path of nationalization of enterprises owned by foreign monopoly capital. Under pressure from the masses, already in the early 1950s, many railways and foreign electricity generation companies were nationalized, and the share of foreign capital in local companies was limited to 50%. As a result, already at the end of 1957, almost all sectors of the economy that had previously been dominated by foreign capital (tobacco companies, railways, power plants, banks of issue, etc.) became the property of the state. In 1963, all foreign and local banks, as well as insurance companies, were completely nationalized. As a result, the public sector has assumed a dominant position in Syria. At present, it accounts for about 50% of the national income, about 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of the fixed assets of production. At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies is prohibited. However, in recent years, the Syrian leadership has taken steps to liberalize the economy and revitalize the private sector, which accounts for 25% of the cost of industrial production and which occupies a dominant position in agriculture, retail trade, and the service sector. , motor transport, housing construction. For the purposes of the country's economic development, foreign capital is attracted, primarily in the form of financial assistance from the oil-producing Arab countries and a number of Western states. The annual growth of the gross national product (GNP) is 5-7%. Foreign exchange reserves - 4 billion US dollars. External debt (excluding military) - 6 billion US dollars. 8.1. Industry During the years of political independence, Syria has achieved certain successes in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the industrialization of the country. This, above all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the socio-economic development of the country. Since the 1970s, Syria has been implementing a program of structural restructuring of the economy in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Emphasis, among other things, was planned to be placed on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials. In these years, in the development of the state sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities was very clearly manifested, which immediately took a leading position in the industry. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries. Despite notable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties, associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and continuing structural imbalances in the economy, as well as with the lack of an adequate number of skilled workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as the sale of products. Since the process of industrial production continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of loading production capacities. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the "free zones" in order to use the preferential customs regime granted to them in relation to the import of raw materials, to solve the problem of providing the latter. The public sector plays the main role in the production of industrial products. In the first half of the 1990s, the share of the public sector in the extractive industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%. The number of people employed in the extractive industry in the early 1990s was 6.9 thousand people. Extraction of the main minerals (thousand tons) | |1980 |1985 |1990 |1995 | | Oil, million tons | 8.3 | 8.5 | 27.3 | 34.3 | | Phosphates | 1319 | 1224 | 1469 | 1598 | | Rock salt | 90 | 106 | 74 | 111 | | Natural asphalt | 89 | 62 | 67 | 108 | | Gypsum | ... | 128 | 183 | 336 | | Building stone, cube. | m | 1991 | 576 | 1276 | 1358 | Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years. The basis of the extractive industry is oil production. Its share in the total production of the extractive industry is estimated at 97%. The vast majority of oil reserves and its production falls on the Rumelan, Dzhebissiysky and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country. By the end of the 1980s, more than 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which about 2 dozen are in development and operation. Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of regions of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out on the terms of "risk service" contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign firms. By the mid-1980s, the main part of the promising oil-bearing regions of Syria was at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon. Over the past few years, Syria has stepped up its activities in the field of gas production. The traditional direction of activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m. In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Jebissi field. The most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry is the Palmyra region. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as a fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power plant near the city of Hama. A significant role in the Syrian economy is played by the extraction of phosphates, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Hneifns and Sharkiyya fields. The development of deposits is carried out by Romania, Poland, Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates are characterized by a high content of chlorine (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special facilities for their washing. Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400-500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%). Among other minerals in Syria, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined. Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant operates on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The enterprise in Baniyas with a capacity of 6 million tons per year is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20-50%). During the 1980s, the refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular through the production of 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year. The traditional branch of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for a little less than 20% of the gross output of the manufacturing industry. More than 50% of the workers employed in the entire large industry of the country work in this branch of industry. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the predominant use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton industry. The vast majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They mainly produce linen, flannel, shirt, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of the textile enterprises of the public sector is carried out by the General Organization Unitextile. The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based mainly on imported raw materials. The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and linen has received a fairly large development in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and are exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 plants, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment. Approximately 1.5 dozen state textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms. The wide scope of capital construction made it necessary for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at the accelerated development of the cement industry. The total capacity for the production of cement in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest plants in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity of 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons). The production of building materials is established at the ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million facing tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary ware, and at some other enterprises. The chemical and petrochemical industries play an ever-increasing role in the economic life of the country. Phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted among their products. Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 1980s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise was put into operation there with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year. In 1983, a plant for the processing of 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products. The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned company for paints and chemical products Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products. Syria plays an important role in the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce such products as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects In this area, they are associated with increasing the capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib. The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets. The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cotton, sesame, olive, linseed and some other types of vegetable oils. Relatively new sectors of the Syrian industry include: machine-building, electronic, electrical. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is largely based on the use of imported raw materials, materials, component parts and assemblies, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the respective enterprises. 8.2. Agriculture Although the absolute indicators characterizing the state of agriculture are growing, the relative ones are noticeably declining, reflecting the process of economic diversification, indicating the transformation of the country from an agrarian to an agro-industrial one. The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) is 17%, due to its products 15% of the country's exports are provided, but the majority of the population is still employed in it - 53%. Land suitable for agriculture in Syria is 6.1 million hectares. At the same time, irrigated lands reach 1.09 million hectares, dry land - about 3.4 million hectares, 1.5 million hectares are allocated for fallow, more than 500 thousand hectares are not cultivated. Pastures spread over 8.3 million hectares, forest land on 523 thousand hectares, stony soils and sandstones - more than 3 million hectares, swamps and lakes 116 thousand hectares. The conditions of agricultural production are only relatively favorable and stable crops are taken only from irrigated areas. In order to better use the land fund and to determine priority areas in the development of agriculture, Syria was divided into 5 "agricultural stabilization zones" depending on the amount of precipitation and the duration of the rainy season. The first zone includes territories with precipitation over 350 mm and is divided into 2 regions: with precipitation over 600 mm and with precipitation in the range of 350 - 600 mm, where it is possible to harvest 2 crops of wheat, leguminous and other summer crops per season 1 time in 3 of the year. The second zone covers areas with precipitation of 250 - 350 mm, where conditions are created for the collection of 2 crops of barley in one season, and wheat, leguminous and other summer crops are also grown. The third zone extends to areas with precipitation of at least 250 mm for at least six months, which ensures the collection of 1-2 crops of barley at least 1 time in 3 years. Under the fourth zone allotted lands where precipitation does not exceed 200 - 250 mm for six months and where barley and forage grasses are grown. The fifth zone includes areas where rain-fed agriculture is impossible. Such a classification of lands was the first step towards identifying the most promising lands, through the intensification of which success in the development of agriculture can be ensured. Another direction in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production is to strengthen its material and technical base by accumulating funds in capitalist-type farms, in cooperative and state enterprises. Serious progress has been made in the agricultural sector in terms of its technical equipment. There are about 50,000 tractors of various capacities and 3,000 combines here. In addition, 80,000 pumps, 65,000 modern plows, more than 6,000 seeders, 3,000 stationary threshing machines, 25,000 mechanical sprinklers and about 1,000 sprayers are used, not counting thousands of manual ones. An important event was the laws on the organization of agrarian relations and on the agrarian reform (1958), which limited the degree of feudal exploitation of the peasants, regulated the lease, the procedure for hiring, stipulated some measures of social protection of ordinary commodity producers. Syria's agriculture is developing as a non-monocultural crop - 75 types of crops are harvested annually - and provides a wide range of food and industrial crops. Cultivated land is distributed under different types products as follows: - - up to 50% are cereals; - 3% legumes; - 5% vegetables and melons; - 4% technical - 1% fodder - 11% fruit. Almost 1/3 of the cultivated area remains fallow. In crop production, the most common type of commercial products is cereals, the largest areas under which are occupied by wheat, the main food crop. Historically established areas of wheat cultivation are the northeastern regions - Hasakeh, Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa, including the plains of El Jazeera, Howran, as well as Homs, Hama. Wheat is sown mainly on rainfed crops, where yields are highly dependent on weather conditions and therefore are unstable. However, there is a tendency for a slow increase in yields due to the adoption of more advanced technologies, improved soil cultivation, the use of varietal seeds, the introduction of new social forms organization of production. The next most important crop in the grain balance of the country is barley, the main areas of cultivation of which are formed around Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Hasek, Deir ez-Zor on lands that even slightly exceed the areas under wheat. The third place in the production of cereals, although in a much smaller size compared to the above crops, is occupied by corn, the area under which tends to increase. Sorghum has long occupied a prominent place in the grain balance of the country. For decades, it has been one of the most common crops cultivated in the rainfed areas of the foothills. Its popularity was determined by the high degree of utilization of cereals, resistance to weather conditions. However, due to an increase in the standard of living and a change in nutritional standards, this plant is gradually being squeezed out of peasant fields. Since the 1970s, persistent attempts have been made to cultivate rice in Syria. The main experiments with this crop are being carried out on abundantly irrigated lands in the Euphrates Valley in specially created farms as part of a pilot project. Predominantly early ripening forms with good taste qualities are introduced. The inclusion of rice in the local cereal assortment is due to its high marketability, the need to reduce imports and diversify the diet of the population. So far, however, despite favorable forecasts, there is no tangible evidence in Syria of the completion of experiments and the transition to rice production on an expanded basis. Pulses are cultivated in relatively small quantities, mainly for domestic consumption. The most popular crop is lentils, unpretentious to growing conditions, whose food and fodder varieties are constantly in high demand on the market. Its main production area is Aleppo Governorate, although patchy crops are also found in other areas. A large place in the crops of legumes is given to peas, which in some years surpass lentils in terms of such an indicator as sown land. For food purposes, other types of legumes are also cultivated, in particular beans, beans, and some local varieties of legumes. The structure of agricultural production includes the production of herbs, which form a certain proportion of the forage fund. The main grass crop is vetch, harvested for grain and hay. The areas of its cultivation stretched from north to south along the Aleppo-Derya line. In addition to the wiki, the Arabian lupine has a distribution. On a smaller scale, the production of alfalfa and clover is practiced, the crops of which occupy mainly row-spacings in garden farms. In general, 40-60 thousand hectares are annually under crops of fodder grasses in Syria. Syria produces 12 types of industrial crops. Among them, the leading role belongs to cotton. Over the past 10 years, the area under cotton has been 140-180 thousand hectares, although before it was much smaller. The largest crops are located in the Euphrates Valley, about a quarter of the gross cotton harvest falls on the foothills between Aleppo and Homs, a relatively small part of the crop is taken from plantations in the Latakia governorate. Since the beginning of the 1980s, there has been a consistent increase in yields, which do not fall below the mark of 400 thousand tons. The second largest cultivated area is sesame, cultivated mainly in the Euphrates valley, between Raqqa and Abu Kemal, and partly in the governorates of Homs, Hama, and Latakia. Syria is known as a major producer of world famous tobacco varieties, and tobacco growing is an important branch of agriculture. About 14 thousand hectares are occupied under tobacco crops, and its production averages 20 thousand tons and is concentrated mainly in the Latakia governorate. Tobaccos of the "Latakian" group are especially valued in European markets, and a variety of local tobacco - tumbak - is used by Narghile smokers in many countries of the East. Beet growing is also a promising branch of agriculture. The problem of increasing sugar production is acute in the country, in connection with which the expansion of crops and increasing yields is an urgent task. In the mid-1970s, the demand to increase beet crops by reducing the area under other crops, in particular cotton, prevailed. Nowadays, beets are grown in the western part of the country - Homs, El-Ghab, Tell-Salkhab, as well as in the east, in the Euphrates Valley, on areas of 30 - 33 thousand hectares. Sugar cane is also cultivated on land comparable in size. Other industrial crops are also grown, in particular sunflower, peanuts, Indian sorghum used for knitting mats and brooms, cumin, anise, and some others on small areas. Syria is a major producer of vegetable and melon crops, of which the list of only the main ones includes up to 25 species. Cultivated forms differ in terms of maturation, in connection with which they enter the market evenly throughout a significant part of the year. The area occupied by them is stable and averages over a number of years 260 thousand hectares. Watermelons, tomatoes, potatoes, melons, cucumbers, cabbage, and okra are sharply distinguished by the size of the allotted wedge (about 70%). Their harvest is sold mainly on the domestic market. Syria is also a traditional center of horticulture, in which 20 types of fruit crops are cultivated on an area exceeding 600,000 hectares. The most ancient and widespread is the culture of olives, unusually diverse in quality and appearance, plantings of which are systematically growing and now reach 400 thousand hectares. The areas of its production stretch along the coast, are located in the foothills, partly on the mountain slopes. Syria is one of the largest centers of viticulture. The main plantations of this crop (67 thousand hectares) are concentrated in the governorates of Aleppo, Idlib, As-Suwayda, Homs. The most popular are local varieties with large light berries, which are distinguished by high palatability. There are more than 50 million vines in the country. Of the other horticultural crops, pistachios, apples, almonds, dates, and cherries are the most common. Growing attention is paid to apricot - a promising export crop, the processed products of which - apricots, dried apricots - have medicinal properties. Of the citrus fruits, for which up to 20 thousand hectares are allocated, oranges stand out. Animal husbandry is the second most important branch of agriculture in Syria, developing, however, mainly on an extensive basis. The dairy herd of the country has about 500 thousand heads, of which 60% are dairy cows. In general, the number of cattle, including camels, ranges from 700 to 800 thousand heads. Small cattle are represented mainly by goats, the number of which is 1 - 1.2 million, and sheep, the number of which is extremely unstable and in different years varies from 10 to 12 million heads. There are other types of livestock used for transportation of goods or as tax, in particular horses and mules, the herd of which is declining and now amounts to 30 and 20 thousand heads respectively, as well as donkeys, the number of which is maintained at the level of 190 - 200 thousand. Poultry farming, as a highly profitable industry, received an impetus for development in the 1970s, when capitalist-type poultry farms began to develop intensively, which for the most part belong to the category of suburban farms. The total number of livestock now reaches 19 million. Geese and ducks are bred in small quantities, and turkeys and pigeons in relatively large quantities. The base for the development of beekeeping in the form of 120 - 150 thousand hives is also preserved, individual farms also do not abandon the occupation traditional for Syria and in former times, associated with the breeding of silkworms. Fishing still occupies a modest place in the structure of agricultural production, although in recent years there has been an increase in the catch, now exceeding 11 thousand tons per year. At the same time, sea fishing is losing ground to river fishing, which provides more than 75% of the total production of fishing farms. 