International cooperation in space exploration. A. Leonov, A. Sokolov. Man and the Universe. Technical risks include the failure of rocket and space technology, which are the most common reasons for the failure of space projects.

The exclusive role of international cooperation in the field of space research and their practical application requires a clear clarification of the legal content of the principle of interstate cooperation from the point of view of the ITUC. The general principle of cooperation established by international law is fully applicable to interstate relations related to the exploration and use of outer space. The desire to promote the comprehensive development of international cooperation in outer space as much as possible was declared by states in the preamble to the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, as well as in many articles of this treaty, and this gives grounds to classify cooperation between states in the exploration and use of outer space as one of the basic principles of the ISL.

Thus, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty consolidated the principle of cooperation between states as one of general principles, the main beginnings of the KP. A number of provisions of the outer space treaty follow from the principle of cooperation and detail it. For example, the obligation to take into account the relevant interests of all other states when carrying out activities in outer space, not to create potentially harmful interference with the activities of other states, to provide possible assistance to astronauts of other states, to inform all countries about the nature, course, place and results of their activities in outer space, etc. d.

Thus, the main content of the principle of cooperation is the obligation of states to cooperate with each other in the exploration of outer space and the obligation to maximally favor and promote the development of broad contacts and joint work on the study and use of outer space.

within the UN. The leading role in the development of cooperation between states in the exploration and use of outer space belongs to the UN General Assembly. It has achieved the most significant success in the field of legal regulation of space activities, and it is rightfully considered the center of international cooperation in the development of ISL standards. It adopted: 1) Declaration of Legal Principles of Space Activities, 2) Outer Space Treaty, 3) Rescue Agreement, 4) Liability Convention, 5) Registration Convention, 6) Moon Agreement. Its decisive role in the formation and development of the ITUC was already evident in the creation of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, better known as the Outer Space Committee.

The main functions of the General Assembly include: 1) formulating tasks for the study and development of legal problems of outer space exploration, 2) approval of the recommendations of the UN Committee on Outer Space on issues of legal regulation of space activities of states, and 3) approval of draft agreements on outer space within the framework of the UN Committee on outer space, 4) direct development of drafts of individual articles of these agreements at sessions of the General Assembly with the participation of the absolute majority of states.

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. In accordance with UN resolutions, the committee is charged with dealing with both scientific, technical and legal issues of outer space exploration; it performs the role of the central coordinating body in the field of international cooperation in space exploration. The UN Committee on Outer Space consists of two subcommittees - Legal and Scientific and Technical. The main law-making activity of the Committee is carried out through its Legal Subcommittee. The Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on Outer Space carries out activities to develop draft multilateral agreements regulating activities in the exploration and use of outer space. In fact, this subcommittee is the central working body for the development of the principles and norms of the ITUC. The Committee takes decisions by consensus.

The UN Secretary-General is endowed with a fairly wide range of powers in the field of coordinating cooperation in space exploration: 1) he is entrusted with the collection and dissemination of information on the space activities of states, 2) maintaining a register containing information on launched space objects and ensuring open access to it, 3) collection and dissemination of data on phenomena that pose a threat to the life and health of astronauts and the actions of states to rescue and provide assistance to astronauts in the event of an accident, disaster, forced or unintentional landing, 4) appointment ad hoc of the chairman of the commission for consideration of claims under the Liability Convention, etc.

In addition, many UN specialized agencies play an important role in space exploration: 1) ITU ( International Union Telecommunications), which develops regulations allocating radio frequency bands for space communications, investigates the economic aspects of space communications, exchanges information on the use of satellites for long-distance communications, 2) UNESCO, whose main task in space is to study the problems of using space communications for the purposes of dissemination of information social development, expanding cultural exchange, 3) WHO, which promotes cooperation between states in the field of space medicine; 4) other organizations.

Great importance also for the development of international cooperation in space exploration had two UN conferences on the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes in 1968 and 1982.

WITHIN INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. No universal intergovernmental international organization dealing with space problems has been created. Currently practical matters international cooperation in this area are engaged in a number of international organizations within their competence.

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). Its main goal was to radically improve maritime communications using artificial earth satellites. The constituent documents of INMARSAT consist of the intergovernmental Convention on the International Organization of Maritime Satellite Communications, which defines the fundamental provisions for the creation of the organization and the Operating Agreement, which regulates the technical and financial questions, and which is signed either on behalf of the government or on behalf of public or private competent organizations designated by it. The bearers of the rights and obligations under the Convention are only States. The operating agreement provides that its subjects may be either states or competent national organizations designated by the governments of states.

International Organization for Communications via Artificial Earth Satellites (INTELSAT). INTELSAT's main goal is to commercialize the design, construction, operation and maintenance of a global communications system using artificial satellites "used in international purposes and accessible to all states without any discrimination". Now more than 100 states are members of INTELSAT. However, a number of shortcomings are indicated in the specialized literature, the main of which are that over half of all votes belong to the American private campaign COMSAT, which represents the interests of INTELSAT USA and that, rather, INTELSAT is a kind of a / o with the participation of foreign capital.

European Space Agency (ESA). Back in the early 1960s, Western European countries decided to pursue a space policy independent of the United States. Several international organizations have been formed. At the end of 1968, a decision was made to merge in the future all space organizations existing in Western Europe and to create a single organization - ESA. Only in 1975, representatives of 11 countries signed the Convention establishing the ESA. 3 more states have observer status. The activities of the ESA should be aimed at ensuring and developing cooperation between European states in space exploration and practical use achievements of astronautics for peaceful purposes. The main tasks of the ESA are: 1) the development and coordination of a long-term common European space policy of all member states and each state separately, 2) the development and implementation of a common European space program, 3) the development and implementation of an appropriate industrial policy. The agency's space programs are divided into mandatory, financed by all member states, and optional, in the financing of which only interested parties participate.

ARABSAT can be singled out from other intergovernmental organizations. It includes 21 states from among the members of the League of Arab States. The main goal of ARABSAT is to create and maintain a long-distance communication system for all members of the League.

WITHIN INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. These international non-governmental organizations do not represent a form of cooperation between states, since their founders and members are not states, but scientific societies, institutions and individual scientists. Their activities contribute to a wide exchange of information, discussion of various scientific problems and strengthening international cooperation.

The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established in October 1958 to continue the implementation of activities for cooperation in space exploration after the end of the International Geophysical Year. The main task of this international organization is "providing scientists around the world with the opportunity to widely use satellites and space probes for scientific research outer space and the organization of the exchange of information on the results of research on the basis of reciprocity". Its purpose is to promote progress in the study of outer space on an international scale.

The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) was formed organizationally in 1952. The activity of the IAF is based on the Charter adopted in 1961 with amendments in 1968 and 1974. The activities of the IAF are aimed at promoting the development of astronautics for peaceful purposes, promoting the dissemination of information about space research, as well as on a number of social and legal issues of space exploration. There are 3 categories of members in the IAF: 1) national members (astronautical societies of various countries), 2) universities, laboratories whose activities are related to the training of personnel or research in the field of astronautics, 3) international organizations whose goals correspond to the tasks of the IAF.

International Institute of Space Law (IISL). It was created to replace the previously existing IAF Standing Legal Committee. Its task is to: 1) study the legal and sociological aspects of space activities, 2) organize annual colloquia on space law, which are held simultaneously with the IAF congresses, 3) conduct research and prepare reports on the legal issues of space exploration, 4) publish various materials on space law. The Institute is also involved in the teaching of space law. It is the only non-governmental organization that discusses the legal problems of space exploration. IISL is created on the basis of individual membership. It represents the IAF on the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on Outer Space. International Law Course. M, 1989. S.194.

The high cost of space projects, on the one hand, and the interest of all countries of the world in the practical results of space exploration, on the other, have necessitated close cooperation between states in the field of astronautics. According to the Outer Space Treaty, in the exploration and use of outer space, its participants must be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and carry out space activities with due regard for the relevant interests of all other states. States are encouraged to promote and encourage cooperation in this area.

Cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space is carried out in two main forms: within the framework of international organizations involved in space activities, and through joint international space projects and programs. Such cooperation is regulated by multilateral and bilateral international treaties.

Among the international organizations whose goals and objectives are directly related to space activities are the European Space Agency (ESA), the International Maritime Satellite Organization, the European Organization for the Use of Meteorological Satellites, the Arab Satellite Communications Corporation, etc. Certain issues of space cooperation are in the area of activities of the UN specialized agencies, including the International Telecommunication Union, the World Meteorological Organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Maritime Organization.

Joint international space projects and cooperation programs in the exploration and use of outer space cover a variety of areas of space activities. This is the creation of samples of space technology, joint manned flights, scientific research, the use of the results of space activities, etc.

The most striking example of such cooperation is the program for the creation and use of the international space station, carried out in accordance with the 1998 Agreement between the governments of Russia, the United States, the ESA member states, Canada and Japan. Also noteworthy is the International COSPAS-SARSAT Program, designed to assist in the search and rescue of people by providing satellite data on distress (and its location) of ships or aircraft. Canada, Russia, the USA and France are members of the program, and any state can be a user.

Extensive international cooperation on space issues is carried out on the basis of bilateral agreements. Russia has such agreements with many states, in particular, on issues of launching space objects by Russian carrier rockets, as well as on issues of using the Baikonur cosmodrome (with Kazakhstan).

