bua - Buryat (general)
bxr - Buryat (Russia)
bxu - Buryat (China)
bxm - Buryat (Mongolia)
Buryat language (Buryat-Mongolian, self-name Buryaad-Mongol Khelen, from 1956 - Buryaad helen) - the language of the Buryats and some other peoples of the Mongolian group. One of the two (together with Russian) official languages of the Republic of Buryatia.
About the title
Formerly called Buryat-Mongolian. After the renaming of the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR (1923) into the Buryat ASSR (1956), the language received the name Buryat.
Classification issues
Belongs to the northern Mongolian group of Mongolian languages.
Linguistic geography
Range and abundance
The Buryats inhabit the taiga and subtaiga strip of northern Mongolia along the Russian border in Dornod, Khentii, Selenge and Khuvsgel aimaks, and the Barguts live in the Khulun-Buir district of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in northeast China (some sources qualify the Bargut language as a dialect of the Mongolian language).
The total number of speakers of the Buryat language is about 283 thousand people (2010), including in Russia - 218,557 (2010, census), in China, approx. 18 thousand, in Mongolia 46 thousand.
Sociolinguistic information
The Buryat language performs the functions of communication in all areas of everyday speech. Fiction (original and translated), socio-political, educational and scientific literature, republican (“Buryad unen”) and regional newspapers are published in literary Buryat, opera and drama theaters, radio, and television operate. In the Republic of Buryatia, in all areas of linguistic activity, the Buryat and Russian languages functionally coexist, which have been the state languages since 1990, since the bulk of the Buryats are bilingual. The Charter of the Trans-Baikal Territory establishes that "in the territory of the Aginsky Buryat District, along with official language the Buryat language may be used. The charter of the Irkutsk region establishes that "the state authorities of the Irkutsk region create conditions for the preservation and development of languages, cultures and other components of the national identity of the Buryat people and other peoples traditionally living on the territory of the Ust-Orda Buryat district" .
Dialects
Allocate dialects:
The Nizhne-Udin and Onon-Khamnigan dialects stand apart.
The principle of dialect differentiation is based primarily on differences in vocabulary, partly in phonetics. There are no significant differences in morphology that prevent mutual understanding of speakers of different dialects.
The western and eastern dialects represent the earliest and longest-established dialect groups that had different written traditions. The boundaries of their distribution are quite clear. These dialects were influenced by different cultural traditions, which was reflected primarily in their lexical composition.
The southern dialect, being of a later origin, was formed as a result of a mixture of Buryat and Khalkha-Mongolian clans. The latter settled among the Eastern Buryats in the 17th century.
Writing
From the end of the 17th century in office work and religious practice, the classical Mongolian script was used. Language of the end of the XVII-XIX centuries. conventionally referred to as the Old Buryat literary and written language. One of the first major literary monuments is "Travel Notes" by Damba-Darzha Zayagiin (1768).
Before the revolution, the Western Buryats used the Russian written language; they were not familiar with the classical Mongolian language.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the first attempts were made to create a Buryat script based on the Latin alphabet. So, in 1910, B. B. Baradin published the brochure “Buriaad zonoi uran eugeiin deeji” ( Excerpts from the Buryat folk literature ), which used the Latin alphabet (without letters f, k, q, v, w) .
In 1926, the organized scientific development of the Buryat Latinized script began. In 1929, the draft of the Buryat alphabet was ready. It contained the following letters: A a, B b, C c, Ç ç, D d, E e, Ә ә, Ɔ ɔ, G g, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, O o, P p , R r, S s, Ş ş, T t, U u, Y y, Z z, Ƶ ƶ, H h, F f, V v. However, this project was not approved. In February 1930, it was approved new version latinized alphabet. It contained letters of the standard Latin alphabet (except h, q, x), digraphs ch, sh, zh, as well as the letter ө . But in January 1931, its modified version was officially adopted, unified with other alphabets of the peoples of the USSR.
Buryat alphabet 1931-1939 :
| A a | Bb | c c | Ç ç | D d | e e | F f | G g |
| H h | I i | Jj | K k | l l | M m | N n | O o |
| Ө ө | Pp | R r | S s | Ş ş | T t | U u | Vv |
| X x | Y y | Zz | Ƶ ƶ | b |
In 1939, the Latinized alphabet was replaced by Cyrillic with the addition of three special letters ( Ү ү, Ө ө, Һ һ ).