9. Transport Transport in Syria is underdeveloped. The most important role in the transportation of goods and passengers within the country is played by road transport. The movement of passenger and cargo flows is now carried out through a single network of roads, which continues to improve. The historically established system of roads was mainly concentrated in the western part of the country along the Mediterranean coast and along the north-south axis, which met economic needs and was determined by the level of economic development of the territories located here. The main transport arteries of the country stretched from the Turkish border to the Jordanian along the line of Bab al-Hawa - Hama - Homs - Damascus - Daraa (470 km), from the Turkish border to the Lebanese - Kassab - Latakia - Banias - Tartus (170 km) and further on Tripoli, Beirut, Said, from the Lebanese border to the Iraqi - Damascus - Abu Shamat (300 km) to Baghdad. In the 1970s and 1980s, the length of roads with improved coverage increased significantly. Now the length of asphalt concrete highways reaches almost 40 thousand km. The development of the road network was accompanied by an increase in the car park. In the second half of the 90s, there were up to 490 thousand transport units of all types in the country. Compared with 1980, by the end of the decade, the number of pickups, minibuses, and trucks increased markedly. In Damascus and in the capital governorate, 35% of vehicles and about 50% of cars are concentrated. The country's fleet is diverse. It has a large proportion of Japanese cars, there is a certain number of cars of Western European brands. Rail transport in the national transport system ranks second after road transport, although in Syria it appeared much earlier: the first Damascus-Beirut railway line was opened in 1885. Historically, 2 centers of railway construction have developed in Syria: in the southern part, connected with Lebanon, a narrow gauge was laid, in the north a standard one was used. As a result, the road network was artificially broken. In 1995, the Syrian government bought all the railways that were available at that time, which were in the hands of foreign capital, and later began to build a network of roads that met international standards. At present, the construction of the Tartus-Latakia line is underway, it is planned to lay railways Damascus - Der'a and Deir ez-Zor - Abu Kemal. The total length of the country's railways is now about 3,000 km. Air transport began to develop in Syria in the second half of the 60s. Limitation national territory and relatively small needs for the transportation of people and cargo by air - a factor that significantly constrains the use of air transport on internal lines. Nevertheless, local air routes connect not only Damascus, Aleppo, El Qamishli, Latakia, Deir ez-Zor, Tadmor, Homs, where there are appropriate airfields and flight support services, but also some other settlements in which runways have been built. sites. At the same time, all flights are carried out from the center to the periphery and back along linear routes, and the provincial cities are not connected with each other. Civil aviation, originally created by the efforts of the state, is under the jurisdiction of the state organization "El-hutut el-jawiya essuriya" - "Sirienear". In the mid-1990s, the national aircraft fleet consisted of 12 aircraft operated by Syrian crews. By the beginning of the 80s, Damascus International Airport (about 30 km from the capital), equipped with last word equipment and capable of receiving the most modern airliners, including airbuses, and processing large quantities cargo. The airfield has two runways 2.6 and 2.7 km long and 60 m wide. The airport's capacity is 2 million passengers per year. Water transport is not widespread in Syria. Despite the presence of inland water bodies and rivers, there is practically no river navigation in the country due to the irregularity of the flow and the stormy nature of the rivers. Even on the most full-flowing Euphrates, river transportation is carried out mainly on short routes. Own maritime transport, although Syria has access to the sea, is in its infancy and consists mainly of a few medium-sized bulk carriers moving within the Mediterranean basin. The functions of the small size fleet are limited to cabotage transportation in the sea section from Turkey to Lebanon. The main volume of trade export-import operations is carried out through Latakia and Tartus - large national ports, as well as Baniyas, used as an oil loading terminal. Pipeline transport is represented primarily by oil pipelines for the transit pumping of crude oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean coast. Three tracks on the route Kirkuk - Tripoli were built at different times in the 30s, 40s and 60s. In the 1950s, the Kirkuk-Banias and Abkayk-Saida lines were laid. The duplication of oil pipelines was caused by the low capacity of the first lines, a disadvantage that was eliminated by increasing the diameters of the subsequent ones. A network of internal oil pipelines has been created in the country to transport liquid hydrocarbons from production sites to processing sites in Homs and Baniyas and for delivery to the oil terminal in the port of Baniyas. In 1968, the main line Karachuk-Homs-Tartus was laid with a length of 650 km and a capacity of 8 million tons per year. 10. Foreign Economic Relations Foreign trade plays an important role in the economic life of Syria. The weak development of industry makes the country extremely dependent on imports of industrial goods of a wide range. Syria fully covers its needs in machinery and equipment, means of transport, ferrous metals and many other types of industrial products through imports. On the other hand, due to the one-sided development of agriculture, Syria depends on the export of many types of agricultural products. General results of trade, million sir. f., current prices | Year | Export | Import | Turnover | Balance |% coverage | | | | | | | import | | | | | | | Export | |1970 |775 |1365 |2140 |-590 |56.8 | |1975 |3440 |6236 |9676 |-2796 |55.2 | |1980 |8273 |16188 |24461 |-7915 |51.1 | |1985 |6427 |15570 |21997 |-9143 |41.3 | |1990 |47282 |26936 |74218 |+20346 |175.5 | |1995 |44562 |52856 |97418 |-8294 |84.3 | The main export items were and remain food, raw materials and fuel, which in the 70s-90s accounted for an average of over 75% of the total value of exports. An increasingly prominent role in Syrian exports is played by the export of chemical goods, equipment and finished industrial products. In the country's exports, such products as dyes, plastics, detergents, perfumes, equipment for digging wells, winches, electrical equipment and household appliances, metal products, etc. appeared. But in the commodity structure of industrial exports, the main place was occupied by cotton yarn, shoes, various textile goods, food industry products, cement, etc., that is, technologically simple goods. Despite the fact that the export of fuel has taken the main place in the export of the country, Syria is still forced to import oil and oil products in ever-increasing quantities. This is explained by the fact that for a long time the country received light oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and therefore its plant was built with the expectation of processing imported light oil, and not its own heavy oil. Another important import item is finished industrial products, the import of which averages 20-22% of the total value of imports. The main place in it is occupied by the rolling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, metal structures, scientific instruments and tools. The developed capitalist states in the 1970s and 1990s occupied a leading position in Syria's foreign trade. They accounted for over 50% of the total value of Syrian trade. Syria supplies these countries with oil, some agricultural products (dried onions, legumes, tobacco, cotton) and finished industrial products (cotton fabrics and yarn, clothing, handicrafts, perfumes). Syrian imports from this group of states are wide and varied, ranging from various machinery and equipment to household electrical appliances and lighters. The largest trading partners of Syria among them are the states of the European Community (EU), primarily Italy, Germany, France - 35-40% of the total trade in Syria. The United States accounts for 4-5% of the total value of Syrian trade, Japan 3-4%. Syria is also taking steps to develop trade relations with other groups of states, primarily with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are regular buyers not only of traditional Syrian exports, but also of oil and oil products, industrial and consumer goods (artificial fabrics, sulfuric and sulphurous acids). , triple superphosphate, transformers, etc.). Solving the tasks of expanding trade and increasing exports, Syria pays special attention to the development of trade and economic ties with developing countries. Syria's main trading partners among the newly-liberated states have traditionally been the Arab countries. A characteristic feature of Syria's foreign trade policy in the 70s-90s was protectionism. The country applied various forms of foreign trade regulation, but the most important were licensing, foreign exchange controls and non-tariff restrictions. Along with trade, Syria also uses other forms of economic relations with foreign countries. The most widespread are credit and financial cooperation, the participation of foreign firms and companies in the development of the country's natural resources, the construction of various industrial facilities, the purchase and implementation of modern technology, the provision of engineering services, the creation of mixed enterprises, and the training of Syrian specialists. At the same time, Syria practices the conclusion of intergovernmental agreements on economic, credit-financial and scientific-technical cooperation on a bilateral and multilateral basis. Recently, tourism has been actively developing (profit in 1995 - 150 million US dollars) 11. Cities. 11.1 Damascus. Damascus is especially beautiful in spring. The gardens of the oasis are buried in a white and pink veil of flowering. A light breeze carries the finest aromas of herbs and flowers. The Arabs say that when the prophet Mohammed created pictures of paradise, he took Gutu as a model. In the center of this huge flowering garden at the foot of Mount Qasyun lies the oldest capital in the world. The city keeps many unsolved mysteries in its bowels. In ancient times, it was called "the beautiful and sacred light of the East." He played an exceptional role in the formation of many civilizations. “Damascus looked at the wreckage of a hundred empires ... old Damascus should rightfully be called the eternal city', wrote Mark Twain. In the ancient history of the Middle East, this city is an important page. It is mentioned in Egyptian texts of the 18th dynasty of pharaohs, on Assyrian tablets, in the Bible. But the city really went down in history in the era of Solomon. During this period, it becomes the capital of the Aramaic state. From that distant era, only one material monument remained - a basalt slab with a bas-relief. It was discovered during the restoration of the Umayyad mosque. The slab stood at the base of the wall in the northern part of the city. The bas-relief depicts a sphinx with a goatee, folded wings and a double crown on its head. A small apron dangles between clawed feet. Judging by the nature of the execution, the work belongs to the Phoenician masters. In the southwest of the city wall rises the tower of Nur-ed-Din - a typical Muslim fortification . The blocks of the lower part are much larger than those that lie above. The tower, which has been preserved since 1168, bears traces of numerous reconstructions. On the site of two ancient Roman gates, Nur-ed-Din built the so-called Small and South Gates. Above the latter there is a slab with a Kufic inscription announcing that the atabeg collects payment from merchants going to Iraq and returning back. The gate is now decorated with a semicircular arch. The modern Christian district of Damascus, Bab Tum, is widely known for its hospital, shops, shaded green streets. Its name comes from the name of the gate, built under the Ayyubids on the site of the ancient Roman in 1128. The monumental gate, which attracts the attention of tourists, is an example of Muslim fortification architecture. They stand almost in the center of the modern city, and once carried a protective function. Remains of a destroyed battlement wall adjacent to the gate have been preserved. The northern gate - Bab-es-Salami - was called the Gate of Salvation by the people: it was especially difficult for the enemy to penetrate the city through them, as the high-water Barada and numerous trees interfered. Adjacent to the gates of Bab-Sharka is an area with narrow streets, old houses made of clay and stone with a characteristic overhanging second floor. Hammers are heard from small workshops. Famous Damascus artisans live here. The fame of their products has long become world wide. Caskets inlaid with mother-of-pearl are interspersed with huge or very small trays. Turned jugs with thin necks stand next to a coffee pot and cups in yellow metal stands with oriental ornaments. A tourist who accidentally came here can see robes embroidered with gold threads, the famous damask brocade, pointed leather slippers with turned-up toes. Numerous mosques of Damascus create a unique flavor. In 1213, the Ayyubids built their first mosque - Jami Muzaffari, which repeated the Umayyad mosque in plan. It also has a courtyard with a pool in the center, surrounded by porticos with ancient Corinthian columns. The inner courtyard is a piece of wildlife - a necessary fragment of mosques. The Koran says: “And let the plants and waters be united with human creation, as part of one nature, erected by the hand of Allah ...” A square minaret rises above the northern entrance of the mosque. The prayer hall is divided by two rows of arcades that create a feeling of lightness and airiness. Above each of the seven doors is a wooden rubber grate. On the stone mihrab there is a trace of an ornament once painted with oil paint. The Jami at-Tabua Mosque was built in 1234, burned down in 1299, then rebuilt. Once upon a time there was a caravanserai in its place, which was notorious. It was liquidated, again using the plan of the Umayyad mosque, built by Jami at-Tabua. The spacious courtyard is surrounded by porticos. A prayer hall stretches along the south wall. The poverty of the interior, bare walls, lack of decorations are striking, which is very typical for the architecture of that period. Only the mihrab of this mosque is revered as one of the most perfect mihrabs of Damascus. It stands out sharply against the background of dull walls with fine stone carvings, bright floral and geometric ornaments. On the sides it is decorated with thin twisted columns. Above the mihrab itself there is a three-dimensional arch, decorated with interlacing flower garlands. Under the arch there are two square carved plates, between them there is a medallion made with great skill. The heart of Damascus is the Umayyad Mosque. Its vast courtyard is bounded by a vaulted gallery on three sides. In the fourth - a prayer hall. We pass a domed pavilion with slender columns where the treasury was once kept. Heading to the prayer hall, we pass by a traditional fountain and a pool for ablutions. Two rows of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which were once gilded, form three chapels. Above the center of the hall is a massive dome. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with inlay and carving. This is a brilliant example of Muslim applied art. A round staircase leads to a white marble pulpit. In the eastern part of the prayer hall there is a marble pavilion, in which, according to legend, the head of John the Baptist rests. The tomb of the saint is equally respected by both Christians and Muslims. The gravestone is a masterpiece of oriental art, as is the large mihrab near the southern wall. Speaking of the Umayyad Mosque, one cannot fail to mention its three minarets. In the southeast corner of the Christian temple, a tower, the so-called minaret of Jesus, has been preserved. The southwestern minaret, built, like the first one, on one of the towers of the former temple of Jupiter, arose in the 15th century and retains the features of the Egyptian style. And, finally, in the northern part - the Minaret of the Bride, the oldest, created in the Umayyad period, with the exception of the upper part, which arose recently. Through the north door, decorated with bronze reliefs, we leave the courtyard of the metechi. We walk along the Byzantine colonnade, passing two ancient madrasahs. Before us is the tomb of Salah ad-Din, a talented commander and ruler who liberated this land from the crusaders. Under the corrugated dome are two tombstones - Salah ad-Din and his companion. The frieze of the building is decorated with verses from the Koran, made in the manner of Kufic writing, all its four sides are carved in stone, repeating geometric motifs. The tomb as a whole is an example of the decorative art of the Ayyubid period. Her appearance has changed somewhat. late XIX century. Almost every stone of Damascus bears the stamp of history. It is strange that behind these ancient walls there is quite a noise modern city . From the Hamidiye market we get to another - Souq al-Harir. There used to be a famous silk bazaar here. And next to it are the domes of the old Khan Gumrok, where, after long caravan crossings, merchants and travelers found peace and rest. Adjacent to this inn are the 17th-century bathhouses, now partially dismantled and converted into market premises. Among the historical monuments of old Damascus, the Azem Palace, built in the 18th century by one of the rulers of Damascus, occupies a special place. The palace is unique in that it gives examples of all kinds of Syrian decorative arts. After examining it, one can get a complete picture of the arrangement of rooms and the interior decoration of the famous Syrian palaces, their male and female halves, the beauty of the high walls, decorated with inlaid wood and marble. You can listen to the melodic murmur of fountains in a small courtyard and sit in the shade of lemon and orange trees. Now a museum of folk art has been created here. The number of visitors is growing from year to year. From Mount Qasyun you have a view of the whole of Damascus. In the center is a gray mass of closely crowded houses, tall arrows of minarets and towers. Closer to the outskirts - streets immersed in greenery. Once upon a time, there were magnificent gardens here, and there is still a mention of them in the names of the avenues. For example, Abu Rummani is one of the most beautiful streets in the city. Her mansions are hidden among the trees, and each is completely different from the other. They are decorated with cast-iron gratings, wavy ribbons of balconies, picturesque tiny courtyards with bright spots of manicured flower beds. Almost every street or district in Damascus bears traces of history. Such is Maliki Street, built up with multi-storey modern houses and overlooking the square, where there is a monument to the fighter for the national independence of Syria, Colonel Maliki. The architecture of Damascus is a kind of synthesis of the latest international trends with elements of oriental decor. The buildings of the old part of the city are peculiar. They are distinguished by massive walls, huge portals. In the 1930s, reinforced concrete structures began to be used in construction. This is how the Oryan-Palace hotel was built, facing the mountains with wide verandas. The hotel rooms are connected to the outside world by a glass door with an openwork barrier, which is very practical in a hot climate. Open verandas cascade down. Their iron gratings are simple in design, as is the slab of the crowning cornice, which traps the sheer rays of the sun. Damascus is rich not only in traces and finds of thousands. It is the capital of a young country open to modern cultural, economic and social aspirations, a country following the path of peace and progress. The leading sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry. Damascus fabrics have always been the glory of the country. The large state-owned Humasia and Debs combines are also known abroad. Wandering in the narrow streets adjacent to Hamidiya, one can come across such a sight: a gray-haired man in a loose shirt sits at a primitive machine tool, his hands move quickly, and meters of blue silk fabric appear before our eyes, which are in demand among tourists. Such craft enterprises still exist. And there aren't many of them yet. The most beautiful landscapes, ancient architectural monuments in the vicinity of Damascus, once seen, cannot be forgotten. This most beautiful spectacle gave rise to many poetic lines, among them the verses of the most popular contemporary Arab poet Rashid al-Yasin: O Damascus, I admire you! I love your spacious morning streets, Splashes of the first rays and aroma of gardens, And when in the evenings a crimson sunset flares over the caps of the mountains, Illuminating the golden minaret in the distance, O Damascus, I admire you! Lyrical mood is born not only among poets. Damascus, the ancient and modern capital, remains in the heart of everyone who has been here. 11.2 Latakia. Latakia is the largest port in Syria. The life of the port reflects the life of the country. New trends are pushing aside old traditions. Every morning, huge trucks leave the port gates with technical equipment for construction sites, timber, cars and other items of Syrian imports. They travel inland: to Aleppo, Deir ez-Zor, far to the north, where the oil refining and oil industry is developing. The bustle, the usual business noise, the rumble in the port are replaced by relative silence: it's time for dinner. The workers go to the tap, wash their hands and face. After spreading a scarf on the ground, they kneel, turn their faces towards Mecca and begin to pray. Then slowly unfold the bundle with food: unleavened bread, olives, a little laban (thick sour milk). The sacred hour of eating is coming. Small traders deliver "Arab sandwiches" on makeshift carts. This is the most popular food in Syria. There are fruits on the trays, and in summer in jugs - a chilled date drink. Ice is crushed and put into these jugs right here, right on the pavement. As in most seaside cities, the streets of Latakia run up to the hill where the Crusader fortress once stood. The red glare of the rising sun plays in the windows of houses. Lots of new buildings. In recent years, the city has changed beyond recognition. The houses are multi-storey, with tiers of balconies. The first floors attract attention with numerous showcases of new shops. Relatively wide streets with architecturally interesting houses crowd the old town. But they are all directed to the sea, the layout has remained the same since Hellenic times. The history of the city is rooted in an even more distant era. During the time of the Phoenicians, there was a small harbor here. Ancient coins brought to us the image of a ship loaded with bread passing under the Latakian lighthouse. The city at that distant time was the center of the Phoenician state of Ugarit and was located seven kilometers from the modern city. Then it was alternately owned by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians. Alexander the Great conquered it after the victory at Issus. In the days of the Seleucids, it becomes one of the largest in the country along with Antioch, Apamea. Latakia was named by Seleucus I in honor of his mother. The city flourished during the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Beautiful buildings, temples were surrounded by green gardens and vineyards. The old part of the city is still decorated with the Arc de Triomphe, through which the valiant Roman legionnaires passed, the chariots of the emperors, accompanied by slaves chained, passed. Among the fragments of the arch ornament are helmets of legionnaires and their weapons. The ancient colonnade has also been preserved. It offers views of the city and the sea. Between the slender columns peeps the sky. At different times of the day, the circle of columns is differently illuminated by the sun, creating a feeling of perpetual motion. The place of construction was impeccably chosen. In the 5th-6th centuries, the city was shaken by two strong earthquakes that destroyed many buildings, temples, colonnades, which were the pride of the inhabitants. The city also suffered during numerous new attempts to seize it. Arab caliphs fought for him and Byzantine emperors , Seljuk Turks and Crusaders. The city was attacked, it was robbed, burned, but it continued to live. During the French mandate, it becomes the capital of the Alawite state. When the last French soldier left the land of Latakia, the city was reborn to a new life. Traces of past eras, side by side with the present, create an originality of a special kind. In the old part of the city there are narrow streets, long deaf stone fences. Under the arches, figures wrapped from head to toe in black flicker from time to time. This area has preserved the features of the first centuries of Islam. Above the labyrinth of streets and cul-de-sacs rises the most beautiful mosque in the city - Moghrabi, or Moroccan, built in the last century. Twenty-eight steps lead up. In a small courtyard there is a fountain and the remains of an antique column. The walls of the prayer hall are decorated with typical Muslim ornaments: plant branches intertwine, flowers of fabulous gardens, but nowhere is there a single figure of a person or an animal. The floors are marble with an alternating black and white pattern. Around the courtyard are little rooms-cells. This is a madrasah. Outside the walls of Moghrabi is an old cemetery. On the opposite side of the street is a tiny hotel with modest rooms around a courtyard. From the upper platform of Mograbi, you can see the whole of Latakia. Visible features of the new. Recently, the buildings of two faculties of the University of Latakia have risen. Several new hotels have appeared. The mild Mediterranean climate, historical monuments, sea beaches contribute to the development of tourism, which in the near future should become an important source of foreign currency. The doors of the cafe are welcomingly open, where oriental cuisine is presented in all its diversity. The fleet of passenger cars, brightly colored and loud, has increased. Like many centuries ago, the busiest place in the city in the early morning is the market. Under wooden sheds, covered with mats, there are piles of apples, oranges, lemons, indispensable greens, without which not a single Syrian meal can do. The customers are mostly men. This is their family duty. The wife at home is busy taking care of her numerous offspring, and the husband, with a bag in his hand, walks around the market rows, intently and calmly asks the price, clicks his tongue disapprovingly, feels the goods, and all this slowly, with knowledge of the matter and a certain pleasure. At sunset, the city is empty. He falls asleep early. Only street lamps and shops shine, where even at a late hour there is a trade designed for arriving sailors. It is hard to believe that just an hour ago the embankment was thronged with a crowd of walkers - whole families, flocks of pretty girls and separately groups of young men. If the girl and the boy go together, then they are