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

TRENDS AND RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL REGIME

Andrey Baikov

MGIMO (U) MFA of Russia, Moscow, Russia

Alexey Bogaturov

Scientific and Educational Forum on International Relations, Moscow, Russia

Alexey Fenenko

Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow, Russia

Moscow and Washington remain leaders in space research, maintaining a lead over other space powers, primarily China and the EU. In the early 2010s, as in the 1960s, only the United States and Russia have the facilities to carry out the full spectrum of space exploration.

The resources of Russia and the United States are different. United States are superior in quantity spacecraft and the scope of their tasks. Washington's predominance is consolidated by the fact that it has the world's only system of global satellite navigation and communications.

Russian programs, in turn, are aimed at solving three types of problems. The first is to retain Russia's status as a country that is still capable of carrying out the entire range of space research. The second is to prevent the United States from leading the way across the entire spectrum of space research. The third is to create a technological foundation for the development of the aerospace defense system.

The purpose of this article is to form ideas about the degree of compatibility of the space programs of both countries as the axis of the emerging international regime in the field of space exploration, to identify potential "risks of cooperation" and promising advantages of cooperation between Russia and the United States, assessing the complex of problems of bilateral cooperation between Russia and the United States in the field of peaceful exploration space.

International cooperation between Russia and the United States in the field of space is versatile, due to the huge potential in this industry in both countries. Nevertheless, in some areas of cooperation there are a number of contradictions caused by the fact that the United States is not only our largest partner, but also our main competitor.

The complexity of the Russian-American partnership in this area is added by the fact that we are talking about cooperation between partners of comparable power. Consequently, each of the powers comes-

1 The article was prepared with the support of the Russian Humanitarian Foundation grant No. 13-07-00022 “Establishment of Regulatory Regimes in New Areas of International Cooperation”.

Email: [email protected]

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN SPACE

Xia combine the interests of protecting their original developments with the tasks of the maximum possible familiarization with the partner's developments. In addition, it is necessary to maintain some reasonable level of mutual trust, without which the partnership cannot take place.

Keywords:

peaceful exploration of outer space; international regime; Russia; USA.

Continuous strengthening of competitive	growth in the 1950s and 1980s, as well as
began interaction in the space sphere		technological	interaction
re became feature international	view from the USA, a huge scientific and technical
but-political dynamics since the late 1950s	cue potential.
years. At certain stages, especially in	The most convincing result
connections with emerging in this area rice	new phase of cooperation was the creation
kami of a military-strategic nature -	International Space Station, ex-
the paradigm of rivalry and even counter-	operation of which started in 1998.
wrestling was supplemented quite significantly	At the same time, elements of rivalry in space
cooperative elements2.	mose were not completely ousted from mi-
Extensive collaboration programs	rovy interaction. Today, as in
in space basically, of course, forgive	late 1950s, space championship,
rushed to areas of peaceful use	or at any rate a visible presence in
outer space in the general human	this segment, still serves as evidence
scientific goals of the progress of science and operational	the presence of a complex potential
implementation of fundamental achievements	la and serious arguments in favor of the world-
scientists to solve applied problems on-	th or regional leadership. Actions in
national economy, healthcare,	in this direction are manifested not only
the possibility of transferring life-active	along the strategic axis of relations between
human beings to other planets. Teach	the United States and Russia, but also in the context of
making a very short history of space		multilateral	relations in
ical projects, unfolding to	Asia, Latin America, in Europe.
to the same in conditions of acute bipolar	This rivalry manifests itself in two ways.
confrontation between the superpowers, aggravated	yako: on the one hand, as hidden, but
powerful ideological and military com-	conscious political and (military) technical
components, truly global	nological competition of "great powers"
space cooperation programs	for retaining leadership in the possession and
whether to manifest itself in the 1990s. In that peri-	changing the latest technologies capable of
one of them joined the former against-	help achieve decisive superiority
arms race nicknames, which gave rise to	walking. In the minds of leaders in Washington and
opportunity for partial integration of their	Moscow still retains relevant
scientific, technical and technological	the “ideal image” of a strategic
platforms. A peculiar	invulnerability, which continues to remain
triangle whose vertices are	be the desired model for providing
USA, Russia and leading, technologically	national security		in conditions
"advanced" states of the European	multiplication of sources of threats, risks and
Union. Connect to it almost immediately	dangers.
chili Japan, accumulated thanks to	On the other hand, confrontation in
period of ultra-fast economic growth	space is, among other things, the usual eco-

2 Preparation and testing of the first version this study were carried out in the course of a situational analysis conducted at the Department of Applied Analysis of International Problems of MGIMO under the guidance of prof. T.A. Shakleina. Their results are reflected in the work: Situational analyzes. Issue. 3: Formation of regimes in relation to new global challenges and threats / T.A. Shakleina, A.A. Baykov [and others]; ed. T.A. Shakleina. M.: MGIMO-University, 2013.

economic competition for the creation and sale of unique space equipment, the design of spaceports, the implementation of commercial launches, which today have great financial attractiveness.

In general, outer space will retain its role as one of the basic criteria for leadership in the global hierarchy and will determine the international status characteristics of all countries seeking to try on the role of a “great power” responsible for maintaining peace and security on the planet.

Space activities in the 2010s continue to be one of the main areas of international cooperation and, at the same time, international competition. To one degree or another, all countries that can claim political, economic, and technological leadership not only at the global, but also at the regional levels, in Europe, Asia, and Latin America, are involved in it. In the world competition, along with governments and states, private and semi-private corporations-suppliers and consumers of space services, equipment and technologies participate. In fact, a new environment of international space cooperation is being formed, the objective characteristics of which are both a sharply expanded circle of subjects and increased technological possibilities for the use of space developments. Accordingly, there is an active reformatting of the previously existing models of interaction between key players in the space services market and tools for its regulation in the interests of sustainable development and international, regional and local security. We are talking about the formation of a new international

native mode of peaceful space activities (understood, according to Krasner, as

a set of relevant regulatory institutions, principles and norms with concurring expectations of the main participants

kov), the pivotal axis of which is the renewed Russian-American cooperation in this area.

International legal, political and diplomatic, financial and economic, scientific and technical, organizational, managerial and marketing support of space activities are becoming the most important branches public policy and promising areas of highly profitable business with a pronounced transnational dimension. The key specificity of space activity is its direct connection with the national security of the countries participating in it, their military and military technologists political politics, as well as international and global security.

Another fundamental characteristic of international cooperation in space activities is the information revolution and the expansion of the technological tools of the most developed countries, providing them with access to innovative developments and technological secrets of competitors.

The cooperation of technologically less powerful countries with the leading states in the technological sphere is associated with the desire of the former to openly or secretly provide themselves with access to the maximum possible range of new products available to the partner. The task of the latter in such situations is to exercise extreme caution, metering the flow of space technologies to less powerful states, bearing in mind the risks of their own security, international security in general, and, of course, the interests of maintaining competitive advantages in the markets of space services and technology.

The situation is even more complicated in the case of cooperation between partners symmetrical in power, such as Russia and the United States for each other. Each of the powers has to constantly combine the interests of protecting their original developments with the tasks of tracking the developments of a partner as much as possible. At the same time, it is obvious that bilateral partnership cannot

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN SPACE

operate in a one-way communication mode. It is impossible to get acquainted with the ideas of a partner without giving him anything in return. Hence the forced focus of the parties on tough selectivity.

In addition, the international political and economic environment of Russian-American bilateral cooperation is largely determined by their rivalry and, at the same time, attempts to cooperate with third countries - China, the EU countries, the states of Latin America and the Asia-Pacific region, and even individual CIS countries. Many third partner countries of both Russia and the United States will be ready to exploit possible Russian-American differences for their own purposes.

The importance of cooperation with the United States in space is highlighted by its place in the overall system of bilateral Russian-American relations. Their chronic shortcoming over the past 20 years has been the lack of real cooperation, so to speak, "meat" on the "bearing bones" of important but general political declarations of partnership and agreements on the reduction of military potentials. In this sense, joint space projects look like mutually beneficial and extremely necessary in the current stage of development of bilateral relations, concrete deeds, the implementation of which brings benefits to both participating countries.

The recent setbacks in some of Russia's space projects have had a dual effect on Moscow's position in relations with Washington. On the one hand, they brought some damage to the technological prestige of Russian manufacturers.

On the other hand, the failures drew the attention of the authorities to the accumulated difficulties in space activities. Russian leaders are more aware of the importance of state support and state control in the field of space activities. There was a specific lead for self-critical comparisons with the United States: in the United States, the question of

support for space projects is never questioned in principle - Congress tends to only cut or freeze appropriations for certain areas of space activities. Commercial activities in space and the increase in their profitability are welcome, but they are more a means of reducing the costs of space projects than a source of their own financing. It would probably be worthwhile to introduce such an approach into everyday discussions at the level Russian government and within the walls of the State Duma.

At the same time, space cooperation with the United States is associated with considerable risks and, at the same time, with potential significant acquisitions for Russia.

It is important to keep in mind that in the 2000s

the American leadership has essentially returned to the idea of ensuring access to the strategic invulnerability of the United States . For some 40 years prior, this idea had been considered unrealistic in the United States, and the concept national security built on recognition of the mutual strategic vulnerability of the USA and the USSR (mutually assured destruction). The idea of global strategic stability was based on this postulate. This concept is currently being questioned.

