Character. Typology of characters according to E. Fromm. IN literal translation from the Greek character means chasing, imprint. In psychology, character is understood as the totality of individual-peculiar mental properties that manifest themselves in a person under typical conditions and are expressed in the ways of activity inherent in it in such conditions. Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. In communicating with people, the character of a person is manifested in the manner of behavior, the manner of communication, in the ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people. General concepts of character Character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person's attitude to reality and are manifested in his behavior, in his actions. Character, like temperament, is quite stable and little changeable. Temperament on the form of manifestation of character, peculiarly colors one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. Choleric works energetically, passionately, phlegmatic - methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. High level abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inextricable connection with the team, the desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not to lose heart under the influence of failures, to work in an organized manner, to show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as diligence, initiative, determination, organization, perseverance occurs in the same activity of the child in which his abilities are formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, diligence as a character trait. Character, unlike temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by the culture of a person, his upbringing. There is a division of human personality traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational encourage, direct activity, support it, and instrumental give it a certain style. Character can be attributed to the number of instrumental personality traits. It is not the content that depends on it, but the manner in which the activity is performed. True, as was said, character can also be manifested in the choice of the goal of an action. However, when the goal is defined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means to achieve the goal. We list the main personality traits that are part of the character of a person. Firstly, these are the personality traits that determine the actions of a person in choosing the goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence, or their opposite qualities can appear. Secondly, the character structures include features that relate to actions aimed at achieving the set goals: perseverance, purposefulness, consistency, and others, as well as alternatives to them (as evidence of a lack of character). In this regard, character approaches not only temperament, but also the will of a person. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes purely instrumental traits that are directly related to temperament: extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsiveness, switchability - rigidity, etc. a peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person allows us to classify him as a certain type. Typology of characters according to E. Fromm. E. Fromm defines character as "a relatively stable form of canalization of human energy in the process of assimilation and socialization." In childhood, character is formed in the family, which serves as the "mental agency" of society. The adaptation of the child to the family environment develops in him a character with a core common to most members of his class and culture. On the core, or "social character", are superimposed variants of an individual character, due to the specific influence of parents. According to E. Fromm, therefore, character types are the product of interaction between the child and parents, which begins from the moment of birth. He "discusses with the orthodox notion of types as the result of alternating stages of libido development. Anal character, for example, has nothing to do with libido. Constipation is not the cause of character formation, but rather its expression. The most important factor is a homely atmosphere, imbued with the spirit of acquisitiveness, anxiety, suspicion. The child therefore develops a "sense of scarcity" and clings to everything he has. A stingy person is not stingy because he keeps faeces; he clings tightly to anything, including feces. His parents are from the category of people showing scrupulousness in the requirements of the toilet. Receptive Orientation A person with a receptive nature believes that everything he needs must be supplied from outside. He passively relies on authorities to obtain knowledge and help, and generally looks for support in people. Love for him means being loved, but not the active process of love; he is extremely sensitive to any lack of love or attention. Passivity is associated with the inability to refuse others and the endless search for a "magical helper". The fear of losing love prevents the choice of two friends when the situation requires it, in view of the possibility of losing the favor of one of them. This type loves to eat and drink, which serves as a remedy for anxiety and depression. His mouth is a particularly prominent, often most prominent feature. He looks at life, as a rule, with optimism and friendliness, until there is a threat to the source of well-being. Responsive and helpful to others, but behind this lies the need to enlist their favor. Exploiter orientation A person with an exploitative orientation tries to get everything from people through force and cunning. As for love and affection, he only feels these feelings for those who still have something to give. Likewise, he steals ideas and passes them off as his own. The lack of originality in many gifted people, says Fromm, is due to the orientation of character. The attitude extends to material things, an extreme example is kleptomania. A thing gives pleasure only if it is stolen, even if there is a lot of money. A distinctive feature is the "biting" mouth, usually making itself felt with sarcastic, snarky remarks about people. This person is characterized by suspicion, cynicism, envy, jealousy. In general, he prefers what others have and does his best to acquire. Accumulative Orientation The miser bases security on frugality and the preservation of possessions. Expenses cause a sense of danger and anxiety. He surrounds himself with a wall, behind which he brings in as much as possible, and tries not to let anything get out. Avarice extends equally to feelings and thoughts, as well as to money and things. Even love is seen as a means of appropriation of the beloved. Behavior is characterized by pedantic orderliness, compulsive cleanliness, obsessive punctuality, and stubbornness. Suspicion and fear of intimacy are usually associated traits. Market Orientation People in this category treat their personality as a commodity that can be bought and sold. They form qualities in themselves that are in demand by others. They lack a true stable character, and in fact they do not know how to manage their own destiny. The main ones are feelings of emptiness and anxiety. Market orientation applies equally to thinking. The purpose of thinking is reduced to a quick grasp of phenomena in order to successfully manipulate. This leads to superficiality instead of penetrating the essence of phenomena. For such people, in order to fulfill a social role and be in demand in the market, individuality should not be preserved. Productive Orientation The four previous orientations, according to Fromm, are unproductive. Productivity is defined as "the ability of a person to use their strengths and realize their inherent potential." It implies the development of the possibilities of creativity and love, their full disclosure. Such a person does not have to become a great scientist or artist. He can simply think independently, respect himself and others, receive sensual pleasure without experiencing anxiety, admire the creations of nature and art. In short, he enjoys life. The unproductive elements still persist, but they are being transformed. Stubbornness, for example, becomes perseverance, the desire for exploitation turns into the ability to take the initiative. External and internal speech. Means of communication. Speech The transmission of any information is possible only through signs, more precisely - sign systems. Usually, verbal and