certainly engaged. The young man looks at the girl he liked only from afar, he has no right to turn to her, and even more so to walk along the embankment together. Parents often choose brides and grooms for their children, and they dutifully agree. And often the bride and groom meet for the first time at their wedding. Divorce in Latakia is extremely rare. Everything is interesting in Latakia - its history, and monuments of the past, and traditions, and the life of today. And everyone should visit this city. 11.3. Aleppo. Throughout its history, Aleppo witnessed a huge number of tragedies, was the scene of many fierce clashes, devastating raids of ancient peoples. Moaning and weeping accompanied the crowds of those led into slavery. The walls of the ancient citadel could tell many stories about the courage of the inhabitants of the city. In the period from X to XV alone, dozens of raids on the city were made. But the city continued to live, resisting not only the conquerors, but also the earthquakes that left their marks on it. The life of Syria for many centuries reflects the Museum in Aleppo. It is located in the city center, in a bright house surrounded by a small garden. The fate of this building is symbolic. It was built during the French mandate and was intended for the city municipality. However, political events have changed a lot. The Syrians began to rule the city, and by decision of the national city council, the building was transferred to the museum. At the entrance to the museum there are 3 huge figures from gray stone prop up the portico. This is a triad from the ancient Aramaic city of Guzana - statues of two gods and a goddess. The massive feet of the gods trample on the backs of animals. The composition is extremely expressive. The mouths of the lions are angrily bared, the eyes are sparkling, the horns of the bull are threateningly exposed forward. Disproportionately huge, with bright whites and black obsidian pupils, the eyes of the gods make an indelible impression. Antiquity itself looks at us with these mystical eyes. Once the sculptures supported the portico of the palace of the Aramaic ruler. On the dress of the female deity Ishtar, a cuneiform text is engraved: “This is the palace of Kapar. My grandfather and father died and became immortal, but they couldn't do what I did. If someone erases my name in order to put his own, then let his seven sons be burned before Haddad (the main god of Guzana).” From the gates of the museum you can walk to the walls of the citadel, from which you can see the whole of Aleppo - a gray-yellow city, with arrows of minarets, domes of mosques, multi-storey modern buildings, the styles of eras are intricately mixed here. Aleppo has the world's longest covered market, which has hardly changed over the centuries. Until now, in this huge market, there is a corporate system for selling spices, textiles, ropes, tents and other things. What can you not find here! In the golden rows you will be offered rings and earrings - old and the latest models, chased belts, temporal jewelry. Overhanging thick vaults create a special atmosphere. It is cool in summer, warm and dry in winter. The stalls in the market have not been rebuilt at all since the XV. And these shops look really peculiar. The narrow and long openings of the entrances are framed with wooden shutters with colored patterns painted on them. To the side lies a huge castle, the place of which has long been in the museum. The feeling of returning to the deep Middle Ages is complemented by the view of the massive gates of the khan - the old caravanserai on the territory of the market. The vast yard where the loaded camels once stood is empty. On the galleries surrounding the courtyard on four sides, the windows are boarded up. Now there are warehouses. Not far from the market are the ancient gates of the city. There are many mosques and madrasahs. A beautiful portal decorated with stone carvings. This is the Sharafiya Madrasah, built in 1242. The building now houses a library known for holding rare manuscripts. There are white squares on the gray stones of the patio. One small one is in the center, the other is larger, bordering the first one. Among the numerous mosques, a special place is occupied by the Great Umayyad Mosque, which arose on the territory of a Christian temple, which in turn was built on the site of a pagan one, which is very typical for Syria. A slender square minaret rises above the mosque, which is still considered the best in the city. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with expensive wood inlaid with ivory. Aleppo is the center of vast agricultural areas. Therefore, it is here that numerous enterprises for the processing of olives, sugar beets, the production of juices, butter, and cheese are concentrated. The Khaleb brewery is known all over the country, producing beer "ASH-Sharq". The tractor plant is very popular, the products of which can be seen on the fields of the country. Aleppo is widely known for its cultural traditions. Many artists and composers, poets and writers came out of this city. The concerts of the young composer, musician and singer Abed Azri invariably attract attention. This talented singer, who has a beautiful and strong voice, set to music several texts from the ancient epic poem about Gilgamesh, some Sufi poems, modern poems by Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi poets. The music of Abed Azri always draws on the best examples of Arabic poetry. And if poetry remains purely national, then music, in his opinion, should change and correspond to the spirit of the time: “We should not go back and use only our traditions. We must develop national music and, by developing it, bring it closer to life.” This is the artistic credo of Abed Azri. 12. What is interesting? 12.1 Krak des Chevales - the castle of the knights. Syria - the only country in the east, which preserved the castles of the crusaders. They rise on the coast and in the mountains, representing a kind of architecture, being monuments to the distant troubled time of battles and religious fanaticism of the famous crusades. Approaching the Krak des Chevaliers castle, you forget for a moment that you live in the 20th century. A narrow drawbridge, iron gates, numerous passages, towers make you forget reality. It seems that you are about to hear the sound of horse hooves, the sound of swords and the voices of knights. Krak des Chevaliers is the only restored crusader castle in Syria. It stands on a busy highway, 25 kilometers from the Latakia-Homs road. The citadel rises on a mountain, from which a view of a large expanse opens up to the sea. The place was carefully chosen by the ancient architects. From the top platform you can see any movement along the road. Each of the buildings of the fortress is very peculiar in its architecture, interior, in the role it played in the life of the knights. The 12th-century chapel with lancet windows is a characteristic Western European type basilica and does not resemble the Byzantine churches often found in Syria. During restoration work, a fresco depicting the Virgin and Jesus was found here. The knights turned their gaze to her, praying for protection and patronage. With the exception of the fresco, the only bright spot, the interior of the chapel is restrained and sparse. It reflects the atmosphere of life in the fortress. In the center of the fortress there is a semicircular tower with lower and upper halls. Light enters it through three huge windows. The buildings adjacent to it are a classic example of fortification art, with all the innovations that Eastern architecture did not know. It is a terrace with battlements. This is a glacis - a stone sloping embankment in front of the outer moat of the fortress, protecting Krak des Chevaliers from earthquakes and digging. It is not surprising that the fortress could not be taken during any siege. The stone towers of the fortress hide many unsolved mysteries. One of these towers is called by the Arabs "the tower of the king's daughter". At the base it had a secret door. Another secret door led from the central tower to the moat. Halls with massive supporting pillars are replaced by a vaulted hall, where there is a huge oven for baking bread. On numerous floors of the towers, there are a lot of storage and residential premises. In the courtyard of the fortress, overgrown with grass, there is water in huge cisterns. By the way, these cisterns are unique structures both in size and in the nature of architecture. In the fortress, they served not only as reservoirs, but also as anti-seismic structures, and sometimes served as storage and production facilities. Krak des Chevaliers gives a complete picture of the features of a peculiar, gradually disappearing architecture. But what did they live, what did they love and what were the inhabitants of such castles fond of? The ascetic life of the fortress, the monotony of this life, the constant homesickness was expressed in poetry, only a few examples of which have survived to our time. Somewhere in Europe, the Beautiful Lady remained - the object of love and endless worship. Passion and a sense of duty fought in the knight’s soul, which found expression in the famous “Song of the Crusade” by Canon de Bethune, a direct participant in two campaigns: Alas, Love, why did you tell me to cross the threshold of the Most Beautiful, who knew how to hold me for so many years at your feet! And now the time has come for our separation ... What am I saying? Only the body leaves, God called him to his service, And her heart belongs entirely. Grieving for her orphaned soul, I'm going to the holy land to the east. 12.2. "A city that has never been defeated since the creation of the world" The news does not leave the pages of the newspapers: "A stunning discovery in Ebla!", "Archaeological discoveries in Northern Syria require a revision of ancient history", "Rewrite the history of the third millennium!". What happened? Deserted lands south of the city of Aleppo. The dusty red hill of Tell Mardike, never before attracting attention, has become world famous. Archaeologists from the University of Rome and representatives of the Syrian Archaeological Administration, as a result of their work, discovered the ancient city of Ebla, whose name was found in ancient Eastern writings. The climax of the excavations came when archaeologists uncovered part of the royal palace and found its archives. They were in that wing of the vast building where the king of ancient Elba received guests. The last "guest" of the archival premises was the fire, which destroyed the wooden shelves, on which numerous tablets stood in a vertical position. The fired clay was not damaged. For many centuries, sand and dust covered the priceless property with a strong veil. The language of Eblaith turned out to be one of the Semitic languages. A dictionary of Eblaite and Sumerian words was found, and this made the documents easier to read. This language is close to Phoenician, but more than a thousand years older than it. The content of the found tablets was especially important, as it recreated the history of the state. The tablets made it possible to restore the life of the mysterious Ebla from 2400 to 2250 BC. e. Ebla was the capital of a large and highly cultured state that stretched from the eastern borders of Egypt to the Persian Gulf and captured the territory of modern Turkey. Economic contacts connected Ebla with major cities ancient world , with the island of Cyprus. The archives of Ebla preserved numerous records of commercial transactions and contracts. Administrative and legal texts made it possible to imagine how the city and the territory subject to it were governed, how the economy, finance, trade, and tax system were organized. Ebla was a major trading center, widely known in the Eastern world. Under the supervision of a special office, there was a huge number of officials who checked the quality of the goods sent and received, and determined the delivery time. A special information service reported where there was a need for this type of product. Ebla established a monopoly on the purchase and sale of the most valuable goods: precious metals, fabrics, wood, pottery. The state received large incomes from trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia. A completely new, previously unknown state formation of the ancient East was discovered in Ebla. The ruler of Ebla depended on the council of elders, which included representatives of the richest families. The heir to the throne did not come to power immediately. He began his career as an ambassador in any state, as a governor of a city, and only then, if he turned out to be really worthy, he was trusted to manage Ebla. He solved important financial issues, concluded international treaties. The country paid great attention to education. The state strictly controlled education, the methods of which were borrowed from Mesopotamia. Numerous student works have survived to our time. By the way, the schools of Ebla in the III millennium BC. e. Trained future civil servants. Intense excavations have yielded brilliant results. Under the Acropolis of Ebla, a part of the city was discovered with a monumental palace complex, spacious halls, a wooden colonnade, and a grand staircase. Peculiar fortification, palace, temple architecture, wonderful monuments of fine arts proved that the culture of Ebla, which was formed under the influence of a more developed Mesopotamian, was largely of its own, original character. One of the samples of applied art is a limestone bowl found during excavations. It has a quadrangular shape and was intended for ritual purposes. Basalt sculptures of deities, fragments of stones depicting processions of people following a fantastic animal, numerous interior details made with great art - all this is a small part of the wealth still hidden underground. Ebla did not have his own army. It was hired when necessary. With the help of mercenaries, rival shopping centers were also captured. The tablets said that this was how the city on the middle reaches of the Euphrates was conquered, paying Ebla a huge ransom sum in gold and silver. However, Ebla could not defend herself with the help of a mercenary army. The tragedy occurred in 2250 BC. e. The troops of the state of Akkad moved to the rich and prosperous Ebla under the leadership of the commander Naram-sin. Ebla was captured and burned. Naram-sin was infinitely proud of his victory and left behind an inscription saying that the glory of the kingdom of Ebla is the glory of "the city that has never been defeated since the creation of the world." The excavations are ongoing. Ebla is now recognized as the most amazing archaeological find of our time. “We are waiting for sensational finds,” said Arif Banassi, director of the Syrian Archaeological Authority. 12.3. Dead cities of Syria. There are more than a hundred dead cities in northern Syria. These once prosperous centers are located in mountainous areas, relatively remote, which saved them from complete destruction. Each of these cities is a page in the history of Syria. The heyday of many of them dates back to the 4th-5th centuries, by the time of the recognition and formation of Christianity. On the territory of the dead cities there are many churches and monasteries, the construction of which was dictated rather by religious fervor and the spirit of independence in the face of the imperial church. Christian inscriptions and symbols have been preserved on the walls of houses, rich and poor, on numerous tombs. The fall of these cities is connected with Persian campaigns. First of all, such rich commercial centers as Khleb, Antioch, Apameya were robbed. The Persians tended to use scorched earth tactics in their wars against Byzantium. They deliberately destroyed vineyards, destroyed stone terraces, cut down olive groves. During the period of the Arab conquests, this area was already abandoned. The once intensive trade in olive oil and wine became impossible. The Mongol conquests, culminating in Tamerlane's campaign, completed the destruction. Because of the wars and their constant threat, the population moved to the larger cities of Syria. Earthquakes contributed to the destruction of cities, but many did not disappear from the face of the earth, having survived all the vicissitudes of fate and time. One of these cities is El Bara. And cities such as Apamea, Mari, Palmyra, Maharet are not just preserved monuments of unique architecture that have remained inaccessible examples. The life of these cities reflected the culture, politics, and ideology of their time. Associated with them are ups of creative thought, achievements in science, philosophy, and poetics. Apamea. Apamea - a city of ruins, disappearing under the onslaught of time, hiding in the mountains. There are small sections of the old Roman road that connected the once beautiful city with Antioch. This dead city is especially loved by modern Syrians. The first name of the city is Farnake. Seleucus, a brave and talented associate of the great commander Alexander the Great, married the beautiful Apameya, the daughter of the Persian commander Spitam. After the death of Alexander, a huge empire collapsed, part of which passed into the hands of Seleucus. In honor of his beloved wife, the second city after Antioch, the largest center of the Seleucid empire, was named. Apamea became the largest strategic point of the empire. The famous historian Strabo mentions the Apamea stud farm, which had 30,000 mares and 300 stallions, as well as 500 elephants located here. In 64, during the period of the Roman invasion, Pompey destroyed the city, but in the Byzantine era, Apamea again flourished. At this time, the city was expanded and a slender colonnade arose on the main street, the remains of which exist to this day. In 540 the city was captured and burned Persian king Khosrow I. This was followed by several strong earthquakes, the largest of which was in 1152. The population, exhausted by endless military skirmishes, severe earthquakes, left the city. When the wars subsided, Apamea was almost completely destroyed, abandoned by everyone; overgrown roads and paths leading to the city. The modern road to Apamea is dusty, narrow, rocky. An asphalt highway does not lead here, as, for example, to Palmyra, there is no flow of tourists. Silence greets you - that special silence that accompanies the ruins. At first, in the chaos of noble ruins, it is difficult to orient oneself, but gradually one begins to distinguish the remains of the walls that surrounded the city, the skeletons of round towers, between which stone gates are still preserved. Against the background of the ruins, the main street clearly stands out, along which snow-white Corinthian columns of the Roman period stretch. In the center of the colonnade are two columns with ledges, on which sculptures of famous citizens once stood. The sculptures are gone, but the names remain. They are Antony Pius and Lucius Verus. Thanks to their efforts, the colonnade was created. The ruins of a large building adjoin the main street - a former temple, erected in honor of the main god revered here - the god of luck. Behind the temple is a forum. The layout of the city is typically Hellenistic: the streets converge at right angles, forming peculiar cells. Some streets have sheds supported by columns. Slender columns at the base are somewhat thickened and covered with carvings with a repeating motif of eternal flowering. Marie. In the period from 1933 to 1934, excavations took place near the town of Abu-Kemal. Abu Kemal and the slope of Tell Hariri, on which the town was located, began to resemble a bee hive. And January 23, 1934 was an unforgettable day: as a result of excavations, the city of Mari appeared from under a dense layer of earth. Scholars have long been familiar with this name from numerous inscriptions found in Babylon and Assyria. One of the texts said that Mari was the tenth city founded after the Flood. The excavations continued for several years. The walls of the city appeared. But the most striking was the palace. “We discovered 69 rooms and palaces in the process of excavation, and most of them remained underground,” wrote André Pare, a French archaeologist. And that was just the beginning. Later, 138 rooms were discovered, and before the eyes of archaeologists, the Temple of the Dragon and the ziggurat appeared - a typical Mesopotamian tower. Finally, the palace of the kings of Mari was completely cleaned in all its grandeur: a huge building with an area of 4 hectares, dating back to the III millennium BC. e. Aerial photography of the huge palace gave a striking effect. It was an outstanding discovery. Kicking up dust, there were numerous trucks from Tell Hariri. They carried a precious cargo: 24 thousand documents - cuneiform tablets from the archives of the palace (the library of the Assyrian ruler Ashurbanipal contained only 22 thousand clay tablets). The architectural ensemble of the palace was the pearl of the ancient East. Travelers from distant countries came to see this miracle. “I saw Mari,” writes an admiring merchant from the ancient Phoenician port of Ugarit. Mari was the capital of a state that stretched to the Persian Gulf in the east, an intermediary between the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. This important commercial center held control over the caravan trade routes that linked the countries of the ancient world. The people who inhabited the kingdom of Mari managed to maintain independence for a long time, constantly strengthening and expanding their territory. Money flowed into the treasury from taxes levied on caravans. A well-developed farming system provided excellent harvests. All these factors contributed to the prosperity of the civilization that existed in the second millennium BC. e. The royal palace was surrounded by a protective wall. The only gate on the northern side provided the most reliable protection. Numerous passages led to a large courtyard. Here the official and administrative life of the state proceeded, here the tsar received ambassadors and couriers. The audience chamber could accommodate hundreds of people. A wide corridor led to the royal apartments. To the throne room. None of the known ancient royal palaces was as large as the palace of Mari, and so talentedly decorated. Numerous paintings were very impressive. It seems that the paints on the murals were applied only yesterday. A fragment of the ritual procession of the king is painted on the wall. The face of each person - a participant in the procession is individual. The face of the priest is especially interesting - with a large nose and tightly compressed lips. As already mentioned, the palace of King Mari had a lot of rooms. Officials, nobles, scribes had special rooms. There was a foreign department and a trade department. Over a hundred officials were involved in accounting for income, as well as goods imported and exported from the state. Records on this subject took up a thousand tablets. Of particular value are the royal archives of Mari. The events of distant years are revealed when reading numerous letters, accounts, busily inscribed on clay by scribes. The tablets required the tireless work of scientists who have been deciphering the archive materials for several years. A large number of documents were translated and published, each of which is a small piece of a huge mosaic panel that told us about the state of Mari. The capital lived a busy life. News came here extremely quickly, because there was a kind of telegraph. Important messages were transmitted by signal fires. The state of Mari lay at the crossroads of the great caravan routes from west to east and from north to south. Correspondence was carried out using clay tablets. They recorded a variety of life events, told about religious holidays, about priests with their magic formulas and divination by the stars. However, the citizens of Mari were forced to defend themselves and their territory. For numerous nomadic tribes, the rich and flourishing Mari was a great temptation. In addition, well-known conquerors encroached on the sovereignty of a powerful state. Sargon of Akkad succeeded in conquering Mari and completed the destruction of the army of Hammurabi from Babylon around 1700 BC. e. During the excavations, traces of the terrible damage inflicted on the capital were found. But it was not possible to wipe the city off the face of the earth. Remained five-meter walls. “You can use the kitchens and bathrooms of the palace. There is even no need to restore them, ”wrote Parro. And this is 4 thousand years after the destruction! Clay water pipes and even