The idea of creating missile defense systems is only part of the effort to ensure the strategic invulnerability of the United States, and the development of outer space and the acquisition of advantages in it is an important component of finding the contours of a policy to ensure such invulnerability. The price of risk is high, and therefore the United States pays enormous attention to the space activities of all powers that have the appropriate potential for this. Projects of cooperation with Russia in this sense - one of the tools for continuous monitoring of the level of readiness of Russia for the implementation of space programs of one or another level of complexity.

But the potentially dangerous actions of the United States are not limited to “hunting for information.”

Andrey Baikov, Alexey Bogaturov, Alexey Fenenko

to her". A proven way to tie the hands of a competitor is a strategy in which Russian partners are involved in projects that can actually bring significant financial and even technological gains to the Russian side in the short and medium term. For Russia, acquisitions can be of a concrete applied, tactical nature. But in the long term strategic participation in detailed financially profitable projects can divert the forces and resources of Russian participants, for example, from financially less profitable, but technologically more promising, potentially breakthrough areas of original research and fundamental developments.

In this way, the American partners are softly imposing their own “agenda”, a program of space activities, on the Russian participants. Russian corporations may turn out to be partners in projects that are important and profitable, but no longer of key or fundamental importance, actually diverting or moving away from those main lines of space research that the Americans are developing entirely independently. Given the relative limited resources (personnel, financial, organizational, institutional, infrastructural) of the Russian side, the likelihood of "sinking" in such options for cooperation with the United States is quite high.

Space cooperation with the United States has a number of undeniable advantages for Russia. First, it somehow allows the Russian side to join some of the technological achievements of American partners. Secondly, it gives Russia the means of political pressure on third countries, such as China, which has long been annoyed by the interaction of Russian and American corporations both as a political symbol of the superiority of the United States and Russia in space, and

as a kind of center for "global management of the development of the space sector on a bilateral basis."

Thirdly, as far as one can conclude, cooperation with the United States is commercially attractive for the Russian side, since it provides an inflow of funds necessary for the development of space projects in Russia itself. In addition, in a number of cases, it allows the Russian side to save very significant expenses on space activities. Fourthly, it is important to constantly familiarize yourself with the quality standards in the American space complex, which, judging by the publications, surpass Russian ones in a number of areas or are simply more developed and regulated from a practical point of view.

Fourthly, interaction with the American side allows Russian companies to borrow elements of advanced management and marketing experience, which is important both for modernizing the system of space activities in Russia and for better orientation of Russian companies in the global space market.

In practice, Russia cooperates with the United States in a number of important areas: the use of the International Space Station (ISS), space communications and navigation, the Sea Launch project, the export of rocket engines to the United States, and cooperation on multilateral platforms. In addition, Moscow and Washington use each other's experience in organizing space research. In the early 2010s, Russian experience became in demand in the United States. American experts show interest in activities Russian Center flight control. Finally, cooperation between Russia and the United States in space is inseparable from arms control negotiations.

Apparently, so far the most realistic scenario for interaction between Russia and the United States in space seems to be the possible

segmental and limited cooperation. It can develop in areas where, in-

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN SPACE

firstly, vital interests are not affected and, secondly, there is no direct relationship with the military sphere. These areas include: (1) the system of manned astronautics; (2) lunar programs; (3) gas planet research projects; (4) the Venusian project.

Apart from research projects NASA and Roscosmos have areas of interaction that are closely related to military-political problems. First of all, we are talking about the resuscitation of the program of joint monitoring of ballistic missile launches. Another area of cooperation could be the development of new generations of launch vehicles. The START-3 Treaty, signed in 2010, can become the technical basis for cooperation. In particular, it provides for the two-way exchange of telemetry data obtained during test launches. This data can improve the compatibility of carrier rocket launch trajectories and help develop new, more profitable launch trajectories.

The hypothetical areas of cooperation between Russia and the United States can be space meteorology, as well as the removal of collisions around programs for remote sensing of the Earth (ERS). Determining the status of the ISS after 2020 should become a special area of cooperation. An important area of cooperation could be the start of negotiations on the possibility of limited cooperation in the field of telecommunications systems.

It is quite obvious that Russia should make efforts to launch cooperation projects with NASA on promising lines of deep space exploration.

Cooperation with the United States remains one of the main areas of increased military and political-strategic risks for Russia. The struggle for the resource of outer space with its unique and largely unexplored properties and prospects for development in the coming century will greatly influence the international

popular competition and the ability of a particular power to influence world affairs. Here we are talking about a set of indicators of the global positions of states - the ability to defend themselves and strike at others with impunity or with minimal losses, the potential for economic and financial benefits, international prestige and the ideological influence associated with it.

The main line of US global policy is to maintain unconditional comprehensive leadership and positions of superiority in the widest possible range of indicators of power. Washington's goal in cooperation with Russia is, in part, the desire to increase the resource of American power in one way or another by sharing the best Russian achievements and their subsequent development and modification. At the same time, the United States seeks to reduce to the point of complete elimination the “non-transparency sector” in space activities, and in a broader sense, in the sphere of Russian efforts to improve the independent potential of creative activity in the field of science and technology, including military and useful for dual use.

When evaluating the situation in the field of interaction between the two powers in space, it is important to keep in mind several circumstances of a general military-strategic and military-political nature. Firstly, Moscow and Washington have been leaders in space research for many years. In the early 2010s, as in the 1960s, only the United States and Russia have the facilities to carry out the full spectrum of space exploration. The latter implies seven

mandatory conditions: (1) the presence of a large satellite constellation; (2) the existence of a developed system of manned and unmanned flights; (3) deployment of a multi-purpose constellation of satellites for navigation, meteorology, communications and telecommunications; (4) creation of a global satellite navigation and communications system; (5) izu

Andrey Baikov, Alexey Bogaturov, Alexey Fenenko


the value of near and far space on		topic of mutual nuclear deterrence. Vo
the basis of long-term integrated programs;		space systems are needed
(6) construction of manned orbital		to (1) ensure the operation of systems
stations; (7) availability of potential for creating		warnings			about the missile attack
research of military space systems, including		/SPRN/, (2) improvements in ballistic
anti-satellite weapons.		missiles, (3) missile guidance
At the same time, the potential of Russia and the United States is not		carriers nuclear weapons/nuclear weapons/ on targets and
symmetrical. United States of America		(4) demonstrations			possibilities		delivery
give superiority in the number of cos-		nuclear warhead to any point on Earth.
mic devices and the volume of solved		Deployment of global satellite systems
tasks. Washington predominance		kovoy navigation and communication allows you to create
replicated by the presence of his only		non-nuclear high-precision weapon, method-
in the world of the global satellite system		to hit launchers without using
navigation and communication NAVSTAR-GPS. forsey		use of nuclear weapons. The development of anti-
Russian attempts to deploy ana-		missile defense (ABM) increases the significance of
logical GLONASS system, accelerating				space research for
published since 2007, cannot yet be named in		testing the possibility of destroying space
fully successful, although progress		ical objects, including - intermediate
is obvious here.			docking		space
True, the gap between Russian and American		Anti-satellite projects play a special role
Kansk space potentials		nickname weapons: theoretically, it can
thrived in 2011. National Agency		paralyze the management of strategic
United States Space Research (NASA)		nuclear forces (SNF) of the enemy.
closed the reusable flight program		It is noteworthy that the basic elements
space shuttles. Before		international				space
late 2010s, NASA will be forced to		interaction, the core of which is
perform manned space missions		puts precisely the Russian-American
flights to the International Space Station		track, were created in the first half
station (ISS) based on Russian space		1990s. Then Russia and the United States tried
Soyuz class ships. Nevertheless			reform the system of mutual
by number of NASA space assets
has superiority over Russia.		Presidents George W. Bush and B.N. Yeltsin
Russia and the United States maintain a lead		signed the Camp David Declaration,
some space powers. China, having received		proclaimed the transition to a strategic
access to Russian technological		partnership and the introduction of "zero"
resource, organized a manned space		flight mission for operational
flight (2003), launched a program		deployed launchers.
mu unmanned	moon exploration
(2007) and experienced	anti-satellite	The United States signed the Washington Charter,
weapons (2007). Latin American countries		proclaimed the creation of a common pro-
began to create various types of satellites		safety lands "from Vancouver to
kov, and Brazil (albeit unsuccessfully) - su-		Vladivostok". The package with her was signed
borbital launch vehicle. States		san bilateral cooperation agreement
East Asia, India, Australia and		honor in the field of research and use
New Zealand develops rocket science
and production of telecommunications		purposes. Based on it, they launched
satellites. But these projects are still being repeated		joint Mir-Shuttle programs,
yut achievements of the USSR and the USA in the 1960s.		Creation		launch vehicles		"Arrow" and
Secondly, space activities		"Rokot" through the modernization of the council-
Russia and the United States are still tied to the system		ICBMs SS-19 "Stilet" and RAMOS (Russian

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN SPACE

American Missile Observation Satellite). The latter provided for the development of a common system for monitoring ballistic missile launches. These programs were a kind of tool for reducing the level of tension in the rocket and space sphere.

As the problems of missile defense became more acute and the modernization of nuclear potentials, the impetus for Russian-American cooperation in space dried up. After the Mir space station was sunk in 2001, the MirShuttle program was terminated. In 2004, the US canceled the RAMOS program and abandoned the construction of a common ballistic missile launch monitoring center. The START-3 Treaty (2010) also reduced the chances for Russian-American cooperation in space. The document provides for the reduction of strategic operationally deployed warheads to 1,550 units for each of the parties and does not solve the missile defense problem. In the preamble of the document, only the relationship between defensive and offensive systems is fixed. Low containment ceilings increase the risk of inflicting a counterforce strike on strategic nuclear forces and blocking the residual potential through strategic missile defense systems. In such a situation, the role of information and space systems increases.