Modern Buryat alphabet:
| A a | B b | in in | G g | D d | Her | Her | F |
| W h | And and | th | K to | L l | Mm | N n | Oh oh |
| Ө ө | P p | R p | C with | T t | u u | Ү ү | f f |
| x x | Һ һ | C c | h h | W w | u u | b b | s s |
| b b | uh uh | yu yu | I am |
The Buryats changed the literary base of their written language in order to approach the living spoken language. Finally in 1936 as a basis literary language at a linguistic conference in Ulan-Ude, the Khorinsky dialect of the eastern dialect was chosen, close and accessible to most speakers.
Wikipedia in Buryat
Language history
The history of the Buryat language is traditionally divided into two periods: pre-revolutionary and Soviet, which characterize fundamental changes social functions written language, due to the change of social formation.
Influence of other languages
Long-term contacts with Russians and mass bilingualism of the Buryats influenced the Buryat language. In phonetics, this is connected with the sound image of Russianisms, Sovietisms, internationalisms, which entered the literary Buryat language (especially in its written form) while preserving the sound structure of the source language.
Together with the new words, the sounds [v], [f], [c], [h], [u], [k] penetrated into the borrowing language, which are absent in the phonological system of the literary Buryat language and introduce something completely new into the sound organization of the word, in the norm of compatibility of vowels and consonants. Consonants began to be used in anlaut r, l, p, which were not used at the beginning of the original words. Consonant P met in anlaut figurative words and borrowings, but early borrowings with anlaut P were replaced by a consonant b like "pood/buud", "coat/boltoo".
Linguistic characteristic
Phonetics and phonology
The modern literary language has 27 consonants, 13 vowel phonemes, four diphthongs.
The phonetics of the Buryat language is characterized by synharmonism - palatal and labial (labial). Softened shades of hard phonemes are used only in words of a soft series, unsoftened shades of hard phonemes - in words with hard-line vocalism, that is, there is a synharmonism of consonants of a phonetic nature.
In some dialects there are phonemes k, c, h. The phonemes v, f, c, h, u, k in the literary language are used only in borrowed words. The articulation of these consonants is mastered mainly by the bilingual population.
Morphology
The Buryat language belongs to the languages of the agglutinative type. However, there are also elements of analyticism, the phenomenon of fusion, different types doubling words with a change in their morphological appearance. Analytically (using postpositions, auxiliary verbs and particles) some grammatical categories are expressed.
Name
In the 1st person pl. h. personal pronouns distinguish inclusive (bidet, bidener/bidened) and exclusive (maanar/maanuud). Exclusive form of the pronoun of the 1st person plural. numbers are rarely used.
- Singular
- 1 l. -m, -mni, -ni: aham, ahamni (my brother), garni (my hand)
- 2 l. -sh, -shni: ahash, ahashni (your brother), garshni (your hand)
- 3 l. -n, -yn (yin): akhan (his brother), garyn (his hand)
- Plural
- 1 l. -mnai, -nay: ahamnay (our brother), collective farm (our collective farm)
- 2 l. -tnay: ahatnay (your brother), collective farm (your collective farm)
- 3 l. -n, -yn (yin): akhanuudyn (their brothers), collective farms (their collective farms)
Particles of personal attraction are attached to all case forms of names. Impersonal attraction points to common affiliation object and is formed by the particle "aa", attached to different bases of names in the form of indirect cases.
Adjective
Syntax
- Buryat-Mongolian-Russian Dictionary / Comp. K. M. Cheremisov; Ed. Ts. B. Tsydendambaeva. - M.: State. publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries, 1951.
- K. M. Cheremisov. Buryat-Russian dictionary. - M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1973. - 804 p.
- Russian-Buryat-Mongolian Dictionary / Ed. Ts. B. Tsydendambaeva. - M.: State. Publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries, 1954. - 750 p.
- Shagdarov L. D., Ochirov N. A. Russian-Buryat Dictionary. - Ulan-Ude: Buryaad unen, 2008. - 904 p.