charcoal in extinct stoves are perfectly preserved. The city is dead, the state has disappeared, but a rich culture cannot be destroyed. It was adopted by other peoples. Its influence on the civilizations of the East is strong. Palmyra. On an autumn day in 271, Rome rejoiced. Emperor Aurelian returned to his homeland in triumph. The procession slowly moved through the city to the enthusiastic cries of the crowd. The closed and haughty face of Aurelian, however, could not hide his joy. A crowd of exhausted captives moved behind the emperor's chariot. The people looked with curiosity at the woman clad in golden chains. With difficulty, her tormented feet stepped on the stones. But neither long matted hair nor rags could hide her amazing beauty. Contemporaries claimed that she was more beautiful than Cleopatra. The name of the Palmyran queen Zenobia, who follows the chariot, was known throughout the East. And in intelligence and courage, this proud woman surpassed many men. They did not dare to execute her, because she commanded too deep respect. As the texts mention, Zenobia ended her days as a captive. Mentions of the city are found on the Assyrian tablet of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and on a tablet from Mari. The Akkadian text tells us that the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I was marching against Tadmor (Palmyra) to fight the Arameans. The predecessors of the Arameans were the Canaanites, who introduced the cult of the god Bol, who became the main god of Palmyra. Later, he assimilated with Bel, the main god of Babylon. During the early Roman period, the number of Arabs and Arameans was equal in Palmyra. The tribes that settled in the city were Arabic, spoke Arabic, and wrote in the army. The Arabs felt themselves the masters of these places. They came, built their dwellings in Palmyra, and this happened long before Islam. Further, until the 1st century BC. e., there is no information about Palmyra. True, the Old Testament mentions that Palmyra was ruled by Solomon, who reconstructed this city. The pre-Islamic poet al-Nabiha in the poem Al-Daleyya recalls an Arabic legend about how a genie built Palmyra for King Solomon: “God ordered Solomon: Get up and go to people, help them free themselves from mistakes, let the genie know what I gave he has the right to build beautiful stone buildings and columns of Tadmor. The city was destroyed, but soon rebuilt. The name "Tadmor". By which he is known to the Arabs and other Semitic people, is of unknown origin. Under the Latin name "Palmyra", the city was widely known in the Greco-Roman period. For some time, Palmyra was in the hands of the Seleucids and gained independence in 64 BC. e., while the rest of Syria became a Roman province. From that moment on, the city played the role of a buffer state between the Persians and the Romans. Favorable geographical and political position allowed him to be a link between the Mediterranean culture and the culture of the Persian Gulf. By the 1940s, it had become a richest trading center. Pearls, glassware, wines, Chinese silk, Indian ivory, Persian carpets, statues from Phoenicia were brought here. Countless caravans rushed to the amazing city. The wealth of the city attracted the greedy attention of Rome. In one of the texts relating to 41 BC. e., it is said that Anthony. The proconsul of Rome in Egypt organized the robbery of the city: “When Antony sent his riders to Palmyra and ordered to plunder it, he had nothing to blame the Palmyrans for they are honest and trade, buying goods in India, Arabia, Persia and selling them to the Romans” . During this period, the city was not fortified, and in case of danger, the inhabitants, taking their possessions, went to the left bank of the Euphrates. However, Palmyra really submitted to Rome only in the first century of our era. It became part of the Roman province of Syria, being an autonomous and representing an oligarchic republic. In the 60s of the 2nd century, Palmyra again became virtually independent. In 267, the ruler of Palmyra Odenathus was killed. The Palmyra crown passed to his youngest son, still a baby, who inherited all titles and titles from his father. Zenobia, who became regent under her son, seized power in her own hands. An educated, strong-willed, extremely proud and intelligent beauty, she was also extremely ambitious. After the death of Claudius II, the Roman Empire experienced a severe crisis. Rome hardly repelled the raids of the Goths. Zenobia chose this period for her invasion of Egypt. Having defeated the Roman troops in Egypt, she also carried out her plans to capture the whole of Asia Minor. In the summer of 271, Zenobia and her son proclaimed themselves Empress and Emperor of the East. This was the time of the highest glory of Zenobia. Palmyra minted coins depicting her and her son. In the autumn of 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian launched military operations against Zenobia. They deployed primarily in Egypt. Since Palmyrene domination was not particularly popular, Aurelian won quickly. He took back all the cities. Conquered by Palmyra, and without much difficulty reached Syria. Aurelian crossed the Orontes and won two decisive battles. Zenobia's troops fled to Palmyra, finding refuge behind its mighty walls. The city was besieged. At night, Zenobia fled the city on a camel, trying to get to Persia and get the help of a former ally, but was captured. Palmyra surrendered. Zenobia followed Aurelian's chariot as a captive in the procession of triumph. In Homs, Zenobia's advisers were executed, among whom was Cassius Longinus, a philosopher and orator, the head of the Neoplatonist school and Zenobia's close associate. As soon as the winner reached Europe, as Palmyra revolted, the Roman garrison, led by the governor, was killed. Aurelian was forced to return, which resulted in the sacking of the city and the destruction of its walls. In the struggle against Rome, Palmyra lost its former glory. At the beginning of the XII century, the influence of Palmyra again intensifies. At the end of this century, it was annexed to the Emirate of Homs. Arab castles grew one after another around. But the city again loses its importance after the invasion of Timur and the fall of the large northern cities on the Euphrates, which were connected with it by trade relations. Earthquakes and Bedouin raids complete the work of its destruction and devastation. So a new acquaintance with Palmyra (already with its ruins) occurs only in the XVII-XVIII centuries. The earliest scientific expedition to Palmyra was carried out by two Englishmen who published their sketches in the collection The Ruins of Palmyra. It was followed by the Waddington expedition. A German expedition visited here in 1902. English travelers, the authors of The Ruins of Palmyra, reported that they found only 18 houses in Palmyra. They had to live in the courtyard of the temple of Baal. But gradually a newly built city grew nearby. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Palmyra attracted great interest and a large influx of visitors. The ruins of the ancient city are scattered over a large area between the temple of Baal in the east and the foot of the hills in the west, connected by long colonnades with the Triumphal Gate. Most of the large buildings are located near the southern part of the colonnade. This is a theater, a senate, an agora with four portals. The fortress wall was almost level with the ground, but it is still possible to determine the boundaries of the ancient city from it. From the top of the hill, you can look at the entire ensemble of ruins and imagine ancient Palmyra with its luxurious buildings and green spaces. This is the Palmyra, which more than once appeared as a beautiful mirage in the lines of many lyrical poems. The Temple of Baal was located on an artificial hill that hid the remains of an earlier pagan temple. Its plan is typically oriental in nature: a quadrangular courtyard with covered galleries, in the center is the actual temple, in front of which there is an altar for sacrifices, a room for refreshments and a sacred pool. Each side is flanked by two rows of columns, which were once adorned with gilt-bronze capitals. In the southern and eastern sides of the temple there are two niches with images of the Palmyra gods. This phenomenon is typically Syrian. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans placed the gods in niches, but placed them on a pedestal. The temple was closely connected with the life of the city, its ordinary inhabitants. Partially preserved inscriptions on the walls testify to this: “Allah, have pity on Abd al-Samad, the son of Obeid, and on Muhammad, the son of Yazid, and forgive them their sins, past and present. Have mercy. Allah, any of those who, after reading the inscription, say: Amen! An inscription has been preserved on the eastern wall - the edict of the ruler of Damascus Az-Zahir, confirming the right of the inhabitants of Palmyra to graze cattle on the Terebint hill. The first houses of Palmyra were built around a spring near the temple of mBaal. But most of the buildings that have survived today were built during the heyday of the city. In addition to the main temple of the god Baal in Palmyra, there were temples dedicated to other gods. A temple dedicated to the god Nabo, the son of Marduk, the Babylonian god of heaven, was discovered. The plan of the found temple is typically Syrian: a monumental entrance, a courtyard surrounded by a covered gallery, and a temple in the center. There is a small altar in the courtyard. Architectural fragments of the interior of the temple testify to a strong Mesopotamian influence. During the Roman period, the Syrians became acquainted with such a form of temple as the basilica. Such a structure was found in Palmyra near the temple of Baal Shamin. The Basilica is one of the earliest buildings used for Christian worship. It has a nave and side aisles used as a court of justice and a place for trading. The Palmyra basilica also includes a rectangular hall ending in a niche. Its portico is supported by six columns. The construction of the Basilica dates back to the 5th century. A spacious public square - the agora was once surrounded by columns. Its northern side was intended for high-ranking officials, the western side for military leaders, the southern side for caravaners and the eastern side for senators. Built in the 2nd century, it was destroyed at the same time. Zenobia used her stone to build a defensive wall. Two fountains in the corners of the northern portico, a semi-basement and the remains of a platform from which speakers spoke have been preserved. The central gate was decorated with images of members of the family of Septimius Severus and other Syrian and Roman emperors. Palmyra is surrounded by a protective wall built of huge stones. Its length exceeds 12 kilometers. It acquired its original form during the reign of Odaenathus and Zenobia and was reinforced with square bastions. During the siege of the city by Aurelian in 272, the wall was destroyed. But in the 6th century it was restored by the emperor Justinian and partially preserved in this form until our time. Four types of burials have been preserved in Palmyra. These are tower graves, house graves, underground graves, or hypogea, and individual burials. Towers are the oldest type of burial grounds. They are a typically Palmyran invention. These are, as a rule, square buildings with several floors with stairs. At first, their design was very simple - with niches dug at ground level, but from the 1st century AD, the Palmyrians began to take more care of their interior. The base of the tower became stepped, the facade was decorated with balconies. Particular attention was paid to the first floor: here are Corinthian pilasters, and colored friezes, and painted ceilings. When the first floor was filled, the second was built, and so on. The tower was a kind of family crypt. In the design of tower burials, the influence of the Greek tradition is noticeable. However, in sculpture, Palmyra created her own style. The most interesting among the underground burials is the Tomb of the Three Brothers. The Palmyrene inscription on the door testifies that three brothers - Namain, Male and Saedi - dug this grave in the middle of the 2nd century. The walls and brick vaults of the grave are covered with plaster. Along the walls there are six rows of niches in which the dead were placed. Three beautiful white sarcophagi in the side compartment reminded of the Hellenistic source of Palmyrene art. On the wall are beautifully preserved frescoes of the Greco-Syria style. The arch of the burial is decorated with blue hexagons and gilded rosettes. At the end of the 2nd century, another type of burials appeared in Palmyra. These are grave houses. They were one-story, with a carefully trimmed entrance. The door was always closed with a stone slab. Niches with sculptures of the dead were placed along the walls. There were a lot of such graves in Palmyra, but only one was well preserved - the house of Maron. It was built by Julius Arlius Maron in March 236. Later, it was used as a residential building, destroying niches and disfiguring the interior. Individual burials are the cheapest. They consisted of a simple rectangular pit two by two meters. The walls were usually lined with limestone. The dead were placed in an earthen coffin, a stone was placed on top, and this was considered quite sufficient. 14. Print. The Syrian pound serves until old age Mikhail SNEGIREV iHOSTRANETS #21 06/28/95 Guests from Russia on the ancient Syrian land are now represented mainly by shuttles. Accordingly, the acquaintance of Russians with Syria is still one-sided: "ours" have more or less mastered only markets, warehouses and factories of ready-made clothes there. Which is a little embarrassing. This country has seen Romans, crusaders, Ottomans, French colonialists and Soviet military specialists in its long history. The invasions of so many different cultures have left much to see in Syria. If you are not interested in looking at the mossy ruins, it is as if resorts on the Mediterranean Sea are provided especially for you in this country. But for whatever reason you come to Syria: for the sake of touching history, for the sake of the sun and the sea, or for the sake of business, you cannot avoid meeting the Syrian pound. The fact is that although the import and export of foreign currency in Syria is not limited, but payments in it on the territory of the country are strictly prohibited. A foreigner, in order to feel like a person with money there, must first exchange his dollars (or other hard currency) for local pounds. Formally, the right to such operations belongs in the country only to banks authorized by the government. The vast majority of them belong to the state. Banks are open from 9.00 to 19.00, lunch break - from 14.00 to 15.00. They work all days of the week, except for Friday, which in Syria, in accordance with Muslim rules, is considered a day off. There are exchange offices of banks in large high-class hotels, but unlike in other countries, they do not work around the clock: they close by 19.00-20.00. All private citizens in Syria are formally threatened with imprisonment for exchanging currency (a foreigner caught in the eye of a policeman for this activity is deported). However, since Syria is an eastern country, a lot of things don't quite go according to the law. Private currency exchange is so widespread that it can hardly even be called a "black market". Banks change money at a rate close to the official one. Last week it was just under 42 Syrian pounds for $1. At any bazaar, recognizing you as a foreigner, a local gentleman will certainly approach you with an offer to exchange dollars for pounds at a rate of approximately 1:50. According to the opinions of experienced Russian "shuttle traders", the Syrian currency traders, unlike their counterparts in many other countries, work honestly: they do not cheat and do not "throw". They just try to make the actual exchange somewhere in a secluded place, away from the eyes of the police. You don't have to go to the market. If you are traveling in Syria as part of a tourist group, then the same service and at the same rate will almost certainly be provided to you by a representative of the local travel agency hosting you. In this state of affairs, the vast majority of visitors from Russia do not apply to banks in Syria at all. Syrian pounds are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 25, 100 and 500 pounds. The proud title of "legal tender" is also worn by coins in denominations of 1 pound, half a pound, and even smaller ones, but due to too little purchasing power, they are rare in circulation. On banknotes, inscriptions, in addition to Arabic, are also made on English language . However, in vain you will look for the English word pound (pound) there. Since the time when France ruled Syria under the mandate of the League of Nations (between the first and second world wars), the French name livre has been attached to the Syrian monetary unit. Outwardly, Syrian paper money is a rather large ticket, most often very worn and soiled. According to local custom, banknotes are not withdrawn from circulation until they literally fall apart from dilapidation. Maybe that's why local money changers (both official and from the "black market") have no complaints about the appearance of foreign banknotes. No counterfeits of Syrian pounds have been recorded. In the field of trade and services in Syria, they flatly refuse to accept payment in dollars or any other currency other than pounds. In this country, there is only one type of institution, where, on the contrary, they accept exclusively hard currency - duty free shop. Unlike other countries, they are located not only at the international airport, but operate on the same principle: any goods purchased there must be taken out of the country and used only outside it. This is how it is achieved. Items purchased there cannot be taken with you. They are packaged, tagged with your name, brought to the airport for your flight departure, and handed to you just before you leave Syria. It is allowed to export local banknotes from Syria in the amount of not more than 2,000 pounds. Syria Lures Tourists Foreigner #20 05/29/96 The Syrian government has set itself the goal of bringing the number of tourists to the country to four million by the year 2000. In order to attract such a number of tourists to the country, the country's authorities are going to build two tourist villages on the Mediterranean coast. The first of them will be located not far from Latakia, the surroundings of which are simply crammed with all sorts of ancient monuments dating back more than one thousand years. Here are the most fashionable Syrian resorts. The other is next to Tartus, the site of ancient Phoenician settlements, the ruins of which have survived to this day. There are also many architectural monuments, reminiscent of the presence of the Crusaders in these places. In addition, the number of hotels will be increased, especially five-star hotels, of which there are only 11 in all of Syria so far. Living "dead" cities Irina MAK Foreigner #21 06-06-98 Tourists rarely get to the fortress of Khalebia, built on the Euphrates during the Roman Empire . Meanwhile, when the Romans adopted Christianity, the fortress became an object of pilgrimage and stands to this day. But this attraction is located in Syria, to put it mildly, not very open to the world in recent decades, and there are almost no tourists there. Syria is a natural architectural reserve. The "dead" cities, early Christian temples, albeit turned into mosques, and castles of the Crusaders have come down to us. If anyone gets here, he sees the standard set: Damascus, Aleppo, Palmyra. And that's it. The Muslim fort of Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi in the desert is a mystery to tourists, although it is only 30 kilometers from the nearest road. Further to the northwest lie the ruins of St. Simeon, where is the pillar on top of which this Byzantine saint sat for decades. The largest Christian basilica, older than European medieval cathedrals, was located near the columns around the pillar. The theater in the basalt Bosra is one of the rare well-preserved ones. And the wall surrounding the huge temple of Bel was recently a shelter for houses. People were relocated to make room for tourists. Today you can see all this alone. Only 200,000 foreigners visited Syria last year. A quarter of them are Russians who came here on business. But this situation will not last long. The trend towards greater openness that has emerged in Syria in recent years will be long-term. Jordan, for example, where a decade ago it was possible to explore the ruins of Petra alone, is introducing measures to control attendance. Syria remains that rare place where you can still feel the excitement of a pioneer. Bye. "Gazprom" is interested in the reconstruction of the oil pipeline Kirkuk (Iraq) - Banias (Syria) E. Suponina Vremya MN 03.12.98 The pipe has not functioned since 1982, when the Syrians supported Iran in the war with Iraq. The Gulf War put the matter on hold until sanctions were lifted. But this fall, Iraq and Syria began negotiations on resuming the pumping of oil through the pipeline in volumes of up to 300,000 barrels a day. There are plans to build another pipe. In total, up to 1.4 million barrels of Iraqi oil can go through Syria daily. The project caused a negative reaction from the United States, which indicated that it was impossible to export Iraqi oil via this route due to international sanctions. According to Vremenya's information, OAO Gazprom is interested in the section from the Syrian-Iraqi border to the port of Banias on the Mediterranean Sea. Gazprom's participation in the modernization of the port terminal and oil refinery is being discussed. Syria's own oil production is about 580 thousand barrels per day. The Syrian embassy in Russia confirmed the information available to the Vremya MN newspaper, refusing to comment on it. Oddly enough, the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia S.Stepashin will take up the issue. The correspondent of the newspaper "Vremya MN" managed to find out that the work in Syria can be carried out by a subsidiary of "Gazprom" - CJSC "Stroytransgaz", whose representatives recently visited the country. The company will take part in tenders for the construction of gas lines both inside Syria and to Lebanon. Success in Syria would come in handy against the backdrop of stalled cooperation between Gazprom and Israel. We were told at Gazprom's Foreign Economic Relations Department that "negotiations with the Israelis are ongoing." However, even during R. Vyakhirev's visit to Israel in October this year, the Israeli leadership, according to the local newspaper "Globes", pointed out the need to "wait for the development of affairs in Russia." In Syria, Gazprom has more chances of success, if only because Russia, unlike the United States, is historically "loved" there. Here (as well as in Iran) "Gazprom" intends to test the concept worked out several years ago. Its essence lies in the fact that the company intends to deal not only with gas supplies, but also participate in investment and construction of facilities abroad. List of references 1. “Arab countries. Story. Economy". Edited by E.A. Lebedev. M: "Science", 1970. 2. "Countries of the World: Brief political and economic reference book". Edited by I.S. Ivanov. M: "Republic", 1997, 3. "Countries and peoples. General review. Southwest Asia.". M: "Science", 1979. 4. "Economic geography of the countries of the Near and Middle East". Edited by P. Pobedina, V. P. Smirnov, V. V. Tsybulsky. M: "Enlightenment", 1970. 5. Druzhinina N. A. "Syria old and new." M: "enlightenment", 1975. 6. "CD Encyclopedia of Cyril Mifody", 1998. 7. Electronic journal"Foreigner", and other INTERNET resources. 8. "CD Atlas of the World", 1996 Contents. 1. Flag 1 2. Coat of arms 2 3. Pages of history 3 4. Map (cities and industry) 4 5. EGP and GWP 5 6. Nature of the country 6 7. Population 8 8. Economy 10 8.1. Industry 11 8.2. Agriculture 15 9. Transport 18 10. Foreign economic relations 20 11. Cities 22 11.1. Damascus 22 11.2. Latakia 26 11.3. Aleppo 28 12. What's interesting? 30 12.1. Krak des Chevaliers - Castle of the Knights 30 12.2. "The city that has never been conquered since the creation of the world" 31 12.3. Dead cities 33 13. Print 40 14. References 44 -----------------------
Economic and geographical position of Syria
Remark 1
The Syrian Arab Republic is located in the Middle East, in Southwest Asia.