non-verbal communication are distinguished, but the latter is divided into several more forms: kinesthetics, paralinguistics, proxemics, visual communication. Each of them forms its own sign system. The problem of speech is usually posed in psychology in the context of thinking and speech. Indeed, speech is closely connected with thinking. Genetically, speech arose along with thinking in social and labor practice and developed in unity with it in the process of the socio-historical development of mankind. Emotional moments also play a significant role in speech: speech is correlated by consciousness as a whole. Human consciousness is formed in communication between people. The main function of consciousness is the awareness of being, its reflection, and language and speech perform it in a specific way: they reflect being, denoting it. Speech, like language, if taken in unity, denotes reflections of being. But they are at the same time different and denote two aspects of a single whole. Speech is the activity of communication - expression, influence, communication - through language; speech is a language in action, it is a form of existence of consciousness for another, serving as a means of communication with him, and a form of a generalized reflection of reality, or a form of existence of thinking. Thus, speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, peculiar only to man. In speech communication, two parties are involved - the speaker and the listener. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of grammar and pronounces them thanks to the articulation of the organs of speech. The listener perceives the speech, one way or another understands the thought expressed in it. It is clear that both - the speaker and the listener - must have something in common, there must be the same means and rules for the transmission of thought. Such a common means and system of rules is one or another National language developed in the process of verbal communication over many generations. Language is a strictly normalized system of means of communication, and speech is its use in the process of communication to convey thoughts and feelings. There are no thoughts in the language - it is a set of different means for expressing thoughts. When a certain system of linguistic means is selected from this set in speech, a certain thought will be expressed in it. Functions of speech Speech performs two main functions - communicative and significative, thanks to which speech is a means of communication and a form of existence of thought, consciousness. We know that the main thing in a word is its meaning, its semantic content. Our attention is usually focused on the semantic content of speech. Each word of human language designates some object, points to it, evokes in us the image of this or that object; saying some words, each time we designate this or that object, this or that phenomenon. In this, the language of man differs from the "language" of animals, which expresses only an affective state in sounds, but never denotes by sounds certain items . This is the main function of the word, which is called significative. The denoting function is the most important function of the words that make up the language. It allows a person to arbitrarily call up images of the corresponding objects, to deal with objects even in their absence. As some psychologists say, the word allows you to “double” the world, to deal not only with visually perceived images of objects, but also with images of objects caused in the internal representation with the help of words. The word has another, more complex function, it makes it possible to analyze objects, highlight their essential properties, and classify objects into a certain category. Thus, the word is a means of abstraction and generalization, reflects the deep connections and relationships that lie behind the objects of the external world. This second function of it is usually denoted by the term meaning of the word. Mastering a word, a person automatically learns a complex system of connections and relationships in which this object consists, which have developed in the centuries-old history of mankind. This ability to analyze an object, to single out essential properties in it and to attribute it to certain categories is called the meaning of a word. Another function of speech - communicative - includes means of expression and means of influence. The expressive function does not in itself define speech; speech is not identical with any expressive reaction, speech exists only where there is a meaning that has a material carrier. Every speech speaks about something, i.e. has some object; Every speech is also addressed to someone. The core of the semantic content of speech is what it means. But living speech usually expresses immeasurably more than it actually means. Thanks to the expressive moments contained in speech, it very often goes far beyond the limits of an abstract system of meanings. Speech as a means of expression is included in the totality of expressive movements - along with gesture, facial expressions, etc. Sound, as an expressive movement, is also found in animals. But this sound becomes a speech, a word only when it ceases only to accompany the corresponding affective state of the subject and begins to designate it. The expressive function, being included in human speech, is rebuilt, entering into its semantic content. role. It would be wrong to completely intellectualize speech, turning it only into an instrument of thinking. It has emotional and expressive components that appear in rhythm, pauses, intonations, in voice modulations and other expressive expressive moments, which are always present to a greater or lesser extent. in speech - especially oral, affecting, however, in writing - in rhythm and in the arrangement of words. Human speech is not limited to the totality of knowledge, it usually expresses the emotional attitude of a person to what he is talking about, and often to the person he is addressing. It can even be said that the more expressive it is, the more it is speech, and not just language, because the more expressive the speech, the more the speaker, his face, himself is manifested in it. Being a means of expression, speech is also a means of influence. The function of influence in human speech is one of its most basic functions. A person speaks not in order to influence, if not directly on behavior, then on thoughts or feelings, on the consciousness of other people. Speech has a social purpose, it is a means of communication, and it performs this function in the first place, since it serves as a means of influence. The signal mimicry of animals can result in one or another reaction of other animals, but the means of conscious influence, with the help of which the subject is able to exert an influence corresponding to the goal set by him, can only be speech, which means something, has a certain meaning. Speech in the true sense of the word is a means of conscious influence and communication based on its semantic content - this is the specificity of speech in the true sense of the word, i.e. human speech. So, in a person’s speech, it is possible to single out various functions by psychological analysis, but they are not aspects external to each other, they are included in the unity, within which they determine and mediate each other. Understanding is one of the constituent moments of speech. The emergence of speech outside of society is impossible, speech is a social product, it is intended for communication and arises in communication. The two main functions of speech - communicative and significative, thanks to which speech is a means of communication and a form of existence of thought, consciousness - are formed one through the other and function one in the other. Speech usually has to solve some more or less conscious task of the speaker and is an action that has some effect on those to whom it is addressed. In order for speech to become a fully conscious action, it is necessary first of all that the speaker clearly realizes the task that his speech must solve, its main goal. However, understanding the task that speech must solve presupposes not only awareness of the goal, but also1 taking into account the conditions in which it is carried out. These conditions are determined by the nature of the subject in question and the characteristics of the audience to which it is addressed. Only when the goals and conditions are taken into account in their