Links
| State and official languages in the subjects of the Russian Federation | |
|---|---|
| State language of the Russian Federation | Russian |
| Languages of subjects of the federation | Abaza Avar Agul Adyghe Azerbaijani Altai Bashkir Buryat Dargin Ingush Kabardino-Circassian Kalmyk Karachay-Balkarian Komi Kumyk Lak Lezgi Nogai Mari Mokshan Ossetian Rutul Tabasaran Tatar Tat Tuvan Udmurt Khakass Tsakhur Chechen Chuvash Erzya Yakut |
| Languages with official status | Veps Dolgan Kazakh Karelian Komi-Permyak Mansi Nenets Selkup Finnish Khanty Chukchi Evenk Even Yukagir |
| Mongolian languages | |
|---|---|
| Northern Mongolian group |
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| South Mongolian group |
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Is it necessary today to revive the Buryat language on the basis of dialects? Does the Buryat literary language replace dialectal forms? About this interview with a candidate of philological sciences, a lecturer at the Buryat State University Irina Bulgutova.
Irina Vladimirovna, in Lately In my opinion, many Buryats have developed an interest in their native language. Explain what literary language means today?
The formation of a literary language is an important and significant moment in the life of every nation. It marks a new stage in the formation of the culture of the people and is associated with the further development of writing in this language. One should not confuse the concept of "literary language", which means a normative language (with a set of rules that establish generally accepted norms), with the concept of "language of fiction", which includes all the wealth national language, including historicisms, dialectisms, jargon, etc. Fiction plays an extremely important role in the development of the literary language. It is well known that the modern Russian literary language is established in the works of Alexander Pushkin, and at the origins of the Italian literary language, which is based on the so-called folk Latin, is the work of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. This is a very important moment when a living spoken language acquires a written fixation.
- Let's talk a little about the formation of the Buryat literary language.
Speaking about the history of the Buryat literary language, one should turn to the history of writing. In the pre-revolutionary period, the Buryats had a vertical old Mongolian script, on which many remarkable monuments were recorded. artistic creativity(it was not common among Western Buryats). After the revolution, the Latin alphabet was adopted, which existed until 1939, then the transition to the Cyrillic alphabet was made.
The Khori dialect is the basis of the Buryat literary language; socio-political, educational and scientific literature was fixed on it for many decades, republican and regional media functioned. Literary language is a normalized language, necessary for communication and mutual understanding, it should be studied at school.
- Does the literary language, which regulates generally accepted norms, interfere with the existence of dialect forms?
Today, when the sphere of functioning and use of the Buryat language in the urban environment has significantly narrowed, the question of the further development of the Buryat language and the role of dialects in this process has arisen in a new way.
It is in dialect forms that the Buryat language functions among the villagers in the regions of the republic. This oral speech, colloquial. Are the rights of speakers of dialectal forms limited by the very fact of the existence of a literary language? Does the Buryat literary language replace dialectal forms? It is necessary to understand the dialectics in this process: it is the living spoken language that becomes the basis of the literary language, then the rules are established, the grammar of the language is built. Language is a living, developing phenomenon, it has its own laws of functioning, which are not subject to anyone's personal will. A significant layer of enrichment of the Buryat language for several centuries now is Russianisms - borrowings from the Russian language. For example, the literary word "hartaabha" is derived from potatoes, the Tunkin dialect word "yaabalha" is derived from an apple - this is how Russian peasants called potatoes "earth apples" at first. Should the Tunka Buryats now dictate their word usage to the inhabitants of other regions of the republic, who eat “hartaabha” on the wave of preservation and development of dialects that has been observed recently? There is a concept of conventionality in science, when people agree on the designation of certain phenomena, it also takes place in the functioning of the language.
- As far as we know, the Buryat language is also enriched by borrowing from the Mongolian language?