Syria's neighbors are 5 states - with Turkey, the border runs in the north, then the eastern border falls on Iraq, in the south it borders on Jordan, the western border goes with Israel and Lebanon.
The longest length state border Syria falls on Turkey (899 km) and Iraq (596 km).
The western shores of Syria are washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea.
Syria and Turkey are connected by historical and geographical factors, but despite this, there are no bilateral relations at the official level.
Tensions are also with Israel, the existence of which Syria has never recognized. There are no economic or cultural ties between the countries.
Among all the countries of the Middle East, Lebanon is a strategic partner of Syria, relations between these countries are formed on the basis of the ethnic, cultural and economic unity of their peoples.
Relations with Jordan have also not always been smooth.
In the 1970s, relations between Syria and Iraq worsened. The reason was that Syria filled Lake Assad with water, which led to a reduction in the water flow in Iraq, but with the help of Saudi Arabia, this problem was solved.
For the development of the economy an important role is played by transport, the level of its development.
Transport in the country was poorly developed, and today, in wartime conditions, it is not necessary to talk about the development of transport infrastructure.
Before the war, the main role in cargo and passenger transportation was assigned to road transport. The country had a single network of roads, concentrated in the west of the country, along the Mediterranean coast.
The main transport routes stretched from Turkey to Jordan and Lebanon. Before the war, the length of asphalt concrete roads reached 40 thousand km.
Despite the fact that rail transport appeared earlier than road transport, it was in second place in the national transport system.
Air transport began to develop in the 60s of the last century. Provincial settlements were not connected by air. An international airport operated in Damascus, which received modern airliners.
In the presence of rivers, river transport has not received much development, and maritime transport is in its infancy.
Pipelines were used to transport oil to the Mediterranean Sea. Oil was transported from Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
The country was very dependent on the import of manufactured goods, especially it needs machinery and equipment, vehicles, and ferrous metals.
The beautiful Syrian cities hosted numerous foreign tourists.
Weapons are of particular importance for today's Syria. Freed from ISIS (a terrorist organization banned in Russia), Syrian cities are starting a peaceful life - restoring roads, rebuilding residential areas.
Remark 2
For peacetime, the economic and geographical position of Syria is favorable, because the country has an open outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, and from it to the Atlantic Ocean, is located at the crossroads of international land and air routes. The circumstances today have developed in such a way that its political and geographical position is very difficult, the country itself is a hot spot on political map world and is close to other hot spots in the Middle East region.
Natural conditions of Syria
There are five natural areas within Syria:
- Seaside lowland;
- Western mountain range;
- Rift zone;
- Eastern mountain range;
- East Syria Plateau.
The Primorskaya lowland stretches along the coast in a narrow strip. In some places it is interrupted by rocky headlands approaching the shore.
Between the lowlands and the rift zone is the Ansaria mountain range, which runs from the coast of Turkey to the borders with Lebanon. Its average height reaches 1200 m, and the highest point is Nebi-Yunes (1561 m). Breaking sharply in the east, the mountains form a ledge 900 m high. In the southern part of the Ansaria ridge there is an intermountain passage, where a road runs, connecting the city of Homs with the Lebanese port of Tripoli.
A rift zone extends for 64 km to the north of the pass and east of the ridge. It is a continuation of the East African Rift System.
The eastern mountain range is a hilly surface with a height of 460-600 m with a maximum elevation of 900 m. To the south of the Ansaria ridge stretch the Anti-Lebanon and Hermon (Esh-Sheikh) ridges. The highest point in Syria (2814 m) is located in the Ash-Sheikh ridge - the mountain has the same name. These ranges are the natural border between Syria and Lebanon.
The eastern part of Syria is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau, the northern part of which is lower than the southern by 300 m. To the east, the height of the plateau becomes lower from 750 m to 300 m in the floodplain of the Euphrates. Most of the plateau is covered with large-clastic lava material.
The western part of Syria is characterized by a subtropical Mediterranean climate, while the interior is dry continental.
In the west, an average of 750 mm of precipitation falls annually, in the mountains from 1000 to 1300 mm. The rains begin in October and continue until March.
Air temperature +30 ... +35 degrees with high humidity. Higher in the mountains, the temperature becomes lower - by 5 degrees during the day, and by 11 degrees at night. Winter average temperatures are +13…+15 degrees. Precipitation in the form of snow is possible, but only for the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria ridge.
Although this time is the rainy season, there are very few of them. In the east of Syria, the amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mm per year. This is a region of steppes and semi-deserts.
The average July temperature in the Damascus region is +28 degrees. The average daily air temperature in July and August exceeds +38 degrees.
Humidity and temperature drop sharply after sunset. In winter, the night temperature drops below zero, and in the northern part of the steppe zone, frosts and snowfall are frequent.
Natural resources of Syria
The subsoil of Syria is not rich in minerals. Prior to today's events, the country was mainly producing oil, large deposits of which are located in the extreme northeast.
Gas production activities were activated. The recoverable reserves of this fuel are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m.
The extraction of phosphates played an important role in the country's economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons - these are the Khneifns and Sharkiyya deposits.
Iron ore reserves are estimated at 400-500 million tons, and its main areas are Zabadani, Bludan, Raju.
The country also mined rock salt, building stone, gypsum, marble, asphalt, gravel.
Water resources are represented by rivers flowing through the territory of Syria in transit - in the east, the full-flowing Euphrates with tributaries originating in the mountains of Turkey.
In the west of Syria, the El-Asi River flows, the beginning of which is located in the mountains of Lebanon.
Along the border with Iraq, in the northeast, the Tigris flows. There are large lakes in the west.
The main soils are gray soils, they occupy most of the country. Chestnut soils occur in the north and west. The most fertile are brown soils found on the lower slopes of the Ansaria Range and the coastal lowland. There are saline and gypsum soils.
Anthropogenic impact on vegetation is great, especially now. The primary forests that covered the slopes of the mountains were replaced by secondary forests, represented by low-growing coniferous and deciduous species.
In the western part of the country, evergreen oaks, laurels, magnolias, ficuses grow on the mountain slopes. You can meet cypress groves, groves of Lebanese cedar, Aleppo pine. On the coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, sugar cane.
Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: a physical and geographical essay), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical essay: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical essay: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Huseynova (Theatre), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical essay), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical essay: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>
SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).
General information
S. is a state in the Southwest. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language is Arabic. Monetary unit - sir. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).
Administrative-territorial division (2011)
| Governorate (province) | Area, thousand km 2 | Population, million people | Administrative center |
|---|---|---|---|
| Damascus (city) | 0,1 | 1,8 | |
| Dara | 3,7 | 1 | Dara |
| Deir ez-Zor | 33,1 | 1,2 | Deir ez-Zor |
| Idlib | 6,1 | 1,5 | Idlib |
| Latakia | 2,3 | 1 | Latakia |
| Reef Dimashq | 18 | 2,8 | Damascus |
| Tartus | 1,9 | 0,8 | Tartus |
| Aleppo (Aleppo) | 18,5 | 4,9 | Aleppo (Aleppo) |
| Hama | 10,2 | 1,6 | Hama |
| Homs | 40,9 | 1,8 | Homs |
| El Quneitra | 1,9 | 0,1 | El Quneitra |
| Al Hasakah | 23,3 | 1,5 | Al Hasakah |
| Er Raqqa | 19,6 | 0,9 | Er Raqqa |
| Es Suwayda | 5,6 | 0,4 | Es Suwayda |
S. is a member of the UN (1945), the Arab League (1945, membership was suspended in 2011), the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), the IMF (1947), the IBRD (1947).
Political system
S. is a unitary state. The constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.
The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a 7-year term (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.
The supreme body of the legislator. power - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis ash-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.
The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.
Leading politicians. Party: Party Arab. socialist. Renaissance (PASV), Progressive nat. Front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Change, etc.
Nature
Relief
Coast preim. low, slightly indented bays. The B. h. of the territory of S. is a plateau, descending from the northwest to the southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. depression El-Gab with the valley of the river. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain makes up the Ansaria ridge (Al-Nusairiya; height up to 1562 m), the eastern one - the mountains of El-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya (height up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon, there is the Anti-Lebanon Range (height up to 2629 m, Mount Talat-Musa) and its south. continuation - the Ash-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Ash-Sheikh (Hermon) vys. up to 2814 m. In Anti-Lebanon, there are many karst landforms formed in limestones. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). In the southwest is a volcanic Ed-Duruz massif (height up to 1803 m). In the southeast - part of the Syrian desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. In east. parts along the river valley. The Euphrates stretches alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the Badiyat al-Jazira plateau. 200–450 m remnant hills (mountains Abd al-Aziz height up to 920 m, etc.). Along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.
Geological structure and minerals
The territory of S. is located on the north. the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian platform, in the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a capacity of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of cherts and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, eolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravel, limestones) occur on the coastal lowland. In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic part of S.'s territory experienced uplift; a regional seismically active fault (the so-called Levantinsky fault) emerged, along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and builds. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.
Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural combustible gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, in the east and northeast, belong to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestones, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural structures. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).
Climate
On the territory of S. the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast, the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; rainfall over 800 mm per year. It is cooler in the Ansaria (Al-Nusairiya) ridge, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus cf. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; rainfall approx. 200 mm per year. In the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and their instability over the years increases. Vost. part of the country has a dry continental climate; cf. January temperatures 4–7 °C (almost annual frosts are typical), August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing. the shemal wind and the spring wind khamsin blowing from the direction of the Arabian desert are accompanied by sand and dust storms.
Inland waters
B. h. territory has no external flow, dry erosion valleys (wadis) are characteristic of the flat areas. The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean and the Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length in the north 675 km) with tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of S.'s surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabka [near the city of Madinat al-Taura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El Asad reservoir. Along the north-east. the borders of S. flows r. Tiger. In the northwest, a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmuk (a tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - the river. El-Kebir. The runoff of the river is formed completely within the S.. Barada irrigating the oasis Damascus Huta. The maximum river runoff takes place in winter, in summer there is low water on the rivers. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used with the help of wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources are 16.8 km 3 , water availability is low - 882 m 3 /person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in the industry, 87% - in the village. x-ve. In S., the problems of dividing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.
Soils, flora and fauna
On the plateau, sandy-loamy deserts with thin soils of the serozem type are widespread. In the south, stony-gravelly hamads predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the north S.'s borders are common gray-brown and brown soils. The Badiyat-el-Jazira plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. On the coastal lowland, there are brown soils, with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.
The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and semi-shrubs (saltwort, wormwood), ephemers. On the Badiyat-el-Jazira plateau, short-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge, and other ephemeroids, with the participation of wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates valley, sections of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and along the coast. pines, Cilician fir, small massifs of relic Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. On the back On the slopes of the Ansaria (Al-Nusairiya) ridge, broad-leaved oak forests are widespread with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs. The lower parts of the slopes usually cover the secondary formations of maquis and gariga. To the east the slopes of the Ansaria, Antilivan and Ash-Sheikh (Hermon) ranges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the middle mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain belt.
The animal world is diverse. 125 species of mammals live, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; from ungulates - antelope, wild ass onager, many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, forest cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks), falcons, eagles, and hawks are among the birds of prey. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are under the threat of extinction.
State and environmental protection
In S., where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has changed greatly. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Main ecological problems are overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and along the coast. In east. desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur in arid regions. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial is urgent. drains, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 sites (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake El Jabbul is a wetland of world importance.
Population
The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yezidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (in the area between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of the Neo-Assyrian languages zap. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyo (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of Neo-Assyrian speakers also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.
The population for 1950-2014 increased by 6.5 times (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military operations, according to the UN , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight from the country of St. 4 million people). natural us growth. 2.1% (2013), which is due to the mean. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than the death rate (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15-64 years old) - 61%; the proportion of children (under 15 years) - 35%, persons over 65 years - 4%. Wed life expectancy 75 years (men - 72, women - 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed us density. OK. 97 people/km2 (2014). The most dense selenium coast, sowing. part of the country and the governorate of Rif-Dimashq (average density 100–250 people / km 2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama and others over 1000 people / km 2); the least is the center. and east. areas (less than 25 people / km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). The largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the structure of employment, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry - 32.7%, with. x-va - 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).
Religion
A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, estimate). The overwhelming majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are widespread); the influential Shia minority includes Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of Druzes is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10-11% of the inhabitants are Christians, predominantly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldean Catholics, Syro Catholics, Maronites, Greek Catholics, Armenian Catholics and Roman Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. In the Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, there is a small Yezidi community. Few. the Jewish community remained in Damascus. Serious damage to religion. minorities in the country inflicts weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.
Historical outline
Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest
The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Ashelian [main. monuments - between the river. El Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm-et-Tlel (in the oasis of El-Koum north of Palmyra; layers ca. 20 m, before the Neolithic), etc.]. Then follows the industry Yabrud, then - Hummal and Laminar (about 200-150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Mousterian era is represented by the Levallois industry (including those with pointed points such as Umm-et-Tlel and others); the early Upper Paleolithic - by Orignac and the Akhmar culture (about 35–17 thousand years ago), the middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which Natufian culture .
The territory of S. is included in the most ancient zone of the formation of a producing economy - fertile crescent. Among the supporting monuments dokeramich. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell-Abr, Tell-Aswad, Ras-Shamra, El-Kdeir, etc. A number of centers of the appearance of ceramic dishes that spread from the middle. 7th millennium BC e. About con. In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture is recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra and the Khalaf culture spreads, replaced by the sowing culture. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the civilization of Sumer, there are mountain settlements. such as Tell-Brak, Tell-Hamukar in the north-east of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.
From the beginning 3rd thousand communications with the South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community of "Nineveh 5" is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-adm. centers (see in the article Tell-Khazna). Around ser. In the 3rd millennium, settlements appeared with a bypass wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type), correlated with the cities and the beginning of the Syr itself. civilizations; during the excavations of tell Beidar (the ancient city of Nabad), the oldest in the region (25th century) cuneiform archive (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian) was discovered. From the beginning 3rd millennium, in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites are settled from the south, and another group of Semites is advancing to the north, which founded the state of Ebla, which competed with that which arose on Wed. Euphrates Marie. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.
About con. In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 - beg. 18th century in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) is formed, which soon collapsed. In the west, the states of Yamkhad and Qatna competed with him and among themselves. To the 2nd floor. 1770s - 1760s (under Zimri-Lim) refers to the last flowering of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century a prominent role in the region, along with the Semites, was played by the Hurrians. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Egypt Ancient with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the oldest alphabet in the world (c. 15th century; see also Ugaritic script). According to the Hitto-Egypt. world (1270) b. part of the territory of S. remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon Sev. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-08), and the state of the Hittites, like an Asian. possessions of Egypt, in con. 13 - beginning. 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the peoples of the sea, who also destroyed a number of cities in the sire. coast of the Mediterranean.
To con. 2nd - beginning. 1st thousand these app. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North. S.), coexisting with the states, where the so-called. late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose founded by the Arameans (Achlameans), who penetrated the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit-Adini (the capital in Til-Barsib), Bit-Bakhiani in the upper reaches of the Khabur (the capital of Guzan is the settlement of Tell-Khalaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi near the city of Aleppo (Haleb) and others. One of them, with its capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, the first written mention c. Ser. 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of his kings Rizon I and Tabrimmon, becomes the strongest in the region.
From con. 11th c. expansion into the region of Assyria begins. Opposing this so-called. North Sir. the union was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III in 857–856. T. n. Southern Sir. the alliance (supported by the rulers of Phoenicia, Palestine, Egypt, the North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) in the battle of Karkara (853) managed to stop the Assyrians. However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734 the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; series resistance sir. states led by the king of Damascus Rizon II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig latpalasar III. Rhizon II was executed, b. h. Aramaic population resettled in ext. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.
After the death of Assyria in 612-609, S. became the arena of the struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. went to Antigonus, after the battle of Ipsus (301) entered the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and disintegration began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then it was part of Parthian kingdom, Armenia, was controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. land S. controlled Nabataean kingdom. In 83-69 BC. e. the region captured the arm. Tsar Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. S. and a number of adjacent lands was organized by Rome. prov. Syria.
From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) Prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic position (4 legions were located here) and economical. potential (highly developed agriculture and handicrafts, including textile and glass-making). Sir. merchants and craftsmen were known in many cities of Rome. empire. Some Roman. emperors and members of their families were originally from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and the influence of Rome, especially in polyethnic. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (main arr. based on Aramaic).
From the 1st century S. is one of the centers for the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. represented more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antioch Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of a patriarchate. From the 4th c. the region becomes an important center of monasticism, pilgrimage was born here (cf. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of intra-Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of Miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under imp. Justine I (518-527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread to the Middle and Wed. East (see Syrian churches).
In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Celesiria and Sirophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Prov. (the capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - the provinces of C. I (the capital in Antioch) and C. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small prov. Theodoria. The state centered in Palmyra, which for some time retained its independence, was annexed to Rome c. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 put under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of the struggle against the state of the Sassanids, is known no later than the 4th century.
During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but under a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.
Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest
All R. 630s as a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, Byzantium's power in the territory of S. ended. weakened, the dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634 Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fahla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra esh-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzant. an army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counterattack, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmuk (636) was put to flight by a smaller force of Muslims; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638 Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until mid. 640s Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became a political. and the cultural center of the growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in decomp. areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, most of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. lang. (from the beginning of the 8th century). Remained, however, otd. Hellenistic elements. heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted the culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and the influence of both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture was reflected in architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).
All R. 8th c. The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline, it was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and the gradual decline of cities began. In the context of the political and economic Instability continued Arabization and Islamization of the Sir. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, sowing. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to Byzantine attacks. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which applied for war. help now to Baghdad, then to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the capture of Syria by Egypt. emirs Tulunids in 878, in 935 - emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Fatimid Ismaili caliphate. All R. 10th c. all in. S. the Hamdanid dynasty came to power, whose court was in Aleppo, which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).
Syria before the Ottoman conquest
The development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries was suspended by the conquest of its internal. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and sowing. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. the regions of S., which remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, the Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimids. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 on its territory of the Prince of Antioch. Vost. S. broke up into separate. Arab dominions. and Seljuk feudal lords, who fought both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo Nur ad-Din managed to unite most of the S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part of sir. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he ousted the crusaders from the mean. parts of the Antioch prince-va. The successors of Salah ad-Din - the Ayyubids retained control only over the internal. areas of S., in the north were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the Crusaders, in the east - dec. Turk. state formations.