Thirdly, Russia and the United States are still afraid of a quick separation in space of the opposite side. Such a breakthrough is theoretically possible in two areas. The first is the use of deep space research programs in the interests of the emerging missile defense system. Planetary exploration solar system requires technologies for spacecraft docking, remote sensing and data transmission over long distances. These technologies can become the scientific foundation for creating strategic missile defense systems in the future.

The second area is the elimination of the American monopoly on the global system of satellite navigation and communications. Back in 2004, the former commander-in-chief of the force

In Europe, American General Wesley Clark predicted that US military superiority would end with the proliferation of anti-satellite weapons and the development of combat lasers capable of hitting strategic aircraft. Such a scenario has so far been blocked by Washington's monopoly on the NAVSTAR-GPS system. But the emergence of alternative systems in other countries will lead to a change in the ratio of military capabilities: primarily due to undermining the Pentagon's monopoly on non-nuclear high-precision weapons of global range. In this sense, the United States is more interested in the failure than in the success of such projects in Russia, China and the EU countries.

Hence - the parallelism of the space programs of Russia and the United States. The logic of mutual nuclear deterrence forces Moscow

And Washington to maintain the status of states with a full range of space research. The emergence of a new space program in Russia and the United States stimulates a corresponding response from the other side. Both countries reproduce logic in their relations Soviet-American "space race" of the 1960s.

Fourth, Russia and the United States use each other's experience in organizing space research . After the success of the US Lunar Program (1969), Soviet experts attributed the American advantage to the presence of NASA, an autonomous structure subordinate to the federal government, independent of the Department of Defense.

And dealing exclusively with the study of outer space. In the first half In the 1990s, Russia tried to reform the space industry along the lines of NASA. Began to deal with military issues main center testing and use of space assets (GCIP KS) of the military space forces. Space activities became the property of the Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos), under which the Mission Control Center was transferred.

Andrey Baikov, Alexey Bogaturov, Alexey Fenenko

In the early 2010s, and the Russian	The United States is partly in control
experience was in demand in the USA.	to develop the missile potential of the allies.
Termination of the manned program	Russia, in turn, fears that
space flights is forcing NASA to re-	under the guise of space partnership
form the Space Center. J.	The United States is trying to draw other
Kennedy. The administration of B. Obama intends to	some countries in cooperation on missile defense.
ren to allocate 1.9 billion rubles for this reform.	Moscow's dissatisfaction was caused by the Tokyo
dollars over the next five years.	agreement of 2004, under the terms of which
Fifth, Russia and the United States	th the United States handed over to Japan systems of strategic
distrustful of rocket space	logical and tactical missile defense on the terms
the other party's cooperation with	access to them by American specialists.
third countries. American military	Joint projects between NASA and the European
nye experts are concerned about growth	space agency (ESA) to study
Sino-Chinese cooperation in space	deep space may become technical
mose. Washington believes that access to	groundwork for creating a space echelon-
Russian technological resource	at EuroPRO. Accelerated since 2010, the
allowed the PRC to organize piloted	negotiations on a rocket and space partner
my space flight and create a counter-	U.S. relations with ASEAN countries (formerly
satellite weapon. Russian-China	total - Vietnam and Thailand) can create
interaction is seen by some	give additional tension to
American experts as one of the	relations of these countries with the PRC, and, indirectly, and
variants of the Russian “asymmetric	with Russia. As a pressure tool
veta" for the PRO program.	the American side
More painful for the US
Russia's partnership with Washington allies	"The Hague Code" 2002. Washington
tones. The administration of W. Clinton blocked	claims that Moscow is violating his key
signed the Russian-Japanese agreement	Position: partnership in the field
1993 on cooperation in the field of research	space exploration should not lead to
outer space into the world	dissemination of rocket technology.
purposes. In the early 2000s, the administration	Rocket and space cooperation with
George W. Bush Jr. did not allow	third countries can be used
Russian-Australian partnership for	Wano USA to create political
construction of a spaceport on about. Christmas.	Russia's difficulties. In November 2010, the administrator
In 2006-2009, the White House prevented	B. Obama's administration actually resumed
New Zealand talks with Russia	the activities of the military-political
partnership to develop suborbital	alliance ANZUS3. In American and Av-
th launch vehicle "Atea". After a series of ava-	in the Australian media there were reports of
riy of South Korean suborbital carriers	the possibility of involving Russia in
telecoms in 2009-2010 the United States cautiously	dernization of rocket and space potentials
are pushing Seoul to stop con-	cials of Australia and New Zealand. These
tracts with Roskosmos. In Washington, opa-	information was negatively received as
say that Moscow is trying to (1) get	American and Chinese leadership
sensitive from a military point of view	property. Beijing signaled that
information about the missile potentials of the allies
USA and (2) dilute the system of American	Xia as going against the spirit of the Russian-
security alliances that allow	Chinese treaty of 2001.

On November 34, 2010, the President of the United States and the Prime Minister of New Zealand signed the Declaration of Wellington to renew their military partnership. On November 8, 2010, the leaders of the United States and Australia initialed an agreement on cooperation in the field of exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN SPACE

American	and Russian space		nology (first of all - means of dozap
programs in the 2000s were an important com-			equalization), robotic systems, heavy
component of the nuclear deterrence system and			lyh launch vehicles, study systems
global stability. In 2002, the administrative			planets and the sun. Administration Projects
stration George W. Bush Jr. announced a move to			B. Obama's proposals were called upon to create in-
new structure	strategic triad:		infrastructure for missile defense systems "out of the atmosphere"
(1) shock offensive systems (nuclear-			ferral interception" 4 .
nye and conventional); (2) defensive				Russian space	programs
telnye systems (missile defense, air defense and means			were partly a response to rocket space
civil defense) and (3) updated
infrastructure tied to information			Russian government		concept
			development of the Russian manned space
2004 US President George W. Bush Jr. under			monautics, which provides for poetry
pretext for a response to rocket and space			step-by-step creation of industrial trans-
China's breakthrough put forward a new program			tailor space system, development
NASA space research.			near-Earth space, the Moon and,
The implementation of these programs was called upon			it is possible, the organization of flights to Mars.
to consolidate the separation of the United States from other countries			Russian priorities in
across the entire spectrum of space research			space suggest:
ny. Washington could also work out in-				– completion of system deployment
infrastructure for the space component
and strategic missile defense and anti-satellite				– Commitment in common with NASA and ESA
which weapon. task adopted in 2006.			manned flights to the International
National	space	politicians	space station (ISS);
US has been ensuring consistency				– creation of a promising	piloted-
NASA research programs with			my transportation system;
introduced in 2002 by the deployment project				- creation of a launch vehicle in a modular
strategic missile defense systems.			th type "Angara";
The administrator who came to power in 2009				– mapping of the Moon unpiloted
Barack Obama changed the global			controlled spacecraft in a frame
nye military-strategic priorities.			kah of the Luna Globe project;
In 2010, the White House adopted the concept				– the study of Mars through non-saw-
"minimal	containment"		monitored station "Phobos-Grunt";
deterrence), which provided for an abbreviated				– development of the Mars-500 program for
strategic nuclear forces by 75%, as well as the development of systems			preparing a manned flight to Mars
strategic and tactical missile defense.				participate in the European Space
			agencies (ESA);
notice of termination lunar program				- preparation of the Venera-D probe, intended
NASA, including the Constellation Project. 15 ap			significant for the study of Venus in the image
In 2010, the President of the United States announced the re-				American	"Magellan"
the ability to create a light version
"Constellations" for piloting				– negotiating with ESA to launch
ongoing flights to the Moon and/or large			joint programs for the study of satellites
roids. NASA's New Priorities			Jupiter through unmanned
announced the development of advanced technologies			space vehicles;

4 The International Federation of Aeronautics has established the boundary of outer space and atmosphere at 100 km. However, the United States does not recognize this division: Washington separates space and atmosphere according to the type of apparatus used. A missile defense system of “extraatmospheric interception” (high altitude) hits targets above the line of 100 km, but according to the American gradation it passes like a theater missile defense system. Therefore, I conditionally call it "ABM of transatmospheric interception"

The exclusive role of international cooperation in the field of space research and their practical application requires a clear clarification of the legal content of the principle of interstate cooperation from the point of view of the ITUC. The general principle of cooperation established by the MP is fully applicable to interstate relations related to the exploration (and "use of outer space. The states declared their desire to maximize the comprehensive development of international cooperation in outer space in the preamble of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, as well as in many articles of this treaty, and this gives grounds to include the cooperation of states in the exploration and use of outer space among the basic principles of the ITUC.

Thus. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 fixed the principle of cooperation between states as one of the general principles, the basic principles of the ITUC. A number of provisions of the outer space treaty follow from the principle of cooperation and detail it. For example, the obligation to take into account the relevant interests of all other states when carrying out activities in outer space, not to create potentially harmful interference with the activities of other states, to provide possible assistance to astronauts of other states, to inform all countries about the nature, course, place and results of their activities in outer space, etc. within the UN

The leading role in the development of cooperation between states in the exploration and use of outer space belongs to the UN General Assembly. It has achieved the most significant success in the field of legal regulation of space activities, and it is rightfully considered the center of international cooperation in the development of ISL standards. It adopted: 1) Declaration of Legal Principles of Outer Space Activities of 1963, 2) Outer Space Treaty, 3) Rescue Agreement, 4) Liability Convention, 5) Registration Convention, 6) Moon Agreement. Its decisive role in the formation and development of the ITUC was already evident in the creation of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, better known as the Outer Space Committee.