It really is. “My grandmother Mongolia…” (as the national poet of Buryatia Bair Dugarov writes in his poem) nourishes the Buryat language both with new words and meanings, and seemingly forgotten ones, and the dialects of Songols and Sartuls could play their role in this beneficial process, close to the Mongolian language. But these are also objective processes. What would happen if Galina Radnaeva, a poet from Dzhida, wrote down her wonderful works only in her own dialect? The reader would first have to learn the grammar of the Mongolian language in order to understand the full depth and artistic value of her work. Is it necessary to expend efforts today to create their own grammatical codes and rules in the regions of the republic, as, for example, in the Kyakhta region they decided to create their own alphabet? Why reinvent the wheel over and over again, and from scratch? Are there so many creative people in the regions today who write on mother tongue? Dialects have, first of all, oral existence, and writing and literature are the sphere of functioning of the national literary language. And I consider it necessary to repeat once again: in fiction it is possible to use dialect words for aesthetic purposes, if it carries artistic meaning and is necessary for the realization of the author's intention. The Tunkinsky poet Lopson Tapkhaev uses in the poem "Children of the Farm" the dialect word "shagaabari" (window) instead of the literary "sonkho", but this word in the poem is inscribed in the pattern of unity of command - "tolgoy kholbolgo", and no one reproaches the author, since this word usage does not reduce the artistic effect, and we perceive his work as a true art of the word - literature.
- How do you feel about newspapers published in Buryat dialects?
Dialects are the sphere of live speech, and this is wonderful. But is it worth neglecting the rules of the grammar of the Buryat language? What is the case system of the Buryat language guilty of in front of the inhabitants of our regions? From century to century people different peoples they memorize the basics of the grammar of their native language, why do the Buryats today suddenly have to indulge themselves? It's wonderful that today we are all united by an extensive fund already created by the masters of the word in the literary language. works of art is truly a treasure trove of the Buryat language. If the newspaper revives the living springs of folk art, serves the development of literature, it would be very good, but worthy works of authors from the regions should be available to all Buryats, that is, they should be written in the literary language in compliance with all the rules. The rules were not invented to ruin the life of the student Badme, but so that people could understand each other.
Not for this, our ancestors from century to century preserved the wisdom and experience of the people in the language, so that today we neglect the meanings. Let's appreciate what we have, let's learn to listen to each other and listen to each other.
I will end our conversation with wonderful words from the poems of Dondok Ulzytuev “The Buryat language”:
Silvering with crystal clear Baikal water,
Warmed by a sing-song-gentle girlish smile
Native language.
And hugging with a white veil of fog,
As if caressing with maternal palms
Our native language.
It shines with the purity of the spring
Beautiful view of nature itself -
This is our language.
Photo courtesy of Irina Bulgutova
bua - Buryat (general)
bxr - Buryat (Russia)
bxu - Buryat (China)
bxm - Buryat (Mongolia)
Buryat language (Also Buryat-Mongolian(- years), Bargu-Buryat dialect of the Mongolian language self-name Buryaad helen listen)) is the language of the Buryats and Barguts. One of two, along with Russian, official languages of the Republic of Buryatia.
Classification issues
Belongs to the northern group of Mongolian languages. The modern literary Buryat language was formed on the basis of the Khori dialect.
Linguistic geography
Range and abundance
In Russia, the Buryat language is spoken in Buryatia, the Trans-Baikal Territory and the Irkutsk Region.
In northern Mongolia, the Buryats inhabit the taiga and subtaiga strip along the Russian border in the aimags of Dornod, Khentii, Selenge and Khuvsgel.
The total number of Buryat speakers is approx. 283 thousand people (2010), including in Russia - 218,557 (2010, census), in China - approx. 18 thousand, in Mongolia - 48 thousand (including 45.1 thousand Buryats and 3.0 thousand recorded by the census separately from Buryat Barguts).
Sociolinguistic information
The Buryat language performs the functions of communication in all areas of everyday speech. Fiction (original and translated), socio-political, educational and scientific literature, republican (“Buryad unen”) and regional newspapers are published in literary Buryat, opera and drama theaters, radio, and television are working. In the Republic of Buryatia, in all areas of linguistic activity, the Buryat and Russian languages functionally coexist, which have been the state languages since 1990, since the bulk of the Buryats are bilingual. The Charter of the Trans-Baikal Territory establishes that "in the territory of the Aginsky Buryat District, along with the state language, the Buryat language can be used" . The charter of the Irkutsk region establishes that "the state authorities of the Irkutsk region create conditions for the preservation and development of languages, cultures and other components of the national identity of the Buryat people and other peoples traditionally living on the territory of the Ust-Orda Buryat district" .