In the 2nd floor. 13th c. S. was under the rule of Egypt. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually, the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baibars succeeded in the 1260s. take strategically important fortified points of the Ismailis in the mountains of S. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last fortresses of the Crusaders on Syr. coast of the Mediterranean. At that time, an effective adm. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts began, and with. x-va. S. reached its peak during the reign of Nasir al-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through S. and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and North. Africa began the decline of the power of the Mamluks, which opened the way for the Mongols led by Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the success of Mong. troops, to horse. 15th c. Sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were raiding the territories adjacent to the Red Metro, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.
Syria until the end of the 19th century
As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of Serbia was divided into four vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus, and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were ruled by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special ones were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first favorably affected the development of c. x-va. However, the strengthening of tax oppression and the growth of arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. In the economy of the region means. the role began to play a goal. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut turned into Ch. shopping centers S. Europe. Penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchants in a number of cities. colonies, which took over almost completely trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (predominantly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of the European. powers to establish their spheres of influence in S. (the French supported the Maronites, the British supported the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, striving to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze were resettled in an isolated mountainous region southeast of Damascus, and the region itself received the name. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. h. S. came under the rule of Akk Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 the French troops, unable to capture Egypt, landed on the Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Brit. fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.
During the tour.-Egypt. During the war of 1831–33, S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. Pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, the growth of the cultivated land fund. However, the introduction of recruitment duty, state. corvee and tax increases caused repeated uprisings of the sires. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans who supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in Serbia. powers: since 1840, the power of the Ottoman sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for Europe goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The tendency to transition of page - x which was outlined in this connection. Allotments in the possession of the townspeople increased after the law of 1858, which permitted the transfer of communal lands in the villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From Ser. 19th century Commodity-money relations actively developed in Serbia. Specialization took place. s.-x. regions (Northern S. - cotton, Khauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for granting loans to the Ottoman Empire, the French. companies have received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of the Hijaz), modern. port facilities, the organization of regular steamship communications, the laying of telegraph lines.
In connection with the increasing intervention app. powers in economic and political S.'s life to con. 19th century anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arabs. the elites were also unhappy with Ottoman rule. In the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia, the ideas of the Arab were developed. nationalism. In the 1870s a society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yaziji, whose goal was to fight Ottoman domination. In the 1890s in Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated the independence of Serbia from the Ottoman Empire.
Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century
Patriotic mood in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution of 1908. Dozens of social and political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines established legal Arab. patriotic organizations practiced mass rallies and political. disputes. However, it soon became apparent that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend the interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. The formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among the young and European-educated sir. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif al-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. club. Syrians also dominated such prominent nat. political organizations like "Young Arabia" (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, together with the Lebanese Reform League, they convened an Arab in Paris. congress. However, the inability of the Arab. nationalists to involve in their political. the struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.
After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a base for the German tour. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Jemal Pasha, who led in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared military in S. position. Despite the mass repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, due to an increase in taxes on the military. needs and Brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of mass requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sir. food riots took place in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the arms. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-Brit. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation after the war of a single independent Arab. state-va. In Sept. In 1918, an anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, which coincided in time with the advance of the British to Damascus. and French troops and an Arab. armies led by Faisal (entered in Oct. 1918). B. h. S. fell under the authority of the British commander of the allied forces. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, were French. strength. British-appointed military governor in east S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to rule all former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (earlier, in March 1920, by a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent .). However, in Apr. 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. Representatives at the San Remo Conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and to control Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan - to Great Britain. In July 1920 the French troops, overcoming the armament. Sir resistance. patriots, occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.
Syria during the French Mandate
During the French period S.'s mandate was divided into five autonomous regions ("states"): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia ("Alawite state"), Jebel Druz (a Druze region with a center in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme north-east of the country in the vicinity of Rakka and Deir ez-Zor, a separate section was allocated. a district administered directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by joining the populated Preim. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida and others. The conditions of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for free Europe. trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow to the sire. textile industry (in 1913-26 the number of weavers in Aleppo was reduced by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies exerted a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the "Bank of Syria and Lebanon" had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipes belonged to the French.
All R. 1920s in S. there was a number of political. parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sir. and lebanon. communists; actually Sir. communist party (SKP) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). All over S., anti-French forces flared up. speeches. In 1922–23, a Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new revolt of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of Gen. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, suppressed after two days of art. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial administration in Syria. In 1925, the "state of Aleppo" and the "state of Damascus" were merged into the "state of Syria." In Apr. 1928 elections were held in the Constituent. assembly. In May 1930, an organic statute (constitution) was adopted in Serbia, proclaiming it a republic (with the French mandate retained). Under the French the regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia, which were isolated from the north, remained in control. In the parliamentary elections in Nov. 1936 won the National. block. Dec. 1936 the new parliament elected H. Atasi as the country's president. National-liberate. movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the party Nat. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of the independence of S. In Dec. 1936 Franco-Syr was signed. an agreement declaring the sovereignty of S., which did not allow France to interfere in the internal. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to deploy and move troops, as well as to create a military. bases on the territory of Northern Ireland. A three-year transitional period was provided for the abolition of the mandate regime and the entry of Serbia into the League of Nations. Sir. Parliament ratified the treaty on 12/27/1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, who came to power in France, in January. 1939 abandoned the treaty. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the high commissioner suspended the constitution (abolished in July of the same year) and dissolved the parliament (to manage the internal. the affairs of the country created the so-called. board of directors).
Since the start of World War II on Sept. In 1939, war was declared in S. position, large contingents of French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the capitulation of France in June 1940, the country came under the authority of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. In connection with the violation of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the flow of food and raw materials, economic. the situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. Feb. 1941 National the bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the "Board of Directors" and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the autumn of 1941. On 8/7/1941, Britons entered S. troops and units Free France". Between Kuatly, the Free French administration and Brit. representatives reached an agreement, according to which in July 1943 new parliamentary elections were held in the country, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded in Dec. 1943, French the mandate was canceled, to Sir. the government from 1.1.1944 passed the main. adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen foreign policy. country's sovereignty. Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March, she took part in the creation Arab League. In October she was admitted to the United Nations. However, Britons continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. would provide her with economic aid. and strategic privileges. Refusal Sir. government to meet these requirements caused in May 1945 clashes between the French. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. were subjected to artillery shelling). In the fall of 1945, the S. government demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to decide on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.
Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arab. countries started wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli Wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the adversaries, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Serbia.
Syria after independence
S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the nat. economy, development prom. (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (predominantly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of the state. sector in the economy was put in 1951-1955 by the nationalization (for the ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by the "Iraq Petroleum Company" and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" on deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for the transportation of oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that translated labor relations into a legal plane. In 1947 a new electoral law was issued introducing direct elections and secret ballot. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable, most of them were on the rights of sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, was due to the internal political. state instability. In the beginning. In 1947, the peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of political parties. parties, which allowed the National. parties to win the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli to be re-elected president. Nov. 1948 his government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the Chief Gen. regimental headquarters. Kh. al-Zaim introduced a state of emergency in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, and the activities of the political. parties are completely banned. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in armed forces. forces during the re-war. coup led by Col. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. Dec. 1949 Regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad civil rights and conduct socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (since July 1953 - president) who established the military regime. dictatorships. All political. parties, societies organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was repealed. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in Feb. 1954, supported by people. speeches in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government, formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, set about restoring the democratic system. institutions. The constitution of 1950 was returned, and the activities of political parties were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by the desire parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industry and the agricultural sector, victory in the presidential elections in August. 1955 won Kuatli again.
In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in " cold war". All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against the creation of Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the United States and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56 Egypt reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and the creation of a common military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian. connections. Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). In Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the region of the UAR, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the seizure of landowners means. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961, foreigners were nationalized. and private commercial banks and major industrial companies. All political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a general unstable economic In the 1940s, the situation of S. (crop failure due to drought, interruptions in supply, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in discontent among the population. Egyptian Decree. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction to S. state. planning and strengthening state. sector paved the way for the new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by the military command of S.) and S.'s withdrawal from the UAR.
The activities of the new government of M. al-Dawalibi were aimed at the gradual curtailment of the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused in decomp. Sir circles. public debate about ways to further develop the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the exit to the political. proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in the strengthening of the positions of the PASV.
As a result of military On March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they had convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade union associations and the adoption of a new labor law, in accordance with which the role of the state in protecting the rights of workers increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called. Ramadan socialist. the decree that put everything under the control of the state is most significant. Sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program for further nationalization was implemented. In the course of its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASW began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the left from all desks. and Mrs. posts. But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a program of broad socio-economic. transformations. The nationalization of large industrial enterprises followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State. the sector of the economy took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967, the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).
In 1966 - early. 1967 increased tension on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions, as a result of which part of the Sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra region, was occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (which means that part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the reputation of the government and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. a wing of the PASV led by H. Assad.
Syria in 1970–2011
With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. support of trade and investment process in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sir. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arabs. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry in Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic. contacts and generous economic help from Saudi. Arabia and Kuwait in con. 1970s The Arab-Israeli war of 1973 showed a marked strengthening of the country's defense capability compared to 1967. However, the use of budgetary funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with the highest officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with growing competition between state officials, provoked accusations of corruption. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of decomp. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on state facilities and the murders of prominent S. and PASV functionaries.
After clashes between the army and the rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made on criminal liability for membership in the organization Muslim Brotherhood. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. leaders formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are to raise wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions on private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in Feb. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president's brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Const. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran–Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations rallied in the Nat. alliance for the liberation of Syria.
In the beginning. 1980s due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings have declined significantly, while the military has risen sharply. expenses in connection with the Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 congress of the PASV criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed reorganizing the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency circulation and losses from black market operations. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. governments and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and services. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [implemented only after in 1990-91 Damascus supported the operation of the international. coalition against Iraq Kuwait Crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf made it possible to achieve the rapid growth of the Sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the deficit in the balance of payments of S. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private business, continued its policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone was opened in 2000.
Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the vote in a referendum). But given his advanced age, the question of a successor became a question: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over as his father, received the support of 97.3% of the vote.
The new head of S. announced his intention to reach a settlement with Israel, subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders of 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which they were interrupted by his predecessor. Taking steps to rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time in order to expand the base of the sir. influence in Lebanon went to the strategic. partnership with Shia radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring S. Hussein's accomplices, followed by US sanctions. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, launched an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion in Beirut car ex. lebanon. prime min. R. al-Hariri: there were accusations against Damascus, allegedly seeking to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after in Sept. 2004 UN called for withdrawal of sir. army from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. complied with the relevant resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, which were won by the only candidate B. Assad.
Syrian Civil War
In March 2011, in the city of Dar'a (on the border with Jordan), unrest began under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Dar'a later spread to other regions (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of S. had reached its maximum. glow. The opposition accused the government of suppressing the protest with hundreds of civilian victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism, massacres of armed forces. forces and security forces. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political. reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in effect since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, a reduction in military conscription, and an increase in wages. A commission was established to investigate the events in Dar'a, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prisons. However, this did not lead to calm, on the contrary, the protests of the opposition increasingly took the form of armed. confrontation.
Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which the PASV was deprived of its leading and guiding status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, in the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the Nat. unity”, which included the PASV and the Progressive nat. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians died in El-Hula under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed the provocateurs from the opposition. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in conditions of de facto. civil wars: according to the official. According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the results of the vote. Part of the territory of S. was under the control of decomp. paramilitaries. organizations (terrorist "Islamic State" in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of S. in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).
At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorists. organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began air strikes on the positions of the Islamic State in the territory of S. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. On March 15, 2015, Turkey gave permission to the United States to use Incirlik Air Force Base to accommodate Amer. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the "Islamic State" started military. Russian operation in St.
Diplomatic relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Ros.-sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and S. Relations between Russia and S. are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008 B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, Vladimir Putin visited Damascus for the first time in the history of bilateral relations. Political Recent interactions have been focused on issues of intra-Syrian settlement.
economy
S. is a country of average economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. The volume of GDP is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); in terms of GDP per capita $ 5100. Human Development Index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).
The basis of the economy - p. x-in, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railway. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, revitalize the private sector, attract foreign. investments, etc. So. damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the armament that began in 2011. conflict between governments. rebel troops and formations. The state grew up. debt, economic growth slowed down. growth, accelerated inflation, etc.; significantly destroyed prom. infrastructure (the oil industry was the hardest hit). By 2015 will destroy. shares of international terrorist organizations (“Islamic State”, etc.) disorganized farms. communications, put the country's economy on the brink of collapse.
In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry - 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fisheries - 17.6% (2013, estimate).
Industry
The most developed (before the aggravation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industries are: oil and natural gas extraction and processing, electric power, chemical, building materials, food and textiles.
Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); main mining areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaydia, Rumailan deposits; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward deposits, etc. in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity of 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus Governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).
Natural gas production 16.6 bcm (2012, estimate); main deposits - El-Dubayat and El-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity approx. 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), Tadmor (2.2 million . m 3 , Homs governorate), etc.
Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest - "Aleppo", capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest - "Tabka" on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city of . Raqqa).
Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimated; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly on the basis of imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (about 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; plants in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).
Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering. and the electronics industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are car assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).
Phosphorites are being mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimated; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among chemical enterprises prom-sti - factories for the production of a miner. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas processing), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paints and varnishes, detergents, polymeric materials, etc. C. is one of the leading Arab. countries for the production of pharmaceuticals. drugs. In the beginning. 2010s in S. acted sv. 50 pharmaceuticals companies (approx. 17 thousand employed; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national drug needs.
The industry of building materials is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Output: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).
Traditionally, the textile industry is of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo, Damascus). The industry is represented by the cotton gin. factories, silk-spinning factories (the main center is Latakia), the production of woolen and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothes, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. (including sugar, oil, tobacco, canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production decomp. artistic metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .
Agriculture
One of the chap. industries of the national economy. In structure of page - x. out of 13.9 million ha, pastures account for 8.2 million ha, arable land - 4.7 million ha, perennial plantations - 1.0 million ha (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s needs for food and provided light and food-flavored industry with raw materials.
Crop production (about 65% of the value of agricultural production) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils under conditions of high moisture), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; rainfed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Cultivated (collection, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. tech. crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beet (1027.9 thousand tons).
Animal husbandry (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive, in semi-desert regions it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 mln. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes river valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch is about 12 thousand tons per year).
Services sector
The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state institutions. (the largest is Commercial Bank S., in Damascus) and small private ones (which arose in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also branches of international. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - St. 56%).
Transport
Main mode of transport is automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including with hard surface 66.1 thousand km, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa / border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Main lines: Damascus - Homs - Hama - Aleppo - Maidan-Ikbes / border with Turkey; Aleppo - Latakia - Tarsus - Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Er Raqqa - El Qamishli / border with Turkey. International airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. sea ports: Latakia (cargo turnover about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). S. has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals in the sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and oil refineries, as well as employees for the transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from deposits in the east and in the center of S. go to Aleppo (later to Turkey) and Homs (later to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.
International trade
The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2675 million dollars, imports of 8917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country has led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3876 million dollars, imports - 10780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and oil products (more than 1/3 cost), s.-x. products (cotton, dec. vegetables and fruits, wheat, livestock, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% value, 2012, est.): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported machinery and equipment, food, metals and products from them, decomp. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.
Armed forces
Armed. forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (SV), Air Force and Air Defense, Navy. Military. formations - up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the NE - 275 thousand people. Military annual budget of 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities that have been ongoing on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.
The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the President of the country, who determines the main directions of the military-political. S. course and manages the Armed Forces through the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. The head of the General Staff (he is also the commander of the SV), the commanders of the types of the Armed Forces and some centers are subordinate to him. MO control.
The direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the Armed Forces. Most formations and units have a strength below the standard.
NE (110 thousand people) - main. aircraft type. Organizationally consolidated into 3 headquarters of army corps, 12 divisions, 13 det. brigades, 11 dept. regiments of special destination. Reserve: headquarters of a tank division, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). In service with the SV are St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactical. missiles, 6 launchers for anti-ship missiles, 4950 tanks (including 1200 under repair and storage), 590 BRM, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 ATGM launchers, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.
The Air Force and Air Defense (about 56 thousand people) are composed of combat and auxiliary. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Main body adm. and operational control of the Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the air defense forces - the department. command; aviation is subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters in the main. obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of S. includes more than 100 airfields, while for basing the modern. only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu-ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Blay, Damascus, Dumair, En-Nasiriya, Seykal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been built at all airfields based on combat aviation. aircraft shelters. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 missile launchers, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.
The Navy (5,000 men) consists of the Navy, Navy Aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic. ships, training ship. The Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of P-5 and P-15 anti-ship missile systems, 2 art. division (36 130-mm and 12 100-mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Basing - Latakia, Tartus.
Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Recruitment of regular armed forces on conscription by males aged 19–40 years, service life 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for the military. service 3.2 million people. One of the priorities of the military construction of military-political. S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of aircraft modern. military samples. equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.
healthcare
In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total health spending is 3.4% of GDP (budget funding 46.1%, private sector 53.9%) (2012). The legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatry. assistance (2007). State. healthcare is free. In military conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and services for the provision of honey. care and health management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis, poliomyelitis (2012). Main causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).
Sport
National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the London Olympics; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in freestyle wrestling competitions in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in decomp. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to the boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 Sir. athletes participate in the Asian Games (with the exception of 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan Arab Games (1976, 1992), Sir. athletes won in the team event. The most popular sports in the country are football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, athletics. Since 1972, the men's national team has periodically taken part in the World Chess Olympiads.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
Education management. institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim. educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Main regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - on obligatory. education (1981), on the activities of high fur boots (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary prof. education (ch. arr. on the basis of an incomplete secondary school; a course of up to 3 years), higher education. The Center for Prof.-Techn. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary prof. educational institutions work 2-year technical. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. Pre-school education covered (2013) 5.3% of children, primary education - 74.2%, secondary - 44.1%. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). The largest universities scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.
Mass media
Arabic daily newspapers are published. lang. (all - Damascus): "Al-Baath" ("Renaissance", since 1948, organ of the PASW; circulation about 65 thousand copies), "Al-Saura" ("Revolution", since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; approx. 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; approx. 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab” (“Struggle of the People”, since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. lang. comes out daily gas. "Syria Times" (Damascus; since 1981; approx. 12 thousand copies). Weekly journals are published in Arabic. lang. (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillakhin” (“The Peasants’ Struggle”, since 1965, an organ of the General Federation of Syrian Peasants; approx. 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist workers' struggle", since 1966, an organ of the General Federation of Syrian Trade Unions; about 30,000 copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (operated by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), television broadcasting since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; city of Damascus). Governments. Sir. Arab. information agency (" Syrian Arab News Agency"; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).