The main functions of the General Assembly include:

1) formulation of tasks for the study and development of legal problems of outer space exploration, 2) approval of the recommendations of the UN Committee on Outer Space on issues of legal regulation of space activities of states, and 3) approval of draft agreements on outer space within the framework of the UN Committee on Outer Space, 4) direct development drafts of individual articles of these agreements at sessions of the General Assembly with the participation of the absolute majority of states.

The UN Secretary General is endowed with a fairly wide range of powers in the field of coordinating cooperation in space exploration: 1) he is entrusted with the collection and dissemination of information on the space activities of states), maintaining a register containing information on launched space objects and providing open access to it, 3) collecting and dissemination of data on phenomena that pose a threat to the life and health of astronauts and the actions of states to rescue and provide assistance to astronauts in the event of an accident, disaster, forced or unintentional landing, 4) ad hoc appointment of the chairman of the commission to consider claims under the Liability Convention, etc.

In addition, many UN specialized agencies play an important role in space exploration: 1) ITU (International Telecommunication Union), which develops regulations that allocate radio frequency bands for space communications, studies the economic aspects of space communications, and exchanges information on the use of satellites for long-distance communications , 2) UNESCO, whose main task in the field of space is to study the problems of using space communications for the purpose of disseminating information, social development, expanding cultural exchange, 3) WHO, which promotes cooperation between states in the field of space medicine; 4) other organizations.

Two UN conferences on the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes in 1968 and 1982 were also of great importance for the development of international cooperation in space exploration.

WITHIN INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS.

No universal intergovernmental international organization dealing with space problems has been created. At present, practical issues of international cooperation in this area are dealt with by a number of international organizations within their competence.

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). Its main goal was to radically improve maritime communications using artificial earth satellites. The constituent documents of INMARSAT consist of the intergovernmental Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization, which defines the fundamental provisions for the creation of the organization and the Operating Agreement, which regulates technical and financial issues, and which is signed either on behalf of the government or on behalf of public or private competent organizations designated by it. The bearers of the rights and obligations under the Convention are only States. The operating agreement provides that its subjects may be either states or competent national organizations designated by the governments of states.

International Organization for Communications via Artificial Earth Satellites-(INTELSAT). INTELSAT's main goal is to commercialize the design, construction, operation and maintenance of a global communications system by means of artificial satellites, "used for international purposes and accessible to all states without any discrimination." Now INTELSAT members are more than 100 states.

European Space Agency (ESA). Back in the early 1960s, Western European countries decided to pursue a space policy independent of the United States. Several international organizations have been formed. At the end of 1968, a decision was made to merge in the future all space organizations existing in Western Europe and to create a single organization - ESA. Only in 1975, representatives of 11 countries signed the Convention establishing the ESA. 3 more states have observer status. The activities of the ESA should be aimed at ensuring and developing cooperation between European states in space exploration and at the practical application of the achievements of astronautics for peaceful purposes. The main tasks of the ESA are: 1) the development and coordination of a long-term common European space policy of all member states and each state separately, 2) the development and implementation of a common European space program, 3) the development and implementation of an appropriate industrial policy. The agency's space programs are divided into mandatory, financed by all member states, and optional, in the financing of which only interested parties participate. ARABSAT. It consists of 21 member states and Arab states. The main goal of ARABSAT is to create and maintain a long-distance communication system for all members and.

WITHIN INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. These international non-governmental organizations do not represent a form of cooperation between states, since their founders and members are not states, but scientific societies, institutions and individual scientists. Their activity contributes to a wide exchange of information, discussion of various scientific ideas and strengthening of international cooperation. The Committee for Space Research (COSPAR) was established in November 1958 to continue the implementation of activities for cooperation in space exploration after the end of the international geophysical year. The main task of this international organization is "to provide scientists around the world with the opportunity to widely use satellites and space seams for scientific research in outer space and to organize the exchange of information based on the results of research on the basis of reciprocity." Its goal is to promote progress in the study of outer space on an international scale.

The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) was formed organizationally in 1952. The activity of the IAF is based on the Charter adopted in 1961 with amendments in 1968 and 1974. The activities of the IAF are aimed at promoting the development of astronautics for peaceful purposes, promoting the dissemination of information about space research, as well as a number of social and legal issues of space exploration. There are 3 categories of members in the IAF: 1) national members of the astronautical societies of various countries), 2) universities, Moratoriums, whose activities are related to the training of personnel and research in the field of astronautics, 3) international organizations whose goals correspond. tasks of the MAF.

International Institute of Space Law (IISL). Established to replace the previously existing IAF Standing Legal Committee. Its task is to: 1) study the legal and sociological aspects of space activities, 2) organize annual colloquia on space law, which (are held simultaneously with the IAF congresses, 3) conduct research and prepare reports on the legal issues of space exploration, 4) publish various materials on space law. The Institute is also involved in the teaching of space law. It is the only non-governmental organization that discusses the legal problems of osmosis development. IISL is created on the basis of individual membership. It represents the IAF on the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on Outer Space.

"International Cooperation in the Exploration of Outer Space"

Checked by teacher:

Irkutsk, 2005

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….....3

INTERNATIONAL SPACE ACTIVITIES………………….4

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF RUSSIA IN SPACE……….9

THE PROGRAM “SOYUZ - APOLLO” (AST)……………………………....13

ISS IS A LIVING QUARTER IN SPACE……………………………...…….19

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………….30

REFERENCES…………………...…………………………………….31

INTRODUCTION

In my work, I want to consider the topic "International cooperation in the exploration of outer space" and learn its main aspects in more detail, because in last years- years of scientific and technological progress - one of the leading industries National economy is space. Achievements in the exploration and exploitation of outer space are one of the most important indicators of the level of development of the country. Despite the fact that this industry is very young, the pace of its development is very high, and it has long been clear that the exploration and use of outer space is now unthinkable without broad and versatile cooperation between states.

In a very short historical period, astronautics has become an integral part of our life, a faithful assistant in economic affairs and knowledge of the world around us. And there is no doubt that the further development of terrestrial civilization cannot do without the development of the entire circumterrestrial space. Space exploration - this "province of all mankind" - continues at an increasing pace.

In a positive way, such trends in modern international relations as globalization, strengthening of integration processes and regionalism work for space. On the one hand, they pose tasks of a truly global order to space activities, since only space means make it possible to collect, process and disseminate information on the state of the planet on a planetary scale. global problems. On the other hand, they make it possible to combine efforts and find funds to solve national and regional problems, ensuring economic profitability.

For a more complete coverage of the issue on my topic, I tried to use the latest data (the end of the 90s of the XX century to the present day). In this work, many new things were highlighted from space magazines such as: "International Life" - which talks about the risks arising from international cooperation in space, that the development of the space industry is mainly due to commercial flights, and that even such countries as Russia or the USA, studying space, often need the help of investors; " civil Aviation”, “Air Shows of the World”, “Earth and the Universe” - which highlights the latest and most detailed news from the ISS. I also used the encyclopedic data "Avanta +" and "What is it? Who is this? ”, where there are many articles about various and interesting international space programs.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE ACTIVITIES

From the very beginning of the space age, marked by the launch of the first artificial satellite Earth, and then the first human space flight, the two first world space powers, the USSR and the USA, focused their efforts on ambitious national projects aimed at achieving priority results in the military, scientific and technological fields, with little regard for financial costs.

At the turn of the 1990s, and in fact, starting from the years, the Joint Russian-American Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation, which was created, became a catalyst for integration processes between national space programs.

Astronautics is becoming a naturally functioning branch of the national and world economy, subject to its basic laws and development trends. Most important factors The impact on the development of astronautics is the commercialization of space activities and integration processes, they stimulate the economic activity of the space industry, thus turning into a significant extra-budgetary incentive for the progress of astronautics. This aspect seems especially important in the period of a sharp reduction in budget allocations in Russia for space research. An analysis of the positive and negative experience of commercial space projects shows that success is primarily present where space technologies have been able to organically integrate as an addition to existing markets. Obviously, the driving force behind the space market in the coming years will be the development of the space segment of the global information infrastructure, which ensures the convergence of information flows for various purposes (communications, surveillance, digital television and radio broadcasting, telephony, computer-to-computer multimedia communication - the Internet, etc.) and their targeted distribution in orbit in conjunction with continuing development of the ground segment.

It seems that the further successful development of large-scale space programs, which requires the investment of colossal scientific, technical, economic, intellectual and other resources, is impossible without the effective organization of international cooperation, which, as the experience of the last decade shows, is the most progressive form of implementing space projects. First of all, this situation manifested itself in the implementation of scientific space projects, when complexes of unique equipment on spacecraft for scientific purposes began to be formed by scientists from various countries - world leaders in the development of equipment of various types.

Real examples of such cooperation include well-known projects for the study of Venus, Halley's comet, Mars (Mars-Odyssey 2001), which is significantly behind the original schedule, but nevertheless the continuing program Spectrum - X-ray - Gamma and others.

The obvious benefits of pooling international resources within the framework of large-scale and technologically complex space exploration projects are accompanied by the emergence of problems that affect the development of global cooperation in this area.

First of all, this concerns the problems of developing principles and standards in the field of joint project management, economics, law, and technical standards. Certain difficulties are caused by linguistic and cultural differences.