Buryat and Bargut dialects
Allocate dialects:
The principle of dialect differentiation is based on the peculiarities of the grammatical structure and the main vocabulary. There are no significant differences in the Buryat language that prevent mutual understanding between speakers of different dialects.
The dialects of Western and Eastern Buryats were influenced by different cultural traditions, which was reflected primarily in their lexical composition.
The Songolo-Sartul dialect, being of later origin, was formed as a result of mixing and (or) contacting of the Buryat and Khalkha-Mongolian ethnic groups. The latter settled southeast of the eastern Buryats beginning in the 17th century. Some researchers consider it a dialect of the Mongolian language, and not Buryat.
Writing
From the end of the 17th century, the classical Mongolian script was used in office work and religious practice. The language of the end of the 17th-19th centuries is conventionally referred to as the Old Buryat literary and written language. One of the first major literary monuments is "Travel Notes" by Damba-Darzha Zayagiin (1768).
Western Buryats have up to October revolution office work was carried out in Russian, and not by the Buryats themselves, but originally sent by representatives of the tsarist administration, the so-called clerks, only tribal nobility, lamas and merchants with trade ties with Tuva, Outer and Inner Mongolia used the old Mongolian script.
In 1905, on the basis of the Old Mongolian script, Agvan Dorzhiev created a written language vagindra, on which at least a dozen books were printed until 1910. However, vagindra is not widely used. In the same years, the first attempts were made to create a Buryat script based on the Latin alphabet. So, in 1910, B. B. Baradiin published the brochure “Buriaad zonoi uran eugeiin deeji” ( Excerpts from Buryat folk literature), which used the Latin alphabet (without letters f, k, q, v, w) .
Buryat alphabet 1931-1939 :
| A a | Bb | c c | Ç ç | D d | e e | F f | G g |
| H h | I i | Jj | K k | l l | M m | N n | O o |
| Ө ө | Pp | R r | S s | Ş ş | T t | U u | Vv |
| X x | Y y | Zz | Ƶ ƶ | b |
In 1939, the Latinized alphabet was replaced by Cyrillic with the addition of three special letters ( Ү ү, Ө ө, Һ һ ).
Modern Buryat alphabet:
| A a | B b | in in | G g | D d | Her | Her | F |
| W h | And and | th | K to | L l | Mm | N n | Oh oh |
| Ө ө | P p | R p | C with | T t | u u | Ү ү | f f |
| x x | Һ һ | C c | h h | W w | u u | b b | s s |
| b b | uh uh | yu yu | I am |
The Buryats changed the literary base of their written language three times in order to approach the living spoken language. Finally, in 1936, the Khorin dialect of the eastern dialect, close and accessible to most native speakers, was chosen as the basis of the literary language at a linguistic conference in Ulan-Ude.
Wikipedia in Buryat
Language history
The history of the Buryat language is traditionally divided into two periods: pre-revolutionary and Soviet, which characterize the fundamental changes in the social functions of the written language, due to the change in social formation.
Influence of other languages
Long-term contacts with Russians and mass bilingualism of the Buryats influenced the Buryat language. In phonetics, this is connected with the sound image of Russianisms, Sovietisms, internationalisms, which entered the literary Buryat language (especially in its written form) while preserving the sound structure of the source language.
Together with the new words, the sounds [v], [f], [c], [h], [u], [k] penetrated into the borrowing language, which are absent in the phonological system of the literary Buryat language and introduce something completely new into the sound organization of the word, in the norm of compatibility of vowels and consonants. Consonants began to be used in anlaut r, l, p, which were not used at the beginning of the original words (they were found in borrowings from Chinese and Tibetan). Consonant P met in anlaut figurative words and borrowings, but early borrowings with anlaut P were replaced by a consonant b like "pood/buud", "coat/boltoo".
Linguistic characteristic
Phonetics and phonology
The modern literary language has 27 consonants, 13 vowel phonemes, four diphthongs.
The phonetics of the Buryat language is characterized by synharmonism - palatal and labial (labial). Softened shades of hard phonemes are used only in words of a soft series, unsoftened shades of hard phonemes - in words with hard-line vocalism, that is, there is a synharmonism of consonants of a phonetic nature.