Literature
Lit-ra Sir. people develops into an Arab. lang. On the territory of S. in the 1st century. n. e. Sir existed. the language in which lit. works (see Syriac literature) and which in the 14th century. the Arab was completely ousted. language. Wed-century. lit-ra S. - part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in S., which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, a period of enlightenment began; the desire to update literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story "Joys for lovers and delight for the nights", 1874; collection of essays "Pearls", 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The initiators of Sir. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah (historical dramas Cleopatra, 1888; Greed of Women, 1889) became the theater directors. At the origins of a new sir. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books "Forest of Law", 1866, "Journey to Paris", 1867; story "Pearls from Shells", 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of Sir. prose became works created in the traditions of the maqama, but devoted to the pressing problems of the sir. societies: N. al-Qasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Sakal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Age”, 1909). Patriotic The theme is traditional. poetic form. creativity of M. al-Bizma, H. ad-Din az-Zarkali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. romanticism dominated in the literature of S., most clearly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. an-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Rish, V. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attara, prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose writer. genre in the literature of S., is associated with M. al-Arnaut (the novels The Lord of the Quraish, 1929; The Virgin Fatima, 1942; and others). Novels in modern the themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.
Since the 1930s realism began to assert itself, vividly represented by short stories by A. Khulki (collection "Spring and Autumn", 1931), M. al-Najar (collection "In the palaces of Damascus", 1937), F. ash-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Sorceress's Daughter”, 1948) and others. The genre of social comedy (M. al-Sibai) took shape in dramaturgy; and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s and 60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Qayali, H. al-Qayali, S. ash-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Hauraniyya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (the novel "Love Letters", 1956), H. Barakat (the novel "Green Peaks", 1956), A. al-Ujayli (the novel "Basima in Tears", 1959) and others The "women's" prose, represented by the names of S. al-Khaffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel "The Diaries of Khala", 1950), K. al-Khuri (the novel "Days Spent with Him", 1959), received formalization. In the psychological Z. Tamer's prose, marked by stylistic. grace, the influence of Europe is palpable. modernist literature. Existential problems dominated in the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People”, 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats”, 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.
In the 1960s development received a "new poetry", marked metric-rhythmic. experiments: N. Qabbani, A. an-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; the work of Adonis gained wide fame. Romantization of the past, appeal to the mythological. material inherent rich philosophy. reflections of the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam-bek, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai, H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door”, 1964; “The Carpenter's Daughter”, 1968). The creator of the "political theater" was S. Vannus, M. al-Hallaj (the play "Dervishes Seek Truth", 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970s–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (the story “The Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said and others; in a modernist vein, they were presented by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Late Night Faces”, 1974). The novel developed preim. in realism. spirit, gravitating towards the panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilani, A. Nakhvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dihni, Y. Rifaiyya, H. al-Dhahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 - early. 21st century dedicated to the socio-political and patriotic. topics; among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Dhahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (the novels Masquerade of the Dead, 2003; N. Suleiman (the novel Souls Under Ban, 2012).
Architecture and fine arts
In the historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was exposed to many influences. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, other Egyptian, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely associated with the cultural complex of Arabia. In the 3rd century BC e. - 3 in. n. e. S. became an area of contact between ancient and Parthian traditions; in the 4th–7th centuries. - Byzantium. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of the ancient artist. The culture of S. determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, depict. and arts and crafts.
Ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, ca. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, ca. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - "idols" made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the East part of the territory of S. built on the sides of narrow and short streets, rectangular 3-4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, c. 7400–6200 BC), also made of stone and terracotta figurines, alabaster and marble vessels (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished earthenware is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the east. regions - ceramics of the culture of Samarra (Baguz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east. S. in the complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines were found, with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes (Tell-Khalaf); in the cave of Palanli (north. S.) - drawings of animals, close to the style of Khalaf ceramics. Eneolithic settlements of the north. and north-east. parts of the territory of S. had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, adm. buildings, multi-room rectangular in terms of houses with a center. hall and interior court (Khabuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the adobe masonry walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) in Tell Brak, the facades were decorated with clay cones, copper plates and gold. From the 2nd floor. 4th millennium BC e. were created by artists. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramic. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. prints with reliefs (Khabuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).
) S. Cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern regions of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. Fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings decomp. appointments grouped around courtyards of different sizes; ch. the premises were distinguished by their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, c. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall, and a cella with dedications. steles and statues of the gods. In the architecture of the S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. the type of the Syro-Hittite temple and/or the bit-khilani palace (the palace-temple of Kapara in Tell-Khalaf) was formed.Artworks of the Bronze Age demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) testify to the development of a local version of the Mesopotamian depiction. lawsuit departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Ebla's art works illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of eastern. and app. artistic traditions. Sculpture in style and iconography resembles Sumerian, but with more careful elaboration of details. The archaic roughness of enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plasticity of the Hittites; fine jewelry, stylistic. the products of Ugarit, from which the most important things originate, are reminiscent of diversity. monuments of art-va S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egypt. samples, mainly demonstrate the Ugarit style with organic a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.
The invasions of the peoples of the sea and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. there are Assyrian adm. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell-Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone stelae with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the art style of Assyria during its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city in the north S. border (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9-8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country in the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. formed one of the variants of syncretic. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in the iconography and style of archaically rough images.
Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamic system and fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble cities, along with the temples of the Greek. and local deities, an important place was occupied by theaters, stadiums, palestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. The design and image of buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome. time, the majestic ruins of Apamea, Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic state in 2015). Main highways (Roman cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodikea) at crossroads, often lined with colonnades and porticos, connected Ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets, societies. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was assigned to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the type of Rome. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the procession road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. art of ancient S. developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and plastic), in Dura-Europos (murals that combine the features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural. centers 4 - 1st third of the 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of the late antique and early Byzantine culture of S. have been preserved: Serzhilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4th–6th centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time is distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (monastery Qal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. temple type. On the whole, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large three-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone arches (in Kalb-Luseh, 4-5 centuries; church in Brad, 395-402). In the 6th c. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed churches (the church "outside the walls" in Rusafa, 569-582), baptistery, martyria, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728-729) and castles (palaces) Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor. 6 c.). To decorate the interiors of palaces and temples, marble facings, mosaic floors, narrative paintings, stucco molding, stone and wood were widely used. carving, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. The floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra ash-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark an appeal to a conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols characteristic of early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artist. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, shaped lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).
Syro-Byzantine art. The school played an important role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. on the whole retained a Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a center of Muslims was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace-adm. complex - dar al-imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st floor. 8th c. the construction of remote residences-estates - "castles of the desert" - began; at the heart of their planning is guessed the scheme of Rome. fort and Byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornamentation - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, c. 715). The surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian. Sassanid traditions (floor frescoes and stucco sculpture from the “castle of the desert” Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).
With the transfer of the center of the Caliphate by the Abbasids to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of S. ( Rakka, founded in 772 on the model of Madinat as-Salam, see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries the cities of S. acquired the middle-century. view. In Damascus and Aleppo a great construction was unfolded. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into religiously isolated ones. and craft-based residential quarters with religious buildings, a market, and societies. bath. The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of the architecture of S. became cult-charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2-3-storey building with a center. courtyard with iwans on Ch. axes and a pool in the center, uniting a madrasah, maristan (hospital) or ribat or takiya (Sufi abode) with a prayer house and the tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the North-West. S. is occupied by the castles of the crusaders, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both - 12-13 centuries, in place of the Arab. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, the commercial and craft centers of Northern Europe (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.
The flourishing will depict. claim-va middle-century. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniature in manuscripts. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al- Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (beginning of the 13th century, the library of the Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and expressive scenes with humorous. intonations; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or influenced by the Byzantines. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of plot and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), the decoration of bronze items (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.) chasing, engraving, carving, inlaid with silver (Damascus, Aleppo). Wed-century. S. masters became famous for the manufacture of weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with growing, epigraphic and pictorial motifs) became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern in a pattern”) and abstract.
The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture. Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume from the center. hemispherical domes and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are lined with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrasahs, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved yards with fruit trees and bushes, aivans, arcaded porticos, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more ornate (Azem's palaces in Damascus and Ham, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic lining. panel with grows. patterns in vibrant colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-storey houses acquired windows with shutters and balconies covered with trees. carved mashrabiya lattices. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) have achieved high skill.
In con. 19 - 1st floor. 20th century changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depict. art-va (appearance of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecoshar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, master plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated in Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses, museum buildings, on the coast - resort facilities.
Display. claim S. 1st floor. 20th century developed in the process of development of Europe. artistic culture and search for nat. style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. arts association, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters of the 2nd floor. 20 - early. 21st century - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portrait painter L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The arts and crafts of S. preserves the tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric manufacturing, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.
Music
Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - a large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting wealthy Roman women playing music; it features music. instruments: oud, kemancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern Sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, clock metrics and the presence of bourdon - “ison”) and, on the other hand, maqam (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatic). In worship, the west-sir. The Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday singing book (hymnary) Bet Gezo (Treasury Reservoir; ed. Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing ca. 700 notated chants (in modern transcription in 5-linear notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and the Syrian Conservatory (1961); in 2004, an opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music "Dar al-Assad".
Theater
Until ser. 19th century development of prof. Theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heiress of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed Nar. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets karagez, scenes of nar. comedy fasl mudhik. At the heart of all ideas is the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit. These become artists. folk tradition. spectacular forms are in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.
Along with Egypt, S. formerly other Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here, where mysteries and morality were staged. The playwright A. H. al-Kabbani adapted world dramaturgy to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically combining new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of Nar. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social acuteness of the plays and their wide audience success caused the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among others. Sir. cultural figures, whose mass departure to Egypt in the 1870–80s. associated with pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were the playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Yu. -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemak" (1882) and others. Between the two world wars, nar. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. scenes and music. So. contribution to the formation of Sir. The theater was introduced by the actor and playwright N. al-Reihani, whose play "Kish-Kish Bey" combined elements of the French. vaudeville and national music comedy; ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of Nar. character Karagoz. At the heart of its popular in the 1920s. performances "The Barber of Baghdad" and "Jasmina" - fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights". Circle of topics Sir. dramas of the 1930s included plots Arab. and Islamic history, Nar. epic and mountains. folklore. Appeal to the historian events and characters at this stage was associated with the desire to excite the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the nat. self-awareness. The gain of independence in 1945 gave a new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the Nat. dramatic theater where young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lahman worked. The stage was conquered by social drama; Among the authors are V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Makdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, who studied the relationship between the totalitarian government and the silent people, was distinguished by the sharpest socially accusatory character. The beginning of criticism of the current regime from the theatrical stage was put by Vannus' play "June 5th Party" (1968). In search of rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of the Mamluk Jaber” (1970) staged by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced the image of a storyteller into the performance, who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore.
At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. one of the most urgent problems of the stage. claim-va S. - disputes about the place and role of bunks. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern the life of the country. Leading theatrical figures (including professor at Damascus University, author of many books and articles about the theater H. Kassab-Hasan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, the creation of an annual festival of itinerant storytellers. Theaters also operate in the capital: the Union of Workers, al-Kabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival resumed in Damascus, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of S., attracting the attention of young performers ( the theme of the round tables is “Theatre and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, S.'s theater continues to develop. In 2010 dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus "Theater Laboratory", where, relying on the artist. research on modern theater analyzes the issues of communication modern. Sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Seminars have been held since 2013 (“Work on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).
Movie
From 1908 (when the first screenings took place in the country) to the middle. 1910s demonstrated in the chronicle and staged French. films, after the start of the 1st World War - German. In 1916, the Cinema Canakkale was opened in Damascus. In 1928, the first sire came out. game f. "Innocent defendant" A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930s-60s: "Under the sky of Damascus" by I. Anzur (1934), "Call of Duty" by Badri (1936), "Light and Darkness" by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), " Wayfarer" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, under the Ministry of Culture, the General Organization of the Syr was formed. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the preparation of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has been financing the production of feature films). The film “Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav director B. Vucinich) told about the struggle of the Syrians for their rights, the fate of the Palestinian people - “Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the destruction of civilians in a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafr Kasem” by B. Alavia (1975, pr. Mkf in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dehni, and “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s dir. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of a simple person to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photos”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the hypocrisy of an unprincipled careerist ("Mr. Progressive", 1975). The film "A case at half a meter" by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the nat. young people who have distanced themselves from confronting negative socio-political. phenomena. Autobiographical f. "Dreams of the City" by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, which strengthened the principles of democracy. satirical the comedy "Boundaries" by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of Nar. fairy tales and sharp publicism in interpreting the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the tapes of A. L. Abdul Hamid - "Nights of the Jackal" (1989) and "Oral Messages" (1991). A notable event was the historical a painting about Kawakibi "Dust of foreigners" by Zikra (1998). A wide resonance was caused by the tape "Black Flour" by G. Schmait (2001) about the life of the nat. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by dir. V. Rahib in f. "Dreams" (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parental home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between a man and a woman were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film Out of Access (2007). The film "Once More" by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of dramatic. events in the country. In 1979-2011, an international conference was held in Damascus. film festival.
The Mediterranean coast is the most populated and developed part of the country, with a large area of plowed land occupied by plantations of various agricultural crops. The climate on the coast is subtropical Mediterranean, with mild, wet winters and dry, moderately hot summers. It is dominated by evergreen subtropical tree and shrub vegetation. Luxurious pebbly and sandy beaches stretch along the entire coast.
The historical, cultural, economic center of the country is the capital of the country Damascus (1.7 million people) - one of the oldest cities in the world. In the old part of the city, surrounded by an ancient fortress wall, there are many beautiful old buildings and historical monuments: the famous Umayyad Mosque, Al-Azema Palace, etc. Massive old buildings with large portals are adjacent to buildings from the time of French classicism and modern architecture.
Nature
On the territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the east through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, five natural regions are distinguished: the Seaside Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Plateau of Eastern Syria. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowland, the mountains of Ansaria and the valley of the El-Asi river, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.
The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In some places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15–30 km.
Between the seaside lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, there is the Ansaria (En-Nusayriya) limestone mountain range, which runs parallel to the seashore from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. 65 km has an average height of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Yunes (1561 m). On the western strongly dissected slopes of the mountains, open to moist air currents from the Mediterranean Sea, there is a lot of precipitation. In these mountains, small rivers originate, flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers have developed deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot dry air masses and receives much less precipitation.
At the southern tip of the Ansaria ridge is the Tripoli-Khomsky intermountain passage. A road runs along it, connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; in the western direction flows the El-Kebir river, which over the years has deposited on the bottom of its valley fertile layer alluvium.
To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khom Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African rift system. The valley of the middle course of the El-Asi river is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El-Gab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high fertility of the soils, irrigated agriculture is developed here.
Directly to El-Ghab from the east, the Ez-Zawiya mountains adjoin, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460-600 m, maximum heights reach 900 m.
To the south of the Ansaria ridge stretch the Anti-Lebanon and Ash-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones that absorb what little atmospheric moisture the area receives. However, at the foot of the surface there are many sources used to irrigate land in the vicinity of the capital. Within the range of Ash-Sheikh, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Ash-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.
The large, eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually drops to the east from about 750 m east of the Antilivan range to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. The southern part of the plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed-Druze Mountains, rising up to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with large-clastic lava material formed from erupted rocks, which makes it difficult to use this territory economically. Only in the area of Hauran (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are strongly weathered, fertile powerful soils were formed. To the east of the Az-Zawiya mountains, the terrain acquires an undulating character. Its surface gradually decreases from about 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the north-east of the country, there are medium-altitude (more than 500 m above sea level) mountains of Abd al-Aziz (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, which cuts to a depth of 30–60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches through the entire region, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir Ezz -Zor. Their height decreases to the east from 2000 m (Maalula range north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used only as winter pastures.
The eastern part of Syria in the southeast direction is crossed by the full-flowing transit river Euphrates with large left tributaries of the Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle course of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its flow is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, a large El-Assad reservoir with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El Asi (Orontes), originating in the mountains of Lebanon, flowing along the depression of the Syrian graben and flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers of the Mediterranean basin, which are most full-flowing in the winter rainy season and shallow in summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris River flows for 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.
In areas with insufficient moisture for irrigated agriculture, wells, springs, accumulations of groundwater and rivers are used, due to which a significant share of electricity is generated in the country. Approximately 12% of cultivated land is irrigated, with approx. 20% of them are due to wells. On the rest of the irrigated lands, irrigation depends on the water regime of the Euphrates and its tributaries, the Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture of Turkey and Iraq, which claim their rights to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow bringing the area of irrigated land and electricity production to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, which was completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).
The natural vegetation of Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic influence. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later, they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing coniferous and deciduous species in better moistened sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on the mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficuses. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.
Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, citrus fruits are grown in river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on gentle slopes. The fields are sown with corn, barley, and wheat. They also grow potatoes and vegetables. North, and partly eastern slopes ridge Ansaria and others, and in the low mountains of the interior of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for pasture cattle breeding (mainly sheep breeding). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under conditions of artificial irrigation.
In the deserts, the landscape revives only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear, which are mainly represented by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalich, and wormwood. Nevertheless, even such a poor vegetation cover is enough to feed camels, which are bred by nomads.
The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Of the carnivores, sometimes there are wild cats, lynxes, jackals, foxes, striped hyenas, caracals, there are many polecats in the steppes and semi-deserts, and antelope, gazelle, wild ass onager among ungulates. There are numerous rodents such as jerboas. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares are also found. Reptiles are characteristic: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The fauna of birds is diverse, especially in the Euphrates valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans). Throughout the country there are larks, grouse, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. From predatory there are eagles, falcons, hawks, owls.
Most of the country is occupied by gray soils, chestnut soils are common in the north and west, brown soils are also found in the mountains in the west, most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowland and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum.
Climate
The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior - continental, arid. Precipitation is scarce and occurs mainly during the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and a significant amount of precipitation are typical only for the coastal lowland and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.
Western Syria. The climate of the seaside strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria Range is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with a maximum intensity in January. From May to September, there is almost no precipitation. At low altitudes in this season, the weather is uncomfortable for humans: in the daytime, the air warms up to 30-35 ° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are about 5°C lower than on the coast, and at night even 11°C lower.
The average winter temperatures are 13–15°C; they fall below 0°C only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Hard precipitation sometimes falls, but snowfalls are common only for the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria ridge, where the snow cover can last two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the temperature during the day rises to 18-21 ° C.
Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Antilivan and Esh-Sheikh ridges, the average amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian desert, which extends east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.
The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. temperatures in July-August often exceed 38 ° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply, and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in summer time the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, in the steppe and desert regions, it is approximately 5.5 ° C cooler than in the coastal strip. The average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7 ° C, and in Aleppo - 6 ° C. In the north of the steppe zone, frosts and snow often occur, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Nighttime temperatures in winter fall well below 0°C.
Attractions
Despite the fact that Syria is a relatively small country, there are a great many unique monuments of different cultures and eras on its territory, allowing the tourist to make a kind of journey through time.