Another block today is the problem of ensuring control over the proliferation of missile technologies, the use of which can pose a potential serious threat to the world community if such technologies are used for undeclared purposes or leaked to countries that have not joined international non-proliferation regimes.

Opportunities to overcome such administrative barriers at the interstate level in general or, in particular. For each individual international project, they are today a criterion for assessing the benefits and risks when partners decide to participate in international cooperation.

Despite the difficulties of the last decade, Russia still retains a fairly powerful scientific and industrial potential and high level competitiveness in the field of key space technologies, while continuing to conduct research and development in all major areas of space activities. This is confirmed by the involvement of Russian enterprises and organizations in many well-known space programs and projects.

Mention should be made here of such programs as the joint Russian-American Mir-Shuttle project, which is the first phase of technology development for the International Space Station (ISS) program. Beginning in 1993, Russia entered the international market for commercial launch services, which gave impetus to joint projects in satellite communications (Troika), design engines (RD-180); in the 1990s, the level reached its peak joint projects in the field of space sciences and earth sciences.

According to Russian system analysts, as before, only two countries in the world - Russia and the United States - have scientific, technical and production potential with a full range of necessary technologies for the implementation of space projects in any area of space activity.

The scientific and technological achievements of the Russian cosmonautics over the more than 50-year history of its development are well known and probably do not require detailed commentary. It is known that the economic contribution of the USSR, and then Russia, to the creation of the national space potential over 50 years, including the costs of developing science and technology, creating a production, technological and experimental base, operating, educating and training highly qualified personnel, are estimated by Russian economists in terms of labor intensity in the value of about 10 million man-years based on the average number of people employed in this industry of 200 thousand people.

Today, more than 50 countries of the world community officially have space budgets, and much more large quantity countries associated with the development of space activities. However, the known figures for the size of the modern space budgets of most countries of the world (from hundreds of millions to a few billion dollars) show that it will take decades to repeat the path traveled by Russia and the United States, even without repeating mistakes.

At the same time, the benefits of international cooperation are obvious both for countries that are pioneers in astronautics. The same applies to states that are just starting to master space technologies:

As a result, experienced space leaders receive direct economic benefits through expanding their positions in the global space market by selling goods, technologies and services abroad.

For countries with a shorter space history, investments in foreign projects are also considered as a form of exclusion of technical and commercial risks associated with the specifics of space activities.

It is obvious that the development of international commercial cooperation creates the prospect of profitability of investments in the space industry by reducing the costs of projects due to the different costs in different countries of production factors (raw materials, capital, labor, knowledge and know-how) and different rates of return on investment.

In the course of the implementation of international projects, there are also risks, with protection from the proliferation of missile technologies that could affect the creation of delivery vehicles for weapons of mass destruction in countries that are not members of international non-proliferation regimes.

Comprehensive risk analysis includes such main risk categories as technical, economic and political risks.

Technical risks include failure of rocket and space technology, which are the most common causes failures of space projects.

Economic (commercial) risks include risks associated with the possibility of loss of financial resources, non-receipt of income, with additional costs for the implementation of the project.

Political risks include unexpected changes political situation in the country, leading to a violation of the conditions for the implementation of space projects.

To solve these problems, it is necessary to tighten general approach to the issues of control over the non-proliferation of missile technologies, the adoption of laws and by-laws, the elimination of discriminatory barriers and the facilitation of free access to the global space market for those participants who have entered into an agreement on the control of missile technologies and comply with its terms.

Currently, more than 120 states carry out space activities; about 20 of them are very active. Russia accounts for 10-12%, Europe -60%, followed by the USA, China, India.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF RUSSIA IN SPACE

The high scientific, technical and production potential that Russia has managed to maintain in the field of space construction and secondary space services, despite the difficult economic conditions of the past ten years, can play a decisive role in the competition with the United States and Europe, which pursues an independent space policy, uniting the space industry of countries, included in the EU.

The Russian Government attaches paramount importance to the expansion of international cooperation with its participation in the field of outer space. First of all, we are talking about the provision on a commercial basis of services for launching foreign payloads into outer space using Russian launch vehicles that are generally recognized for their quality and reliability.

Proton launch complexes successfully compete for launches into geostationary orbit, which is currently the most in demand in terms of commerce, television and radio broadcasting and communications. Today, in low orbits, where Soyuz launch vehicles are used, a market is emerging in which Russia has a significant share.

Russia's potential in the space launch business could be greatly enhanced by the commercial use of its stock of military conversion rockets capable of launching small and medium payloads into low, polar and elliptical orbits.

Currently, work is underway in Russia to create by 2010 a fundamentally new launch vehicle of the Angara modular type.

Russia has a developed ground infrastructure for conducting space launches. The active constant modernization of the Baikonur Cosmodrome makes it one of the most modern cosmodrome in terms of work with clients. The Svobodny and Plesetsk military cosmodromes, as well as the Kapustin Yar space test site, are open for launching foreign payloads.

Russia carries out, in compliance with its international obligations, the export of missile technologies.

The portfolio of orders for the supply of domestic space technology and services to the world market annually exceeds $2 billion.

In the process of commercialization of space activities, national and transnational private and private-state companies become its active participants on an increasingly decisive scale. The global space market, given its diversity, scale and scientific and technical specifics, cannot but be an arena of competition. Its laws lead to the formation of space commercial alliances specialized in specific types of activity in certain areas of this market. Most often, they take the form of joint ventures, which makes it possible to carry out space projects in the optimal mode, making them as cheap as possible and attracting the best technologies, specialists, marketing experience, geographical and other opportunities.

Russia is an active participant in space commercial integration processes. To promote the launch services of the Russian Soyuz launch vehicles on the world market, the Starsem joint venture was created. From France, it includes two firms: Aerospatiale (the leading manufacturer of rockets in Europe) and Arianespas.

In the geostationary orbit market, the efforts of the American company Lockheed-Martin and the Russian State Space Research and Production Center. Khrunichev for the joint promotion of the Proton launch vehicle. Launches from Plesetsk by the Russian Rokot rocket are being promoted by the Russian-German joint venture Eurokot.

The broadest commercial prospects are opening up in the process of practical implementation of possible Russian-Australian projects related to the construction of a cosmodrome on Christmas Island and potentially using the Australian test site in Woomera to launch commercial payloads by Russian launch vehicles.

Astronaut" href="/text/category/astronavt/" rel="bookmark">by astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand and Donald Slayton.

And already on July 17, 1975 at 19:12 DMV, on the 36th orbit of the Soyuz spacecraft, it was docked with the Apollo spacecraft. This date is forever inscribed in space history Earth civilization: for the first time, an orbital complex of spacecraft from the two countries worked in near-Earth orbit for almost two days.

On the sixth day of the flight, the Soyuz spacecraft landed in the Kazakh steppe, and on the ninth day it “splashed down” in pacific ocean KK "Apollo".

Such an experience of connecting such a complex of spacecraft in space, the invaluable experience of joint control of the MCCs of the two countries, was unprecedented and it was possible to repeat it only 20 years later, when in June 1995 the Atlantis MTSK and the Mir orbital station docked.

ASTP/ASTR program ( Pilot Project"Apollo" - "Soyuz" / Apollo-Soyuz Test Project) in retrospect looked something like this.

The initiator of the “rapprochement and docking” of the USSR and the USA in the space field was NASA (US National Aeronautics and Space Agency).

The main reason was economic, since since 1965 the NASA budget has been constantly reduced: from $5.2 billion (1965) to $3.3 billion (1971).

Among the mass of projects (realistic and "not very"), the idea arose to make peace with the Soviets (especially since, according to the Americans, America took revenge for Sputnik and Gagarin in July 1969).

Since January 1970, an active correspondence began between NASA Director Dr. Thomas O. Payne and Academician President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Soviet space was officially under the “cap” of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, therefore all further negotiations and meetings were held under the patronage of the Academy of Sciences, although they were attended mainly by specialists from “space” enterprises and organizations).

Dr. Payne, in his letters to Academician Keldysh, proposed to carry out a joint space flight with the docking of American and Soviet spacecraft. This correspondence was a success.

26-27.10.70 The first meeting of Soviet and American specialists in the space field was held in Moscow, with the leaders being:

From the USSR - the chairman of the council "Interkosmos" academician;

From the USA - Director of the NASA Manned Space Flight Center

(later Johnson Space Center) Robert Gilruth.

At this meeting, in particular, it was decided to develop a new US-Soviet rendezvous and docking system. NASA employee Caldwell Johnson presented the first drafts of the concept of an androgynous docking mechanism.

As a result of the meeting, the “Final Document on the issue of ensuring the compatibility of rendezvous and docking systems for manned spacecraft and stations” was adopted.

According to available information, in the process of preparing and holding this meeting, the question of what would fit with what was also considered.

The Americans had practically no choice - only the spacecraft "Apollo". In turn, the USSR could choose, in particular: by that time, preparations for the launch of the Zarya station were being completed at Baikonur (this station later received official name- "Firework").

21-25.07. A meeting of representatives and working groups of the USSR Academy of Sciences and NASA was held in Houston.

Note that the following three working groups have also been established:

1) for design technical solutions, ballistic support,

scientific experiments, interaction of MCCs (heads:

from the USSR - , deputy - ;

from the USA - P. Frank);

2) on ship control systems and tracking equipment

(heads: from the USSR -, from the USA - D. Cheetem, G. Smith);

3) on the docking station (leaders: from the USSR -,

from the USA - D. Wade, R. White).