In some dialects there are phonemes k, c, h. The phonemes v, f, c, h, u, k in the literary language are used only in borrowed words. The articulation of these consonants is mastered mainly by the bilingual population.
Morphology
The Buryat language belongs to the languages of the agglutinative type. However, there are also elements of analyticism, fusion phenomena, different types of doubling words with a change in their morphological appearance. Some grammatical categories are expressed analytically (with the help of postpositions, auxiliary verbs and particles).
Name
In the 1st person pl. h. personal pronouns distinguish inclusive (bidet, bidener/bidened) and exclusive (maanar/maanuud). Exclusive form of the pronoun of the 1st person plural. numbers are rarely used.
- Singular
- 1 l. -m, -mni, -ni: aham, ahamni (my brother), garni (my hand)
- 2 l. -sh, -shni: ahash, ahashni (your brother), garshni (your hand)
- 3 l. -n, -yn (yin): akhan (his brother), garyn (his hand)
- Plural
- 1 l. -mnai, -nay: ahamnay (our brother), collective farm (our collective farm)
- 2 l. -tnay: ahatnay (your brother), collective farm (your collective farm)
- 3 l. -n, -yn (yin): akhanuudyn (their brothers), collective farms (their collective farms)
Particles of personal attraction are attached to all case forms of names. Impersonal attraction indicates the common belonging of the object and is formed by the particle "aa", attached to different bases of names in the form of indirect cases.
Adjective
Syntax
- Buryat-Mongolian-Russian Dictionary / Comp. K. M. Cheremisov; Ed. Ts. B. Tsydendambaeva. - M.: State. publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries, 1951.
- Russian-Buryat-Mongolian Dictionary / Ed. Ts. B. Tsydendambaeva. - M.: State. Publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries, 1954. - 750 p.
- Cheremisov K. M. Buryat-Russian dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1973. - 804 p.
- Buryat-Russian Dictionary / L. D. Shagdarov, K. M. Cheremisov. M.: Belig, 2006. T. 1. 636 p.
- Buryat-Russian Dictionary / L. D. Shagdarov, K. M. Cheremisov. M.: Belig, 2008. Vol. 2. 708 p.
- Shagdarov L. D., Ochirov N. A. Russian-Buryat dictionary. - Ulan-Ude: Buryaad unen, 2008. - 904 p.
Links
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An excerpt characterizing the Buryat language
The captured officers released from other booths were all strangers, were much better dressed than Pierre, and looked at him, in his shoes, with incredulity and aloofness. Not far from Pierre walked, apparently enjoying the general respect of his fellow prisoners, a fat major in a Kazan dressing gown, belted with a towel, with a plump, yellow, angry face. He held one hand with a pouch in his bosom, the other leaned on a chibouk. The major, puffing and puffing, grumbled and got angry at everyone because it seemed to him that he was being pushed and that everyone was in a hurry when there was nowhere to hurry, everyone was surprised at something when there was nothing surprising in anything. The other, a small, thin officer, was talking to everyone, making assumptions about where they were being led now and how far they would have time to go that day. An official, in welled boots and a commissariat uniform, ran in from different directions and looked out for the burned-out Moscow, loudly reporting his observations about what had burned down and what this or that visible part of Moscow was like. The third officer, of Polish origin by accent, argued with the commissariat official, proving to him that he was mistaken in determining the quarters of Moscow.What are you arguing about? the major said angrily. - Is it Nikola, Vlas, it's all the same; you see, everything has burned down, well, that’s the end of it ... Why are you pushing, is there really not enough road, ”he turned angrily to the one who was walking behind and was not pushing him at all.
- Hey, hey, hey, what have you done! - heard, however, now from one side, now from the other side the voices of the prisoners, looking around the conflagrations. - And then Zamoskvorechye, and Zubovo, and then in the Kremlin, look, half is missing ... Yes, I told you that all Zamoskvorechye, that’s how it is.
- Well, you know what burned down, well, what to talk about! the major said.
Passing through Khamovniki (one of the few unburnt quarters of Moscow) past the church, the entire crowd of prisoners suddenly huddled to one side, and exclamations of horror and disgust were heard.
- Look, you bastards! That is not Christ! Yes, dead, dead and there ... They smeared it with something.