correlation does a person know what and how to say to him, and can build his speech as a conscious action that can solve the problem that he has set. Types of speech activity So, speech is verbal communication, i.e. the process of communication through language. Distinguish the following types of speech: external and internal. External speech is divided, in turn, into oral and written, and oral - into monologue and dialogic: All types of speech closely interact with each other. Common to all types of speech is the pronunciation of words (out loud or to oneself). However, each type of speech has its own specific features. When a person pronounces something to himself (inner speech), kinesthetic impulses enter the speech-motor analyzer from the speech organs. No thought can be formulated without language and without material speech processes. In preparation for oral and, especially, for written speech, there is a phase of internal pronunciation of speech to oneself. This is inner speech. External speech, as already mentioned, is oral and written. In written speech, the conditions of communication are mediated by the text. Written speech is more concentrated in content than oral, colloquial. Written language refers to speech using written characters. In most modern languages (except languages that use ideographic writing), speech sounds are denoted by letters. Written speech is a process in which there is a complex ratio of speech sounds, letters perceived by the ear, visible to the eye, and speech movements produced by a person (since the sounds of a language cannot appear without speech movements). Hence it is clear that written speech appears later than oral and is formed on its basis. This applies to its development both in society and in the individual life of a person. The processes of analysis and synthesis of the visible and audible word are different. It follows that the transitions from one to the other must be specially designed. This is the task of teaching writing. The audible speech spoken by someone is called oral speech. In oral speech, communication is limited by the conditions of space and time. Usually, the interlocutors see each other well or are at such a distance that they can hear the spoken words, which leaves an imprint on the nature of speech. When conditions change, for example, when talking on the phone, the characteristics of speech usually change (it becomes shorter, less detailed, etc.). The nature of verbal communication changes especially significantly during television and radio broadcasting, when the listener does not have the opportunity to make a cue and get an answer to it. Oral speech can be dialogic and monologue. Dialogic speech is supported by mutual replicas of the interlocutors, also called colloquial. Usually it is not fully developed, since much either follows from what has been said before, or is known in advance by the speakers, or is obvious from the existing situation. Maintaining conversational speech, as a rule, requires a natural response to the interlocutor's prompting or exists as a reaction to what is happening around. Monologue speech continues for a long time, is not interrupted by the remarks of others and requires preliminary preparation. Usually this is a detailed, prepared speech (for example, a lecture, report, speech, etc.). In preparation, such a speech is often repeatedly spoken out (especially its individual places), the plan is rebuilt, the necessary words and sentences are selected, and, often, the plan of oral speech is recorded in writing. Monologue speech has great compositional complexity, requires completeness of thought, strict logic and consistency. Monologue speech is more difficult than dialogic, its extended forms in ontogenesis develop later than it. formation in students is a special task that teachers have to solve throughout all the years of study. As already noted, the transfer of any information is possible only through signs, sign systems. In the communicative process, verbal communication is usually distinguished (when speech is used as a sign system, the characteristics of which we have considered) and non-verbal communication (when various non-speech sign systems are used). Let's consider each of the systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system. Speech here is understood as a natural sound language, i.e. a system of phonetic signs, including two principles - lexical and syntactic. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information with its help, the meaning of communication is least of all lost. Thanks to it, information is encoded and decoded. Dialogic speech as a specific type of conversation is a successive change of communicative roles, during which the meaning of the speech message is revealed. In general, regarding the use of speech as a certain sign system in the process of communication, everything that was said about the essence of communication as a whole is true. This means that information is not simply “moving” through speech, but the participants in communication influence each other in a special way, orient and convince each other, i.e. seek to achieve a specific change in behavior. In the works of the Czechoslovak social psychologist J. Janoušek, the sequence of actions of the speaker and the listener is studied in sufficient detail. From the point of view of the transmission and perception of the meaning of the message, the K-S-R scheme (communicator-message-recipient) is asymmetric. For the communicator (speaker), the meaning of information precedes the process of coding (utterance), since he first has a certain idea, and then embodies it into a system of signs. For the listener (recipient), the meaning of the received message is revealed simultaneously with decoding. The accuracy of the listener's understanding of the meaning of the statement can become apparent to the communicator only when there is a change in "communicative roles", i.e. when the recipient turns into a communicator and, by his statement, will let you know how he understood the received information. Dialogue, or dialogic speech, as a specific type of conversation, is a successive change of communicative roles, during which the meaning of the speech message is revealed, i.e. there is an "enrichment, development of information." The content of communication is that in the process of communication, people interact with each other. To fully describe this process, it is not enough to know only the structure of the communicative act, it is also necessary to analyze the motives of the communicants, their goals, attitudes, etc. To do this, one must turn to those sign systems that are included in verbal communication in addition to speech. Although speech is a universal means of communication, it acquires meaning only if it is included in the system of activity, which, in turn, is necessarily supplemented by the use of other, non-speech sign systems. Therefore, the communicative process is incomplete if we are distracted from its non-verbal means. Non-verbal communication. The first among them should be called the optical-kinetic system of signs, which includes gestures, facial expressions, pantomime .. In general, this optical-kinetic system appears as a more or less clearly perceived property of general motor skills, mainly of different parts of the body (hands - and then we we have gestures; faces - and then we have facial expressions; postures - and then we have pantomime). This general motor skills of various parts of the body reflects the emotional reactions of a person, due to which communication acquires nuances. These nuances turn out to be ambiguous when, for example, the same gestures are used in different national cultures. Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems of signs are also "additions" to verbal communication. The paralinguistic system is a vocalization system, i.e. voice timbre, its range, tonality. Extralinguistic system - the inclusion of pauses in speech, as well as other means, such as coughing, crying, laughter, and, finally, the rate of speech. Proxemics is a special area dealing with the norms of the spatial and temporal organization of communication. The founder of proxemics - E. Hall proposed a special method for assessing the intimacy of communication based on the study of the organization of its space. Visual communication ("eye contact") - new area research. It has been proven that, like all non-verbal means, eye contact has the value of supplementing verbal communication. For all four systems of non-verbal communication, a common question of a methodological nature is important. In order for the described systems of non-verbal communication to somehow expand it, there must be some common system of codes for communicating. There is such a thing as "semantically significant information" - this is exactly the information that affects the change in behavior, i.e. the one that makes sense. At present, attempts are being made in science to single out some units within each system of signs, by analogy with units in the system of speech. This problem is precisely the main difficulty. On the whole, it can be concluded that the analysis of all systems of non-verbal communication shows that they undoubtedly play a large auxiliary role (and sometimes independent) in the communicative process. Possessing the ability not only to strengthen or weaken the verbal impact, all systems of non-verbal communication help to identify such an essential parameter of the communicative process as the intention of its participants. Together with the verbal communication system, these systems provide for the exchange of information, needed by people to organize joint activities. Developmental education (D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov) Developmental education of the system of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. pedagogical system, an alternative to the traditional system schooling, one of the state systems of developmental education The purpose of developmental education is the development of the student as a subject of learning. Developing education involves a fundamental change in the content of school education, which should be based on a system of scientific concepts. Its essence is as follows: the formation of the ability to learn is associated with the development of psychological neoplasms and abilities: the foundations of theoretical consciousness and thinking, reflection, analysis, planning. The ultimate goal of RO is to provide every student with the conditions for the development of a self-changing subject of learning. To be such a subject means to have a need for self-change and be able to satisfy it through learning, i.e. want, love and be able to learn. The main skills of students are to see, formulate a problem, set a goal, plan actions, analyze, model, put forward and defend hypotheses, monitor and evaluate their actions. In the 60s. a scientific team was created under the guidance of psychologists V.V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin, who investigated the significance of the younger school age V mental development person. It was found that in modern conditions at this age it is possible to solve specific educational tasks, subject to the development of educational activity and its subject, abstractly theoretical thinking, arbitrary behavior control. Studies have also found that traditional primary education does not provide the full development of the majority of younger students. This means that it does not create the necessary “zones of proximal development”, but only trains and consolidates those mental functions that basically arose and began to develop as early as preschool age (sensory observation, empirical thinking, utilitarian memory, etc.) . Such training is focused not only on familiarization with the facts, but also on the knowledge of the relationship between them, the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, and the transformation of relations into an object of study. Based on this, V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin propose to restructure the content of educational subjects and the logic (methods) of its presentation in the educational process. The proposed system of developmental education is opposed to the existing system of education, primarily in the fundamental direction - the formation of the cognitive activity of the student. It is known that traditional education is mainly directed from the particular, concrete, individual to the general, abstract, whole; from chance, fact to system; from appearance to essence. The child's thinking that develops in the course of such training is called by V. V. Davydov empirical. This type of education, according to V.V. Davydov, dominates everywhere in the school and is also characteristic of most innovations, including the system of L.V. Zankov. So, the employees of his laboratory, conducting a survey, tested the ability of children to classify, group objects. Students in the experimental classes easily moved from one base of the group to another. However, this was only an indicator of their development of empirical thinking. main line mental development in the theory of L. V. Zankov is the formation of a “functional system of heterogeneous modes of action” (generalizations, highlighting an essential, analyzing observation). However, despite the principle of theorization of educational material, L.V. Zankov, according to V.V. Davydov, could not understand the meaning of theoretical knowledge for the development of schoolchildren at the philosophical and logical level. Mastering concepts is the process of forming a particular operating system. If knowledge is assimilated in the process of empirical thinking, then students develop such mental actions as comparison, generalization (abstraction and concretization). To obtain theoretical knowledge, “it is required,” writes E. V. Ilyenkov, “not abstraction, but synthesis and analysis.” At the same time, in the system of L. V. Zankov, the formation of concepts develops for the most part along the line from sensually perceived facts to abstraction. VV Davydov raised the question of the possibility of conceptual development of a new system of education with a direction opposite to the traditional one: from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the specific, from the systemic to the singular. The child's thinking developing in the process of such training is called theoretical by V.V. Davydov, and such training itself is called developing. At the same time, V.V. Davydov relies on the initial "positions of L.S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin regarding the fact that the leading significance of learning in mental development is expressed primarily through the content of acquired knowledge, which is derived from methods (or methods) V.V.Davydov sees the readiness of junior schoolchildren to master theoretical knowledge in the very logic psychological development the child, and above all the development of imagination and orientation towards tracking genetic-semantic connections and relationships. Reaching school age, the child has a highly developed imagination, which significantly expands the boundaries of sensory-perceived reality and takes the child's consciousness beyond the limits of directly experienced limitations. This allows the child to comprehend the whole before the parts, to note the main thing against the background of details, to anticipate the result of an action before it is performed, etc. At the same time, the direction of children's consciousness is always associated with the desire to understand, to comprehend the very fact of the origin of the phenomenon (where and how it is born, appears, etc.), to recognize its essential purpose, meaning in the life around (“why is it needed, what does it serve , what is its role, etc.”). These features of development testify to the beginnings of theoretical thinking in children of pre-preschool age, which serve as a psychological basis, a natural basis for the formation of theoretical knowledge in elementary school, bearing a generalized semantic nature of reflecting reality. Theoretical thinking is based on meaningful generalization. The child, analyzing some developing system of objects, can discover its genetically original, essential or universal basis. Isolation and fixation of this foundation is a meaningful generalization of this system. Based on this generalization, he is then able to mentally trace the origin of particular and individual features of the system. Theoretical thinking lies in the fact that it creates a meaningful generalization of a particular system, and then builds this system, revealing the universality of its foundation. V.V. Davydov cites six main differences between empirical and toric knowledge. Empirical knowledge 1. It is developed by comparing objects, ideas about them; as a result, common properties are singled out in them 2. When compared, a certain set of objects belonging to a certain class is singled out (on the basis of a formally common property, without revealing their internal connection). 