IN October-November 1971 regular Soviet-American negotiations took place in Moscow.

The American proposals were based on the recommendations of a report (250 pages) by North American Rockwell under a NASA contract to study docking problems between an American spacecraft and the Soviet Salyut station. This report stated, in particular, that a docking experiment was possible as early as June 1974. However, for more flexible preparations, this flight was recommended to take place in June 1975.

The only new element that had to be developed was an airlock with a docking station to overcome the problems of the difference between the atmospheres of the Apollo spacecraft and the Salyut station. We also note that by the time the report was released, the company had made a model of such a chamber 2.7 m long and 1.4 m in diameter.

From the USSR, in order to conduct a joint experiment (flight), it was necessary to equip the Salyut station with a second (androgynous) docking port.

A corresponding flight program was proposed. The Americans also offered to conduct a second flight (in the summer of 1976). During this flight, the Apollo spacecraft was supposed to be docked with the Salyut station for two weeks.

It was decided to announce plans for the first (1975) and possible second (1976) joint flights during the visit of US President R. Nixon to the USSR (in May 1972).

29.11-06.12.71 Moscow hosted another meeting of Soviet (under the leadership) and American (under the chairmanship of the Director of the MSC Center Dr. R. Gilruth) specialists (in particular, on the creation of an androgynous peripheral docking unit - APAS). The American side has officially put forward a proposal for the docking of the Apollo spacecraft with the Salyut station.

The following options for APAS schemes were presented at the meeting:

Soviet - with three guide "petals";

American - with four guide "petals".

The Americans agreed to take the Soviet version of APAS as a basis.

An exchange of views was held on the work to ensure the compatibility of the radio systems of the docking vehicles.

Since December 1971, the issue of crews has been considered in the USA.

IN April 1972 Another meeting of specialists took place in Moscow:

The head of the Soviet delegation - I. about. President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR

Academician V. Kotelnikov;

The head of the American delegation - deputy. NASA Director Dr. J. Lowe.

However, at this meeting, the Soviet side rejected the prepared plan for the docking of the Apollo spacecraft and the Salyut station. The Soviet side proposed to carry out in 1975 the docking of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft.

As a result of this meeting, the “Final Document on the Creation of Compatible Means for Rendezvous and Docking of Manned Spacecraft and Stations of the USSR and the USA” was signed. This document formed the basis of an interstate agreement on a joint flight signed on May 24, 1972 in Moscow by A. Kosygin and R. Nixon (in the presence of General Secretary Central Committee of the CPSU).

IN July 1972 A regular ASTP meeting was held in Houston, where two more joint Soviet-American working groups were created:

Fourth (on communication systems and range measurements), heads:

(from the USSR), R. Dietz (from the USA);

Fifth (for life support systems), managers:

, (from the USSR), R. Smile, U. Guy (from the USA).

09-19.10.72 A regular meeting on ASTP was held in Moscow.

The start date of the joint flight was approved - 07/15/75. (This was the first time for the Soviet cosmonautics when the launch date spaceship announced in advance, and even three years before it).

It was decided to reduce the atmospheric pressure in the Soyuz spacecraft after docking with the Apollo spacecraft from 1.0 to 0.7 atm. Such a solution made it possible to reduce the desaturation time during the transition from the Soyuz spacecraft to the Apollo spacecraft from 2 hours to 25 minutes. It was decided to leave the pressure in the spacecraft "Apollo" the same (0.35 atm.).

07-15.12.72 At the Space Research Institute (IKI) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), a regular meeting of the third group of the ASTP on the androgynous docking port was held. At this meeting, the first tests of the Soviet and American APAS models on a scale of 1:2.5 took place. The first "docking" was successful.

30.01.73 NASA has announced its ASTP/ASTR crews:

Main crew Cast: Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, Donald Slayton.

Backup crew Cast: Alan Bean, Ronald Evans, Jack Lusma.

Support crew Cast: Carol Bobko, Robert Crippen, Robert Overmyer.

In March 1973, another meeting on ASTP was held.

The crew training schedule was also agreed upon:

First training session in July 1973 at the Johnson Center;

The second training - in October 1973 in Star City;

Then (once every 5-6 months) workouts lasting up to a month

should take place alternately in the American and Soviet Centers.

The communication scheme between the MCCs was approved, it was decided to exchange groups of managers during the flight. ( Note: although the crew training schedule was officially approved only in March 1973, the mutual exchange of experience began already in 1971.)

25.05.73 Soviet crews for the ASTP program were announced through the USSR Academy of Sciences, which looked like this:

first People: Alexey Leonov, Valery Kubasov;

second: Anatoly Filipchenko, Nikolai Rukavishnikov;

third People: Vladimir Dzhanibekov, Boris Andreev;

fourth: Yuri Romanenko, Alexander Ivanchenkov.

15.07.2005. marks 30 years since the start of the joint Soviet-American project ASTP (Experimental Flight "Apollo" - "Soyuz"). This program is rightfully considered the most important in the international exploration of outer space, but moreover, it gave way to other important Mir programs and the ISS (which will be discussed later).

ISS IS A LIVING QUARTER IN SPACE

The most grandiose international project of our time is the construction by the joint efforts of many states of the huge ISS space station, in fact, a whole residential area in the boundless starry ocean, several hundred kilometers from planet Earth. And the first twenty-ton "brick" in the construction of an unusual extraterrestrial complex was laid by Russia and the United States. This happened in the late 90s of the last century. The Proton rocket lifted a cylindrical twelve-meter block into sky-high heights and put it into orbit. The block was manufactured by Russia, and the work was financed by the USA.

The official name of the first element of the station is FGB. What stands for: functional cargo block. On the ISS, it is like a "warehouse", a storage facility for fuel, equipment, and life support consumables. But not only "warehouse". Also a source of electricity supply initial stage station operation. In addition, the FGB has its own engines, with which it will be possible to maintain the orbit of the complex.

Russian specialists paid unprecedented attention to the reliability of the block. To insure themselves one hundred percent, another exactly the same flight model was built at the Name Center. The failure of our last Martian expedition (the catastrophe during the launch of a rocket with the Mars-96 station) clearly showed what grave consequences the saving on the creation of backup vehicles leads to. But in this case, it was not only about our program. The fate of the entire international station, the huge costs of many states and, finally, the prestige and reputation of our country depended on the successful launch of the first space block. So both the over-thorough testing of the FGB and the creation of its "double" were by no means superfluous measures.

What is an unusual "residential quarter" in space? The image makes it possible to imagine the derived complex against the background of the slowly passing Earth. We see a bizarre, asymmetric pile of multi-ton cylindrical structures of different diameters and lengths, connected horizontally, vertically, under acute angle and forming intricate branched "chains". All this is framed by huge solar panels, as well as accordion-shaped and multidirectional flat radiators designed to dump heat from the station into outer space. The final touch: the residential quarter is cut along and across by two openwork metal trusses: one is 90-meter horizontal (relative to the imaginary axis of the Earth), the other is almost 30-meter vertical. Residential and working areas are located in the center of the complex. This is the "heart" of the station. And 22 mini-power plants (solar batteries) are moved to the periphery. The 90-meter metal truss is used not only for fastening panels that turn after the Sun at the ends, but also as a kind of “rail track” for the Canadian trolley, on which the robotic arm is placed. With its help, the assembly of parts and assemblies of the station in open space, maintenance and repair work outside the sealed compartments was and is being carried out. The movement of the trolley and the actions of the manipulator are controlled by the operator from the console in the American segment.

For the assembly and maintenance of the Russian segment of the ISS, another manipulator was provided, which was developed in cooperation with the ESA countries.

To imagine the scale of the "residential quarter", you have to strain your imagination. The total mass of the ISS at full deployment is neither more nor less - about 400 tons. The volume of sealed compartments is 1100 cubic meters. This is about ten two-room Moscow apartments, or, as it were, an entire entrance hall of a five-story building.

FGB "Zarya"

"Proton-K"

Launch of the Zarya module

"Endeavor"

Delivery of "Unity" module with RMA-1/2 hermetic adapters

"Discovery"

Retrofitting and loads

"Atlantis"

SM "Star"

"Proton-K"

Launching the Zvezda service module

"Atlantis"

Repair and maintenance work and cargo

"Discovery"

Delivery of section Z-1 and hermetic adapter RMA-3

"SoyuzTM-ZG"

Delivery of the ISS-1 crew

"Endeavor"

Delivery of P6 section with solar panels

"Atlantis"

Delivery of laboratory module "Destiny"

"Discovery"

Delivery of the ISS-2 crew and return of the ISS-1, retrofitting of the Destiny module

"Endeavor"

Delivery of the "Kanadarm-2" manipulator and cargo

"Soyuz TM-32"

EP-1 crew flight

"Atlantis"

Delivery of lock chamber "Quest" and cargo

"Discovery"

Delivery of the ISS-3 crew and return of the ISS-2, retrofitting of the Destiny module

Launch of the Pirs docking module

"Soyuz TM-33"

EP-2 crew flight

"Endeavor"

Delivery of the ISS-4 crew and return of ISS-3, delivery and return of cargo

"Atlantis"

Delivery of S0 section and mobile conveyor

"Soyuz TM-34"

EP-3 crew flight

"Endeavor"

Delivery of the ISS-5 crew and mobile service system, return of the ISS-4 crew

"Atlantis"

Delivery of section S1 and cargo

"SoyuzTMA-1"

EP-4 crew flight

"Endeavor"

Delivery of the ISS-6 crew and P1 section and cargo, return of the ISS-5 crew

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION CREW

table 2

	CREW
Expedition	Flight dates	Crew Composition	Duration, days, h, min, s
	31.10.2000-21.03.2001	W. Shepherd (USA), and S. K. Krikalev (RF)
		(RF), D. Voss and S. Helms (USA)
		, (RF) and D. Tito (USA)
	10.08-17.12.2001	F. Culbertson Jr. (USA), and (RF)
		, (RF) and K. Haignere (France)
	6.12.2001-19.06.2002	(RF), K. Walz and D. Bursh (USA)
		(RF), R. Vittori (Italy) and M. Shuttleworth (South Africa)
		SE. Treschev (RF) and P. Whitson (USA)
	30.10-10.11.2002	ST. Zaletin (RF), F. de Winn (ESA, Belgium) and (RF)
	24.11.2002-4.05.2003	K. Bowersox, D. Pettit (USA) and (RF)
		(RF) and E. Lu (USA)

In the American segment of the station, the largest hermetic modules were the Heb (basic residential area) and the Lab (for scientific research and experiments). ESA specialists named their module "Columbus". Of the three Japanese blocks, two are airtight. There are only eight sealed modules and units in the Russian segment.