Pierre also moved towards the church, which had something that caused exclamations, and vaguely saw something leaning against the fence of the church. From the words of his comrades, who saw him better, he learned that it was something like the corpse of a man, standing upright by the fence and smeared with soot in his face ...
– Marchez, sacre nom… Filez… trente mille diables… [Go! go! Damn! Devils!] - the convoys cursed, and the French soldiers, with renewed anger, dispersed the crowd of prisoners who were looking at the dead man with cleavers.
Along the lanes of Khamovniki, the prisoners walked alone with their escort and the wagons and wagons that belonged to the escorts and rode behind; but, having gone out to the grocery stores, they found themselves in the middle of a huge, closely moving artillery convoy, mixed with private wagons.
At the very bridge, everyone stopped, waiting for those who were riding in front to advance. From the bridge, the prisoners opened behind and in front of endless rows of other moving convoys. To the right, where the Kaluga road curved past Neskuchny, disappearing into the distance, stretched endless ranks of troops and convoys. These were the troops of the Beauharnais corps that had come out first; Behind, along the embankment and across the Stone Bridge, Ney's troops and wagon trains stretched.
Davout's troops, to which the prisoners belonged, went through the Crimean ford and already partly entered Kaluga Street. But the carts were so stretched out that the last trains of Beauharnais had not yet left Moscow for Kaluzhskaya Street, and the head of Ney's troops was already leaving Bolshaya Ordynka.
Having passed the Crimean ford, the prisoners moved several steps and stopped, and again moved, and on all sides the carriages and people became more and more embarrassed. After walking for more than an hour those several hundred steps that separate the bridge from Kaluzhskaya Street, and having reached the square where Zamoskvoretsky Streets converge with Kaluzhskaya Street, the prisoners, squeezed into a heap, stopped and stood for several hours at this intersection. From all sides was heard the incessant, like the sound of the sea, the rumble of wheels, and the tramp of feet, and incessant angry cries and curses. Pierre stood pressed against the wall of the charred house, listening to this sound, which in his imagination merged with the sounds of the drum.
Several captured officers, in order to see better, climbed the wall of the burnt house, near which Pierre was standing.
- To the people! Eka to the people! .. And they piled on the guns! Look: furs ... - they said. “Look, you bastards, they robbed him… There, behind him, on a cart… After all, this is from an icon, by God!.. It must be the Germans. And our muzhik, by God!.. Ah, scoundrels! Here they are, the droshky - and they captured! .. Look, he sat down on the chests. Fathers! .. Fight! ..
- So it's in the face then, in the face! So you can't wait until evening. Look, look ... and this, of course, is Napoleon himself. You see, what horses! in monograms with a crown. This is a folding house. Dropped the bag, can't see. They fought again ... A woman with a child, and not bad. Yes, well, they will let you through... Look, there is no end. Russian girls, by God, girls! In the carriages, after all, how calmly they sat down!
Again, a wave of general curiosity, as near the church in Khamovniki, pushed all the prisoners to the road, and Pierre, thanks to his growth over the heads of others, saw what had so attracted the curiosity of the prisoners. In three carriages, intermingled between the charging boxes, they rode, closely sitting on top of each other, discharged, in bright colors, rouged, something screaming with squeaky voices of a woman.
From the moment Pierre realized the appearance of a mysterious force, nothing seemed strange or scary to him: neither a corpse smeared with soot for fun, nor these women hurrying somewhere, nor the conflagration of Moscow. Everything that Pierre now saw made almost no impression on him - as if his soul, preparing for a difficult struggle, refused to accept impressions that could weaken it.
The train of women has passed. Behind him again trailed carts, soldiers, wagons, soldiers, decks, carriages, soldiers, boxes, soldiers, occasionally women.
Pierre did not see people separately, but saw their movement.
All these people, the horses seemed to be driven by some invisible force. All of them, during the hour during which Pierre watched them, floated out of different streets with the same desire to pass quickly; they all alike, colliding with others, began to get angry, to fight; white teeth bared, eyebrows frowned, the same curses were thrown over and over, and on all faces there was the same youthfully resolute and cruelly cold expression, which struck Pierre in the morning at the sound of a drum on the corporal's face.
Already before evening, the escort commander gathered his team and, shouting and arguing, squeezed into the carts, and the prisoners, surrounded on all sides, went out onto the Kaluga road.