The capital of Syria, Damascus, is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and its historical part is a unique monument of urban planning with many important cultural and historical sites. The main one is the Basilica of St. Zacharias, which houses the shrine of John the Baptist.
In the ancient city of Bosra, city streets and the largest theater in the Middle East have been preserved. The city of Apamea boasts one of the longest main streets with a colonnade, and the city of Kanawat boasts the ruins of the temple of Helios. In general, in Syria there is a huge number of monuments of ancient history and ancient times: the ruins of the Aramaic city of Ain Dara, the ruins of the Phoenician city of Amrit, the ruins of the ancient city of Dura Europos, the ruins of the ancient Philipoppolis, as well as the city of Mari (the capital of the ancient Mesopotamian state) and the city of Ebla ( the capital of the contemporary state of Akkad and Sumer). In addition, many historical monuments have been preserved in ancient cities Khalabiya, Hama, Aleppo, Ugarit and Harbak. And the city of Palmyra was at one time the main rival of Rome in the East. Now it is famous all over the world for such buildings as the complex of the temple of Bel, the temple of Baalshamin, the Great Colonnade, the Valley of Tombs, etc. The dead Byzantine cities that abound in Syria are of no less interest.
Also on the territory of the country there are a large number of monuments of the history of Christianity. In Damascus, the main ones are the Straight Street, the tower of Bab Kisan, the underground church of St. Ananias and the Basilica of St. Zechariah. In addition, many of the first Christian monasteries are scattered throughout the country: St. Takla, St. Sergius, St. Simeon, etc. Among other Christian attractions, it is worth noting the Cathedral of St. Sergius, the Kalb Loze Basilica, the Church of Kanis Umm Zunnar and the “cave of the first blood » Makam Arbain.
Well, among the monuments of the Islamic period, the Umayyad Mosque and the Qasr al-Azem Palace in Damascus, the Aleppo citadel, the complex of the Tekkiya Suleymaniya dervish monastery, the Qasr al-Kheyr ash-Sharqi palace and the Salah ad-Din fortress were most famous.
Kitchen
Syrian cuisine is based on Arabic, Aramaic and Caucasian traditions and is replete with many original dishes that will please even the most demanding gourmets. characteristic feature local cooking is the extensive use of spices, olive oil, cereals, fermented milk products and fresh vegetables. Traditional dishes that are found everywhere here include unleavened cakes “hobz”, stuffed eggplants “makdus”, boiled wheat porridge “burgul”, fermented milk products “lyabne”, all kinds of puree-like snacks, green salad “tabbouleh” and others.
Meat treats are dominated by hearty dishes, such as baked lamb with nuts and mensaf rice or pilaf with spices and kabsa raisins. No less interesting and nutritious are such dishes as chicken with nut-rice filling “jaj mahshi”, lamb chop “castalet”, sheep’s legs “maccadem”, lamb cutlets “kafta”, lamb on a spit “meshvi”, the famous “dolma” , as well as "kebab", all kinds of kebabs, puff pastries and a variety of seafood.
The most popular dessert, which is customary to complete any meal here, is baklava. Also worth trying are “kunafu” (a dish of dough, cheese and nuts), semolina pudding “mkhalabie” and baked chestnuts. Wash down all these delicacies with very strong and sweet coffee or tea. Various juices, sour-milk drink "airan" and raisin compote "dzhelab" are also widespread. Of the alcoholic beverages, anise vodka "arak" is most common.
Accommodation
IN major cities In Syria, most hotels and hotels have a category of 3 * or more, and their living conditions are fully consistent with the declared ones. In most cases, hotels should be booked in advance.
The most luxurious hotel complexes are mainly located on the coast, and on their territory there are mandatory swimming pools, fitness centers, tennis courts and massage areas. Mid-range hotels can be found in any city, they are quite comfortable, but such establishments do not always offer a full range of services, which is common for European hotels. Inexpensive hotels and guest houses are scattered throughout the country, however, the level of service in them is minimal, and the rooms are cramped and not very clean.
It should be noted that the cost of living in Syrian hotels is low and, as a rule, reflects the level of comfort and service. Very often breakfast is included in the price. The most expensive hotels in the country are the hotels of major hotel operators (Holiday Inn, InterContinental and Rotana).
Entertainment and recreation
The Syrian coastline is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which there are many beaches surrounded by picturesque plains, gradually turning into hills and mountains. Moreover, the swimming season here is very long - from May to November. The most popular beaches in Syria are located near the city of Latakia. First of all, this is Al-Samra beach, the territory of which is divided between Syria and Turkey. No less popular are beaches such as Badrousseikh and Ras al-Bassit, as well as Wadi al-Kandil beach with black volcanic sand. The most popular option for outdoor activities on the coast is diving. And for him, whole diving tours are organized here.
Rock climbing is also popular among fans of extreme sports. The mountains here are so rich in mineral springs that in the summer tourists come here for medical procedures and mud therapy. For this purpose, it is worth going to such cities as Salma, Kasab and Drykish. Moreover, the highlands of the country are popular not only in summer, but also in winter. For example, the town of Slenfe is a health resort in summer and a ski resort in winter.
Vacationers with the whole family are recommended to visit the water parks in Damascus and Latakia, which offer a lot of water attractions. In addition, in all major cities of the country there are amusement parks, sports grounds, restaurants, bars and cultural institutions.
If we talk about holidays, then both Muslim and Christian religious dates are celebrated here, as well as state dates. The country also hosts many colorful festivals: Flower Festival, International Flower Show, Syrian Theater Festival, Cotton Festival, Vine Festival, Silk Road Festival, Palmyra Festival, etc.
shopping
Syria can rightly be called a real paradise for shoppers. The fact is that this country is literally famous all over the world for its oriental bazaars, where, if desired, you can find anything you want: from spices to furniture. Moreover, prices in the markets are much lower than in other trading establishments. Of course, in such places you should bargain. The country's best markets are in Aleppo and Damascus.
Among the range of goods offered here, the most popular are handmade carpets, national costumes, silk scarves, silver and gold jewelry, sheepskins, as well as leather, mother-of-pearl and wood products. In addition, you should pay attention to gastronomic souvenirs, such as coffee with cardamom, oriental sweets, spices and olive oil.
In addition to markets, in the major cities of Syria, there are a great many shopping centers, shops with branded clothing, supermarkets and small private shops.
It should be borne in mind that here in no store there is an opportunity to pay in foreign currency: only the Syrian pound or bank transfer is in circulation.
Most shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 21:00, and private shops often work on individual schedules.
Transport
The most convenient way to get to Syria is by plane, as the country has two international airports (next to Damascus and Aleppo). In addition, Syria is connected with neighboring countries by rail and roads, as well as seaports.
Inside the country, you can travel by planes, trains, buses, minibuses and fixed-route taxis. Public urban transport in Syria is represented by buses and taxis. Tickets for travel on the bus are sold from the conductor or the driver, they are quite cheap. The cost of a taxi ride should be negotiated with the driver before boarding the car.
Renting a car in Syria is quite expensive: prices here are twice as high as in Europe. Gasoline is also quite expensive, and most road signs are in Arabic, making travel difficult.
Connection
The Syrian telephone system is quite well developed, and is currently undergoing modernization. Payphones are installed in all public places, so there will be no communication problems here. Moreover, they work both with small coins and with cards that are sold everywhere. In addition, you can call abroad from a specialized call center or from a hotel (25% more expensive).
Mobile communication operates in the GSM-900/1800 standard and has a fairly dense coverage. Roaming is available to all subscribers of major Russian operators. Phone rental is available at the offices of local mobile companies (Mobile Syria and Spacetel Syria).
The Internet in Syria is developing very quickly, however, the connection speed here is often not very high. Internet cafes operate in all major cities of the country.
Safety
If you follow a few simple rules, Syria will be a completely safe and hospitable country. So, when entering houses and mosques, it is necessary to take off your shoes here, and it is forbidden to bypass the worshipers in front. Women should not wear short skirts and off-the-shoulder clothing. Photograph transport and military installations, government agencies as well as local women is prohibited. Filming in mosques is also strictly prohibited.
Documents or their photocopies should always be carried with you. It is worth noting that alcoholic drinks are sold everywhere here, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. In addition, in Syria, it is strongly recommended not to enter into any political discussions, including those relating to Israel.
Health insurance is required to enter the country. Prevention of poliomyelitis, tetanus, hepatitis, typhoid and malaria is also recommended. Local tap water is relatively safe, but it's still better to buy bottled water.
Business
The Syrian economy is based on oil exports, agriculture, chemical, food and textile industries. Moreover, the state has full control over energy, finance, aviation and rail transport. However, now, as part of the course proclaimed by law for the gradual modernization and liberalization of the economy, public sector enterprises have been granted the right to enter foreign markets and attract foreign investment.
Now the private sector is developing quite actively in the country. In total, the registration of a private company takes less than a month here. To do this, the entrepreneur must submit an official application for the reservation of the name of his company, as well as for its registration with the Office of Internal Trade.
Real estate
Syria is one of the last states in the Middle East, which opened the housing market for non-residents of the country. To date Foreign citizens obtained the opportunity to purchase real estate, while relying on a number of restrictions in the legislation. First of all, the area of the acquired object must be at least 140 m2. Foreign buyers are also required to obtain prior approval from the country's Ministry of the Interior. In addition, the legal nuances that relate to foreigners include a ban on the subsequent sale of the acquired object within the next two years after the purchase.
The average cost of apartments in Syria ranges from $280,000 to $350,000, while the cost of villas starts at $400,000.
In addition, you need to know that since 2009, a ban on smoking began to operate in Syria. Therefore, smokers caught with a cigarette in any public place will have to pay a fine (about $50). It should be noted that this ban also applies to smoking hookah. It is noteworthy that alcohol is not prohibited in the country. The exception is Ramadan, during which drinking in public places is prohibited even for non-Muslims.
Visa Information
Citizens of the Russian Federation and CIS countries need a tourist or transit visa to travel to Syria. Any of them can be issued at the Moscow Consular Section of the Embassy of Syria (Mansurovsky lane, 4) or immediately upon arrival in the country (at the airport or at the border crossing with any of the countries neighboring Syria, except Israel).
Population
The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (about 90%). By religion, they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority is formed by the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the foothills of the Taurus, north of Aleppo, and on the El Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities around Jerablus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni trend in Islam. The bulk of the Kurds live in the countryside. Many Kurds lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle. In the cities (mainly in Damascus and Aleppo), the Kurds are primarily engaged in physical labor. Wealthy Kurds earn their income primarily by owning real estate. Some Kurds have reached high official posts, but they practically do not engage in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2-3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived at the end of the 19th century, but most of them emigrated in 1925-1945. Armenians practice Christianity and have kept their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasek. As a rule, Armenians are merchants, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as freelancers. Turkmens and Circassians also live in Syria. Turkmens practice Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. Initially they led a nomadic life, but now they are mainly engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism on the El Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or agriculture in the Aleppo region. The Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after it was conquered by the Russians at the end of the 19th century; they kept most of their customs and native language although they also speak Arabic. Approximately half of the Circassians lived in the governorate of El Quneitra, but after the destruction by the Israelis in October 1973 of the administrative center of the same name, many moved to Damascus. The smallest among national minorities are nomadic Gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).
Story
Historically, Syria included Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and the current territory of Syria. The country was strategically positioned and its coastal cities were important Phoenician trading posts. Syria was later part of the Roman, Persian, Egyptian and Babylonian empires. As a result, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire and, along with Lebanon, was transferred to France after the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The Syrians have never been particularly tolerant of capture (they were even independent in 1918-20), in 1925-26 they staged an uprising that led to France bombing Damascus.
In 1932 parliamentary elections were held in Syria, and although most of the candidates were pro-French, Syria refused to recognize the French version of the constitution. In 1939, France granted the Syrian province of Alexandretta to Turkey, which caused dissatisfaction with its policies from the local population. France promised to grant independence to Syria in 1941, but did not do so until 1946.
Civilized rule did not last long in Syria: in 1954, after several military coups, the Baath party, created in 1940 by a Christian leader, took control of the country. The main idea of the party was the creation of a single Arab state, where Syria would no longer be an independent country. Everything went towards the formation of the New United Arab Republic together with Egypt in 1958, but many people did not support this idea, and a wave of armed uprisings took place throughout the country. By 1966, the Baath Party was back in power, but the celebrations were overshadowed by the outbreak of the six-day war with Israel, and in 1970 there was an armed conflict with Jordan. As a result of all these armed clashes, a coup took place in the country and Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power.
Since 1971, Assad has maintained his presidency through force and subterfuge; he strengthens the position of Syria in the Middle East by concluding peace treaties and establishing trade relations. In 1999, he was elected for the fifth time to a seven-year term in office with a 99.9% majority. In the 1990s the fall in oil prices forced the countries of the Middle East to rally, and Assad took advantage of the Gulf War in early 1991 to improve the economic situation in the country. During the war, Syria entered the anti-Iraq coalition, which made a favorable impression on the West, although it still remains on the Washington list of countries that support terrorism.
In 1997, Syria withdrew from the list of countries through which drug trafficking passes, and Assad strengthened ties with the EU, Turkey and America. Attempts to diversify an oil-based economy through investment in the agricultural complex have not been entirely successful. In early 2000, representatives of the US State Department discussed whether to remove Syria from the list of countries supporting terrorism, on the basis that since 1986 there was no evidence of Syria's involvement in terrorist acts. The chaotic retreat of Israeli units from eastern Lebanon in 2000 under fire from the Syrian-backed Herzbollah faction delayed further discussion of Syrian loyalty. The death of President Assad called into question the peaceful resolution of various conflicts in the Middle East. After Assad, his son Bashar became president in June 2000.
culture
You are unlikely to hear traditional Arabic singers on the streets of Damascus, but there is an interesting hybrid of Arabic-style singers and Western musicians here. Favorite performers in Syria are Mayada al-Hanawi and Asala Nasri. The Bedouins have their own musical tradition, where several men sing a monotonous recitative, which is an accompaniment to a belly dancer.
Art in the Arab world is primarily architecture, perhaps because Islam forbids depicting living objects. Everywhere in Syria you come across ancient and classical sights and architecture not only of the Muslims, but of the Romans and Byzantines. There are several churches left after the Crusaders. The Quran is one of the greatest examples of classical Arabic writing. Al-Muallaqat is an ancient collection of Arabic poetry. For 10 centuries, Syria was the center of the poetry of the Arab world, the best poetry belongs to the pen of Al-Mutanabbi (who considered himself a prophet) and Abu Firas al-Hamdani. One of the monuments of Arabic literature is Alf Laila wa Laila ("Thousand and One Nights"), a collection of stories about different times and peoples. Bedouin art in Syria is represented by silver jewelry, colorful fabrics, and edged weapons.
Hospitality is the main core of Arab life. It is customary for Syrian families, desert dwellers in particular, to invite strangers to visit. The tradition developed because of the difficulties of life in the desert, where a person cannot survive without water, food and friendly support. Wherever you are in Syria, you can hear the word "tafaddal" ("welcome") everywhere when people invite you over for a cup of tea.
Islam is the main religion in Syria. It is a monotheistic religion and the Quran is the holy book of Islam. Five times a day, Muslims, listening to the call of the muezzin from the top of the minaret, pray. Islam has common features with Christianity and Judaism, and therefore Muslims treat Christians and Jews with respect, and Jesus in Islam is revered as one of the prophets of Allah. Muhammad was the last prophet through whom Allah transmitted the Qur'an to Muslims. The majority of Syrian Muslims are Sunnis, but there are also Shiites, Druze and Alawites. The Druze mostly live near the Jordanian border and their faith is shrouded in mystery. Alawites live in Lattakia and Hama Homs.
Islam forbids eating pork and drinking alcoholic beverages, and this rule applies to a greater or lesser extent throughout Syria. Islam also tends to segregate the sexes, for example, there are public places where only men are allowed. Although in many places there is also a family room where women are allowed. When Syrians eat, they usually order first a selection of appetizers - mezze, and therefore the main dishes that Syrians eat from one plate. Arabic unleavened bread - khobz - is used with almost all dishes. Other dishes include falafel, fried bean balls, shawarma, a specially prepared chopped lamb, and fuul, fava bean paste with garlic and lemon. Mensaf is a Bedouin dish - a whole lamb, head on, served with rice and nuts.
Economy
Syria is characterized by a mixed economy with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, rail and air transport for a long time were entirely in the hands of the state. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized enterprises in trade, the service sector, motor vehicles and housing construction. The annual increase in GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. 58.01 billion US dollars, per capita income amounted to 3300 dollars. - 29.4% and other services - 42.1%.
Syria is a major center for maritime and land trade. In this regard, such an industry as warehousing has developed. Large oil storage facilities have been built at the refineries in Homs and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. The areas for storing metals and building materials have been significantly increased, and large elevators have been built.
Policy
Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by its centralized hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the president of the country and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the military seizure of power by the Baathists in 1963. From November 1970 until June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez al-Assad, the leader of the military wing of the Baath, who came to the leadership in a coup, displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad has served as President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, General Secretary of the Ba'ath Regional Leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council of 250 deputies and serves as a unicameral parliament elected by popular vote for 4 years.
Once in power, the military, loyal to General Assad, soon convened a legislative body - the People's Council, before which the drafting of a permanent constitution was set as a priority. It was supposed to replace the country's interim constitution introduced by the Ba'ath in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the Ba'ath and its main left allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian Communist Party, the Democratic Socialist Unionist Party and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of the opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a referendum. Under the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by universal direct and secret suffrage. All citizens who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote.
Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member electoral districts, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other part to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front puts forward a general unofficial list of candidates; formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. Voting results are determined by the majority system of relative majority.
The powers of Parliament, according to the constitution, include the adoption of laws, discussion of government policy, approval state budget and plans for socio-economic development, the ratification of the most important international treaties and agreements, the announcement of a general amnesty. Only the People's Council has the right to amend the constitution and regulations of its activities. At the same time, the Syrian constitution consistently does not delineate the subject matter of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.
The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. The candidate for this post is put forward by the People's Council at the suggestion of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to get a majority of the votes that took part in the referendum.
In accordance with the fundamental law of the country, the President of Syria monitors the observance of the constitution and guarantees the operation of the state mechanism, develops (in agreement with the government) a nationwide policy and supervises its implementation. He appoints and removes civil and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and senior diplomats, enjoys the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicted persons, and is the supreme commander. The president has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if they are ratified by parliament), conclude and terminate international treaties.
The head of state has the right to convene extraordinary sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them to the People's Council. He can veto legislation passed by the legislature, which needs at least two-thirds of the votes to overcome it. In emergency circumstances, the president himself can issue laws-decrees in between sessions of parliament. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. His powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, however, for specific reasons, such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can hold the president accountable only in case of high treason.
The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, oversees the implementation of laws, together with the president participates in the development of state policy and implements it, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the security of the country, etc. The prime minister and ministers are responsible only to the president.