3. Relies on observation, reflects its external properties in the representation of the object 4. Formally common property ranks with the special and singular 5. Concretization consists in the selection of illustrations, examples that are included in this class of objects. 6. Means of fixation are words-terms. Theoretical knowledge 1. Arises in the analysis of the role and functions of some special relationship within complete system, the relation is genetically the initial basis of all manifestations of the system. 2. In the process of analysis, the genetically initial relation, the universal basis, the essence of the integral system is revealed. 3. Arises as a meaningful transformation of objects, reflects them internal relations and connections, “going” beyond the limits of representation 4. The connection of the actually existing universal relationship of the integral system and its various manifestations is fixed as the connection of the universal and the individual 5. Concretization consists in deriving and explaining the special and individual manifestations of the universal foundation of the integral system. 6. Expressed in ways mental activity , and then in symbolic means. VV Davydov characterizes the theoretical knowledge obtained as a result of meaningful abstraction and generalization. It forms the basis of developmental learning. The importance of the mental action of analysis (and, accordingly, synthesis) is emphasized, and not just comparison and transformation in order to establish the genetically initial basis and connection of all properties in order to identify and process a generalized way of mental activity. Another significant difference between theoretical knowledge is that when it is formed, the connections between the universal and the individual within the integral system are revealed, the understanding of its essence is established, which implies active mental activity, not only representation). And, finally, the form of existence of theoretical knowledge. In the theory of V. V. Davydov, these are, first of all, methods of mental activity, generalized methods of action. Such an understanding of theoretical knowledge and the main direction of education as an ascent from the abstract to the concrete is based on a different, strictly psychological interpretation of the existing didactic principles. So, V. V. Davydov, having considered the general didactic principles of consciousness, visibility, continuity, accessibility, scientific character, asserts a different, actually psychological and pedagogical nature: the principle of continuity is transformed into the principle of a qualitative difference in the stages of education, each of which correlates with different stages of mental development ; the principle of accessibility is transformed into the principle of developmental learning, filled with new content, “when it is possible to control the pace and content of development through the organization of educational influence”; the principle of consciousness has a new content as the principle of activity. At the same time, students receive information not in a finished form, but only by finding out, establishing the conditions for their origin as ways of activity. This third principle served as the basis for the formation of a new model of learning as a transforming and reproducing activity of students; * the principle of visualization is fixed by V. V. Davydov as the principle of objectivity. Realizing this principle, the student must identify the subject and present it in the form of a model. This is an essential characteristic of the transformative-reproducing activity of learning, when the model, semiotic symbolic representation of its process and result occupies a significant place. With all the difference between empirical and theoretical thinking, their corresponding mental actions and knowledge, both of these types of thinking are necessary for every person, since they complement each other. Theoretical thinking solves its inherent tasks in the most diverse areas of social consciousness - scientific knowledge, the creation of artistic images, the development of legal norms, the search for moral and religious values. Therefore, it is wrong to associate it with operating only with scientific concepts. Developmental training should be developed in accordance with its structure and features. VV Davydov formulates the main provisions that characterize not only the content of educational subjects, but also those skills that should be formed in students when mastering these subjects in educational activities. 1. The assimilation of knowledge that is of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance of students with more particular and specific knowledge; the latter are derived by students from the general and the abstract as from their single basis. 2. Assimilation of knowledge constituting the given academic subject or its main sections, in the process of analyzing the conditions of their origin, thanks to which they become necessary. 3. Formation of the ability, when identifying the subject sources of certain knowledge, to discover in educational material genetically original, essential, universal relation that determines the content and structure of the object of this knowledge. 4. The ability to reproduce this relationship in special subject, graphical or letter models, allowing you to study its properties in its purest form. 5. The ability to concretize the genetically initial, general relation of the object under study in the system of particular knowledge about it in such a unity that provides mental transitions from the general to the particular and vice versa. 6. The ability to move from performing actions on the mental plane to performing them on the external plane and vice versa. At the heart of the developmental education of schoolchildren according to the system of V.V. Davydova - D.B. Elkonin is based on the theory of the formation of educational activity and its subject in the process of assimilation of theoretical knowledge through analysis, planning and reflection. This priority is based on the results of research by D.B. Elkonin, according to which the main criterion for the mental development of a child is the presence of a properly organized structure of educational activity (formed educational activity) with its components - setting a task, choosing means, self-control and self-examination, as well as the correct correlation of subject and symbolic plans in educational activity. In accordance with the theory of V.V. Davydov, in order to form a full-fledged educational activity for younger students, it is necessary that they systematically solve educational problems. At the same time, they find a common way of approaching many particular tasks, which are subsequently carried out as if on the move and right away. The learning task is solved by means of a system of actions. The first is acceptance learning task, the second is the transformation of the situation included in it. The assimilation of theoretical knowledge through appropriate actions requires an orientation towards the essential relationships of the subjects being studied, which involves analysis, planning and reflection of a meaningful nature. Therefore, when assimilating theoretical knowledge, conditions arise for the development of these mental actions as important components of theoretical thinking. The carrier of educational activity is its subject. The younger student in this role performs learning activities initially with others and with the help of a teacher. The development of the subject occurs in the very process of its formation, when the student gradually turns into a student, that is, into a child who changes and improves himself. To do this, he must know about his own in something. limited opportunities to strive and be able to overcome their own limitations. This means that the child must consider the basis of his own actions and knowledge, i.e. reflect. The development in the child of the need for learning activities, appropriate motives contributes to the strengthening of the desire to learn. It is the desire and ability to learn that characterize the younger student as a subject of educational activity. Initially junior schoolchildren perform learning activities together, support each other in solving the problem, discuss and choose ways to