Of course, the division into "segments" is largely arbitrary. International crews, consisting of cosmonauts from different countries, live like a single family. Otherwise, it is impossible to hold out in space for six months. Moreover, you have to spend a lot of time in residential (sleeping) areas, and they are international station only two - on the American and Russian base modules.

It remains to say that the life of the international space station is defined as 15 years. That is, at least until 2012. The total costs exceeded $100 billion. The ISS receives unique medicines, semiconductor materials for electronics, computers, conducts Earth observations, environmental studies, exploration of minerals, as well as the study of the depths of the Universe, mysterious radiation coming from there ...

For the first time in the practice of short expeditions, eleven experiments were carried out in parallel under three scientific programs: Russian (two experiments), Italian (four experiments), and South Africa (five experiments). Contract science programs prepared in an unprecedentedly short time - four months, and not two years, as before.

By Russian program two experiments were carried out: "Plasma Crystal" (study of plasma-dust crystals and liquids in microgravity conditions) and "Biotest-1" (study of sympathetic-adrenal activity in humans during space flight). Four experiments were carried out under the Italian program "Marco Polo": CHIRO - a study of the health of astronauts in the aspect of a possible decrease in working capacity; VEST - quality control of the new integrated clothing system for the crew; ALTEINO - study of the influence of cosmic radiation on the functional state of the central nervous system and operator performance; BMI is a study of the autonomic regulation of blood pressure and heart rate.

Five experiments were carried out under the South African program: CCE - study of the influence of microgravity conditions on the human cardiovascular system and characteristics of skeletal muscles; SPC - study of the process of crystallization of soluble protein; ESCD - study of the development of embryonic and stem cells in microgravity; Education - an educational program for schoolchildren to demonstrate the effects of weightlessness; "Plankton-Lens" - a study of the influence of various factors on the biological productivity of the oceans in the areas of the shelf coast of Africa and its natural resources according to visual-instrumental observations from space.

Undoubtedly, the brightest page in space exploration is associated with the flight of the world's first space tourist.

April 28, 2001 At 11.37 Moscow time, a truly historic launch of the Soyuz TM-32 spacecraft took place from the Baikonur cosmodrome: for the first time, a “tourist” went into space. They became the American millionaire Dennis Tito. Along with Russian cosmonauts - Commander Talgat Musabaev and Flight Engineer Yuri Baturin, he joined the ISS visiting crew.

However, the path to the stars for the "space traveler" turned out to be rather thorny. It is known how objected to the start of Dennis Tito overseas. Moreover, the position of NASA was so categorical that our cosmonauts, who arrived at the American Astronaut Training Center in Houston, in solidarity with their “colleague”, even decided on a one-day boycott of training. The history of astronautics has not yet known anything like this.

Russia managed to defend the right to fly its “tourist”. There were two main arguments. First of all, as the head emphasized more than once, commercialization of the ISS will be required in the future to attract additional funds for this expensive program, and space tourism is one of the most acceptable options. Secondly, a contract was signed with Tito, the cost of which is estimated at a tidy sum - 20 million dollars. Someone has already calculated that a second of his week-long trip to the stars is worth thirty dollars.

Tito was assigned the role of "cook" aboard the ISS. And it happened quite by accident. It's just that the two commanders Musabaev and Usachov had to confer briefly about something. Sat down for coffee. They look: everyone is busy, but Tito is like a restless one. He took pictures, but the station went into shadow. He had duties on the ship, but not on the station. So Musabayev suggested: "Let's instruct him to take care of the buffet." Preparing for dinner in space is a troublesome business: until you find what you need ... So Dennis happily began to sort the products: meat - here, fish - there, fruit - here, etc. He helped a lot, freeing the crew from this .

May 6, 2001 The crew returned to Earth. She met with bright sun and strong wind. Rescuers fussed around Dennis Tito. And he smiled broadly: "I've been to paradise." True, the “paradise”, which lasted 7 days 22 hours 4 minutes 3 seconds for the American millionaire traveler, made itself felt: Dennis tried to get out of the descent module on his own, but it didn’t work out very well, unlike the experienced Talgat Musabaev and Yuri Baturin, his taken out by hand. But one should have seen with what enthusiasm Dennis began to gnaw one of the ruddy apples, which, according to tradition, are treated on Kazakh soil to all those who arrived from orbit ...

What does the ISS look like today, which people have already called “space communal”? Here is what Hero of Russia Yuri Baturin said: “It seems to me that a person is comfortable where he can be left alone and be himself. And if you live in an aquarium, then no matter what curtains you attach there, it won’t be cozy. ” According to the cosmonauts, the station resembles a pipe a hundred meters long: the modules go one after the other. Everything is visible, and it is very inconvenient. Difficulties arise even in the male team. And what can we say when there is a woman? Such an example. The crews adapted to take water procedures in the functional cargo block. This is just between the American module and ours. But there you have to undress. They came up with a way out: the guys cover the manhole covers. It means "busy". However, you will not get from one module to another in these minutes. The station, of course, is still under construction. It is possible that it will get better later.

Those who managed to work on the Russian orbital station "Mir" believe that it was more comfortable: there the modules diverged in different directions. The base block where the astronauts lived was good. And if you need to take a break from everyone - sail away somewhere. The Americans in their segment have no toilets at all, no means of life support.

On February 4, 2002, NASA published the rules for visiting the ISS by astronauts and space tourists. They define the principles and criteria for the selection of any visitors to the ISS. Despite the fact that space tourists pay millions of dollars, this
does not mean that anyone will be allowed into the station. Offenders, liars, scammers, drinkers, drug addicts and other unworthy personalities will not have a road here. In addition, potential visitors to the station must be able to read and speak English, pass medical tests, including psychological ones, as well as appropriate training at training centers in Star City.
and in Houston.

"The future of spaceflight depends on the ability of individuals to pay to go into space." Already today, serious problems have arisen around the construction of the ISS. financial difficulties. Moreover, not only Russia is experiencing difficulties, but also America, which is reducing its participation in the project. It is no coincidence that not so long ago the issue of allocating up to 30 percent of resources to "space tourism" was discussed overseas.

CONCLUSION

In connection with the large-scale changes that have taken place over the past decades in international relations: the end of the Cold War, the decrease in the level of military rivalry, the general stabilization of the world political situation, opened space for intensive peaceful development. As a result, multifaceted international cooperation in the field of exploration and use of outer space, the commercialization of entire areas of space activities, which until recently belonged to the exclusive prerogative of states in the field of national security, have intensified.

Conversion of space equipment and technologies, their demilitarization and use for peaceful purposes have become integral features of space cooperation. In industrialized countries, there is a strong outflow of space technologies into the economy (by-products of space activities). Space technology is an inexhaustible source of know-how used to develop and manufacture new products and services.

In a positive way, international cooperation in the exploration of outer space is working such trends in modern international relations as their globalization, strengthening of integration processes and regionalism. On the one hand, they pose tasks of a truly global order to space activities, since only space means make it possible to collect, process and disseminate information on the state of global problems on a planetary scale. On the other hand, they make it possible to combine efforts and find funds to solve national and regional problems, ensuring economic profitability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Journal "International Life" №5 2002 "Risks of international space activities" Moscow Krasnov A.

2. Journal "International Life" №2 2003 "In commercial space" Moscow Krutskikh A.

3. The newspaper "Trud" "Alpha" - a residential quarter in space" dated 01.01.01. Moscow Golovachaev V.

4. Encyclopedia for children "Avanta +" Technique 2001 Maksimovsky V., Trankovsky S.

5. "What's happened? Who it?" Volume 2 1993 Space

6. Magazine "Civil Aviation" No. 5 2003 "From April to April" Moscow Yachmennikova N.

7. Magazine "Air Shows of the World" No. 1, 2002 "Andromeda without Nebula" Gromov S.

8. Magazine "Air Shows of the World" No. 3 2002 "ISS: the fourth expedition" Gromov S.

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International cooperation in space exploration. A. Leonov, A. Sokolov. Man and the Universe. Technical risks include the failure of rocket and space technology, which are the most common reasons for the failure of space projects.

Collection of ideal social studies essays

Anti-Soviet rebellion in Hungary (1956)