find this solution. It is in these situations that “zones of proximal development” arise. In other words, at the first stages, learning activity is carried out by a collective subject. Gradually, this activity begins to be independently carried out by everyone, becoming its individual subject. The concept of developing education by V. V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin is aimed primarily at the development of creativity as the basis of personality. Many provisions of this concept have been confirmed in the course of long-term experimental work. Developmental education according to the system of D. B. Elkonin-V. V. Davydov, introduced into the practice of schooling, received a comprehensive interpretation in the works of L. I. Aidarova, A. K. Markova, V. V. Rubtsov, A. Z. Zak, V. V. Repkin, M. M. Razumovskaya , G. G. Granik and others. The very idea of developmental education was briefly embodied in the experimental learning systems of D. N. Bogoyavlensky, S. F. Zhuikov, M. F. Kosilova, I. Ya. also in the experience of T.V. Nekrasova, G.N. Kudinova and others. The development and testing of the Elkonin-Davydov system continues at the present time. However, this concept is not yet sufficiently implemented in mass educational practice. The theory of the phased formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin) The most complete and theoretically justified advantages of management, programming in educational process presented in the direction of education based on the psychological theory of the formation of mental actions. "P. Ya. Galperin, having set the task of "ajar secrets of the emergence of the mental process", that is, how the material, objective can be transformed into the ideal, mental, developed a holistic scheme this transformation.Together with N.F. Talyzina, this theory was put into practice in the learning process.The following provisions developed in Russian psychology by L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev served as the initial theoretical postulates: - any internal mental is a transformed, internalized external, first the mental function acts as an interpsychological, then as an intrapsychological (L. S. Vygotsky); - the psyche (cognition) and activity are a unity, not an identity (S. L. Rubinshtein): the mental is formed in activity, activity is regulated by the mental (image, thought, plan); mental internal activity has the same structure as external, objective (A. N. Leontiev, N. F. Talyzina); mental development has a social nature. "The development of human individuals proceeded not through the development of internal experience, inherited by species, but through the assimilation of external social experience, fixed in the means of production, in language (A. N. Leontiev)"; the active nature of the mental image "allows us to consider action as its unit." "... It follows from this that it is possible to control the formation of images only through those actions with the help of which they are formed." P. Ya, Galperin set fundamentally new tasks for learning: a) to describe any formed action by the totality of its properties to be formed; b) create conditions for the formation of these properties; c) develop a system of guidelines necessary and sufficient to control the correctness of the formation of an action and avoid errors. P. Ya. Galperin distinguished two parts of the objective action being mastered: its understanding and the ability to perform it. The first part plays the role of orientation and is called "indicative", the second - executive. P. Ya. Galperin attached a special role to the indicative part, considering it to be the "managing authority", later he would call it the "navigator's map". As a result of the research conducted by P. Ya. Galperin and his students, it was found that: "... a. Together with actions, sensory images and concepts about the objects of these actions are formed. The formation of actions, images and concepts constitute different aspects of one and the same process. Moreover, schemes of actions and schemes of objects can largely replace each other in the sense that certain properties of an object begin to designate certain modes of action, and certain properties of its object are assumed behind each link of action. b. The mental plan constitutes only one of the ideal plans. The other is the plane of perception. It is possible that the third independent plan of activity of an individual is the plan of speech. In any case, the mental plan is formed only on the basis of the verbal form of action. V. The action is transferred to the ideal plan either in its entirety, or only in its tentative part. In this last case, the executive part of the action remains on the material plane and, changing along with the orienting part, eventually turns into a motor skill. The transfer of an action to an ideal, in particular to a mental plane, is accomplished by reflecting its objective content by means of each of these plans and is expressed by repeated successive changes in the form of the action. e. The transfer of an action to a mental plane, its internalization constitute only one line of its changes. Other, inevitable and no less important lines are changes: the completeness of the links of action, the measure of their differentiation, the measure of mastery of the pace, rhythm, and strength indicators. These changes cause, firstly, a change in the methods of performance and forms of feedback, and secondly, they determine the achieved qualities of the action. The first of these changes lead to the transformation of an ideally performed action into something that in self-observation is revealed as mental process; the latter allow you to control the formation of such properties of an action as flexibility, reasonableness, consciousness, criticality, etc. ". P. Ya. Galperin considered rationality to be the main characteristic of the actions performed. Compared with traditional education according to the type of trial and error, P. Ya. Galperin substantiated the advantages of the second and especially the third type of teaching, where the complete orienting basis of the student's action is realized. This theory was the foundation of the programming developed by N. F. Talyzina educational process as a control program. N. F. Talyzina, from the position of control theory and based on the theory of P. Ya. Galperin on the systematic formation of mental actions, develops the main elements of a new direction in the programming of the educational process: its goal is to determine the initial level of students' cognitive activity, to determine the content of learning as a system of mental actions, definition of means, i.e. actions as generalized means of mastering a wide range of knowledge according to the third type of orientation; identification of five main stages of assimilation, each of which has its own requirements for actions; development of an algorithm (system of prescriptions) for actions, Feedback and providing on its basis the regulation of the learning process. Essential for the implementation of this direction of programming are General characteristics actions: in form (material, external speech, speech "to oneself", mental); according to the degree of generalization; degree of expansion; as the action is mastered and by whether it is given ready-made or mastered independently. In action, orienting, executive and control functions are distinguished. According to N. F. Talyzina, "any human action is a kind of microcontrol system, including a" control body "(the indicative part of the action), an executive "working body" (the executive part of the action), a tracking and comparing mechanism (the control part of the action)" . The central link in the formation of mental actions is its indicative basis, characterized by completeness, generalization and the degree of independent mastering of actions. The third type of the orienting basis of actions, distinguished by the optimum of completeness, generalization, and independence, ensures the highest efficiency in the formation of mental actions. Correlating existing approaches to learning, N.F. Talyzina notes that, compared with the behavioral theory of programming, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions "programs and builds the most rational structure (a system of cognitive actions)". This is the true management of human development. At the same time, this theory serves as an example of "the consistent implementation of the activity approach to learning."
This classification refers mainly to adults and represents the typology of characters mainly from the point of view of attitude towards people (recall that a person’s character is also manifested in relation to business).
Here is another interesting attempt to present a typology of characters, which is based on a person's attitude to life, society and moral values. It was brought out by E. Fromm and designated as a social typology of characters. "Social character," the author writes, "contains ... a selection of traits, an essential core of the character structure of most members of the group, which has developed as a result of the basic experience and way of life common to this group." Social character determines the thinking, emotions and actions of individuals belonging to a given society. The various classes and groups of people that exist in society have their own social character. On its basis, certain social, national and cultural ideas develop and gain strength. However, these ideas are in themselves passive and can become real forces only when they meet special human needs.
Summarizing the observational data for social behavior various people, correlating them with the practice of working in the clinic (E. Fromm was a Freudian psychiatrist), the author of the presented typology of characters deduced the following main types:
1. "Masochist-sadist". This is the type of person who tends to see the causes of his successes and failures in life, as well as the causes of observed social events, not in the circumstances, but in people. In an effort to eliminate these causes, he directs his aggression towards the person who seems to him to be the cause of failure. If it is about himself, then his aggressive actions are directed at himself; if other people act as a cause, then they become victims of his aggressiveness. Such a person does a lot of self-education, self-improvement, "reforming" people "in better side". With his persistent actions, exorbitant demands and claims, he sometimes brings himself and those around him to a state of exhaustion. This type is especially dangerous for those around him when he gains power over them: he begins to terrorize them, based on "good intentions."
Describing such people as a psychiatrist, E. Fromm wrote: "The most frequently manifested masochistic tendencies are the feeling of one's own inferiority, helplessness, insignificance."
Masochistic people show tendencies to belittle and weaken themselves, revel in self-criticism and self-flagellation, build unthinkable vain accusations on themselves, in everything and above all they try to take the blame on themselves, even if they have nothing to do with what happened.
E. Fromm's observation is interesting, arguing that in this type of people, along with masochistic inclinations, sadistic tendencies are almost always revealed. They manifest themselves in the desire to make people dependent on themselves, to acquire complete and unlimited power over them, to exploit them, to inflict pain and suffering on them, to enjoy the vision of how they suffer. This type of person is called an authoritarian person. E. Fromm showed that such personal qualities were inherent in many famous despots in history, and included Hitler, Stalin, and a number of other famous historical figures in their number.
2. "Destroyer". It is characterized by pronounced aggressiveness and active, striving to eliminate, destroy the object that caused frustration, the collapse of hopes among this person. "Destructiveness," writes Fromm, "is a means of getting rid of an unbearable feeling of impotence." Destructiveness as a means of resolving their life problems is usually addressed by people who experience a sense of anxiety and powerlessness, are limited in the realization of their intellectual and emotional capabilities. During periods of great social upheavals, revolutions, upheavals, they act as the main force that destroys the old, including culture.
3. "Conformist-machine". Such an individual, faced with intractable social and personal life problems ceases to "be itself". He unquestioningly submits to circumstances, society of any type, the requirements of a social group, quickly assimilating the type of thinking and behavior that is characteristic of most people in a given situation. Such a person almost never own opinion, no pronounced social position. He actually loses his own "I", his individuality, and is so accustomed to experiencing exactly those feelings that are expected from him in certain situations, that only as an exception he could notice something "alien" in his feelings. Such a person is always ready to submit to any new authority, quickly and without problems changes his beliefs, if circumstances require it, without particularly thinking about the moral side of such behavior. This is a type of conscious or unconscious opportunist.
The typology derived by E. Fromm is real in the sense of the word that it really resembles the behavior of many people during social events taking place in our country now or in the past.
Erich Fromm - the greatest thinker of the twentieth century, one of the great cohort of "philosophers of psychology" and the spiritual leader of the Frankfurt sociological school. The works of Erich Fromm are always relevant, because the main topic of his research was the disclosure of the human essence as the realization of a productive, vital creativity. From the positions of humanism, he opposes spiritual impoverishment, outlines possible options urgent global problems and the creation of a harmonious healthy person and a healthy society. The author develops his concept of religion and its role in society. The founder of neo-Freudianism, E. Fromm tells in the works collected in the book about how the inner world of a person is transformed. The patient comes to the doctor and together they wander through the recesses of memory, into the depths of the unconscious, to discover hidden secrets. The whole human being goes through a shock, through catharsis. Is it worth it to force the patient to relive life's cataclysms, childhood pains, the ovaries of painful impressions? The scientist develops the concept of two polar modes of human existence - possession and being.
Fromm's works are published today, .
Types of social characters
Summarizing the observational data on the behavior of various people and correlating them with the practice of working in the clinic, E. Fromm deduced the following main types social characters.
1. Masochist-sadist. This type of person who tends to see the reasons for his successes and failures in life, as well as the reasons for the observed social events, not in the circumstances, but in people. In an effort to eliminate these causes, he directs his aggression towards the person who seems to him to be the cause of failure. If it is about himself, then his aggressive actions are directed at himself; if other people act as a cause, then they become victims of his aggressiveness. Such a person is engaged in self-education, self-improvement, remaking people for the better. With his persistent actions, exorbitant demands and claims, he sometimes brings himself and those around him to a state of exhaustion. Such a person is especially dangerous for those around him when he gains power over them: he begins to terrorize them, proceeding from good intentions. Describing such people as a psychiatrist, Fromm wrote: The most frequently manifested masochistic tendencies are a feeling of inferiority, helplessness, insignificance. Masochistic people show tendencies to belittle and weaken themselves, revel in self-criticism and self-flagellation, build unthinkable vain accusations on themselves, and in everything and above all try to take the blame on themselves, even if they have nothing to do with it. According to Fromm, people of this type, along with masochistic tendencies, almost always have sadistic tendencies. They manifest themselves in the desire to make people dependent on themselves, to acquire complete and unlimited power over them, to exploit them, to inflict pain and suffering on them, to enjoy how they suffer. This type of person was called by Fromm an authoritarian personality. Such personality traits were characteristic of many famous despots in history; Fromm included among them Hitler, Stalin and a number of other famous historical figures.
2. Destroyer. It is characterized by pronounced aggressiveness and an active desire to eliminate, destroy the object that caused frustration, the collapse of hopes in this person. Destructiveness, writes Fromm, is a means of getting rid of an unbearable feeling of impotence. Destructiveness as a means of resolving their life problems is usually addressed by people who experience a sense of anxiety and powerlessness, are limited in the realization of their intellectual and emotional capabilities. During periods of great social upheavals, revolutions, upheavals, they act as the main force that destroys the old, including culture. 
3. Automaton conformist. Such an individual, faced with intractable social and personal life problems, ceases to be himself. He unquestioningly submits to circumstances, society of any type, the requirements of a social group, quickly assimilating the type of thinking and mode of behavior that is characteristic of most people in a given situation. Such a person almost never has either his own opinion or a pronounced social position. He actually loses his own I, his individuality and is used to experiencing exactly those feelings that are expected of him in certain situations. Such a person is always ready to submit to any new authority, if necessary, quickly and without problems changes his beliefs, not particularly thinking about the moral side of such behavior. This is a type of conscious and unconscious opportunist.
The classification of characters, depending on belonging to an extraverted and introverted type, proposed by K. Jung, has become widespread. Extraversion - introversion is considered modern psychology as a manifestation of temperament. The first type is characterized by the orientation of the individual to the world, the objects of which, like a magnet, attract the interests, vital energy of the subject, which in a certain sense leads to a belittling of the personal significance of the phenomena of his subjective world. Extroverts are characterized by impulsiveness, initiative, flexibility of behavior, sociability. Introverts are characterized by fixing the interests of the individual on the phenomena of their own inner world, lack of communication, isolation, a tendency to introspection, difficult adaptation. It is also possible to divide into conformal and independent, dominant and subordinate, normative and anarchic and other types.
It should be noted that in the process of constructing various psychological concepts, character is often associated with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are confused. IN modern science among the dominant views on the relationship of character and temperament, 4 main approaches can be distinguished:
First, very often there is an identification of character and temperament. An example of this is the concept of E Kretschmer, who connected body type with temperament and behavioral characteristics.
Secondly, in some psychological concepts one can find the opposition of character and temperament. Moreover, most often in these concepts, the antagonism of character and temperament is emphasized. 
Thirdly, studying psychological concepts, we can meet with the opinions of various researchers that temperament is an element of character, its core, an invariable part. For example, S. L. Rubinshtein adhered to such a point of view.
The existence of these approaches is due to the biosocial nature of man. On the one hand, it is indisputable that the character is formed after the birth of a person, in the process of his interaction with the social environment. However, on the other hand, no one will deny that the physiological characteristics of the body still leave an imprint on the personality.
IN domestic psychology there was an opinion that temperament and character are very close, since the features of temperament in one form or another are reflected in the character of a person. This is due to the fact that the basic properties of temperament are formed much earlier than the formation of character is completed. Therefore, most well-known researchers are of the opinion that character develops on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines in the character such traits as the balance or imbalance of behavior, the ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, the mobility or inertness of the reaction, etc. At the same time, it is necessary to realize that temperament does not determine the character of a person. People with the same temperament properties can have a completely different character. Features of temperament can only contribute to or counteract the formation of certain character traits.
It should be noted that all existing concepts of character types have one very significant drawback. The fact is that each person is individual and can not always be attributed to a certain type. Very often, in the same person, the most developed different traits character. Therefore, a question arises, to which there is still no satisfactory answer: what to do with those people who do not fit into the classification and cannot be assigned unambiguously to any of the proposed types? Such an intermediate group of people makes up a fairly significant part - up to half of all people. 
Existing scientific problems are the basis for finding new solutions to the problems of describing and predicting human actions. Very often, the achievements of various sciences are used for this, and they also pay attention to new facts. One of these sciences is graphology, which considers handwriting as a kind of expressive movements that reflect the psychological properties of the writer. Graphological information, accumulated over the centuries, established a connection between two series of facts - the features of handwriting and character. There is no doubt that each person has a unique handwriting. This fact makes it possible to identify a person and, therefore, gives grounds for considering the question of the dependence of handwriting on character.
Currently, there is no unambiguous data confirming or refuting the connection between handwriting and character. The dependence of handwriting on the emotional state and some typological properties of higher nervous activity. On the other hand, N. A. Bernshtein noted that what distinguishes the mechanics of the movement of a living organism from the movement of a machine is the redundancy of the degree of freedom. One and the same action can be performed in many ways, therefore, in each action, one can single out something that can be associated with the personal meaning of this action, and, consequently, with the psychophysiological characteristics of a particular person.
Character is a multifaceted phenomenon, and it is likely that new, scientifically based methods of studying it will appear in the near future.