They walked very quickly, without resting, and stopped only when the sun had already begun to set. The carts moved one on top of the other, and people began to prepare for the night. Everyone seemed angry and unhappy. For a long time, curses, angry cries and fights were heard from different sides. The carriage, which was riding behind the escorts, advanced on the escorts' wagon and pierced it with a drawbar. Several soldiers from different directions ran to the wagon; some beat on the heads of the horses harnessed to the carriage, turning them, others fought among themselves, and Pierre saw that one German was seriously wounded in the head with a cleaver.
It seemed that all these people now experienced, when they stopped in the middle of the field in the cold twilight of an autumn evening, the same feeling of unpleasant awakening from the haste that gripped everyone upon leaving and impetuous movement somewhere. Stopping, everyone seemed to understand that it was still unknown where they were going, and that this movement would be a lot of hard and difficult.
The escorts treated the prisoners at this halt even worse than when they set out. At this halt, for the first time, the meat food of the captives was issued with horse meat.
From the officers to the last soldier, it was noticeable in everyone, as it were, a personal bitterness against each of the prisoners, which so unexpectedly replaced the previously friendly relations.
This exasperation intensified even more when, when counting the prisoners, it turned out that during the bustle, leaving Moscow, one Russian soldier, pretending to be sick from his stomach, fled. Pierre saw how a Frenchman beat a Russian soldier because he moved far from the road, and heard how the captain, his friend, reprimanded the non-commissioned officer for the escape of a Russian soldier and threatened him with a court. To the excuse of the non-commissioned officer that the soldier was sick and could not walk, the officer said that he was ordered to shoot those who would fall behind. Pierre felt that the fatal force that crushed him during the execution and which was invisible during captivity now again took possession of his existence. He was scared; but he felt how, in proportion to the efforts made by the fatal force to crush him, a force of life independent of it grew and grew stronger in his soul.
Pierre dined on rye flour soup with horse meat and talked with his comrades.
Neither Pierre nor any of his comrades spoke about what they saw in Moscow, nor about the rudeness of the treatment of the French, nor about the order to shoot, which was announced to them: everyone was, as if in rebuff to the deteriorating situation, especially lively and cheerful . They talked about personal memories, about funny scenes seen during the campaign, and hushed up conversations about the present situation.
The sun has long since set. bright stars lit up somewhere in the sky; the red, fire-like glow of the rising full moon spread over the edge of the sky, and the huge red ball oscillated surprisingly in the grayish haze. It became light. The evening was already over, but the night had not yet begun. Pierre got up from his new comrades and went between the fires to the other side of the road, where, he was told, the captured soldiers were standing. He wanted to talk to them. On the road, a French sentry stopped him and ordered him to turn back.
Pierre returned, but not to the fire, to his comrades, but to the unharnessed wagon, which had no one. He crossed his legs and lowered his head, sat down on the cold ground at the wheel of the wagon, and sat motionless for a long time, thinking. More than an hour has passed. Nobody bothered Pierre. Suddenly he burst out laughing with his thick, good-natured laugh so loudly that people from different directions looked around in surprise at this strange, obviously lonely laugh.
– Ha, ha, ha! Pierre laughed. And he said aloud to himself: “The soldier didn’t let me in.” Caught me, locked me up. I am being held captive. Who me? Me! Me, my immortal soul! Ha, ha, ha! .. Ha, ha, ha! .. - he laughed with tears in his eyes.
Some man got up and came up to see what this strange man was laughing about. big man. Pierre stopped laughing, got up, moved away from the curious and looked around him.
Previously, loudly noisy with the crackling of fires and the talk of people, the huge, endless bivouac subsided; the red fires of the fires went out and grew pale. High in the bright sky stood a full moon. Forests and fields, previously invisible outside the camp, now opened up in the distance. And even farther than these forests and fields could be seen a bright, oscillating, inviting endless distance. Pierre looked into the sky, into the depths of the departing, playing stars. “And all this is mine, and all this is in me, and all this is me! thought Pierre. “And they caught all this and put it in a booth, fenced off with boards!” He smiled and went to bed with his comrades.
In the first days of October, another truce came to Kutuzov with a letter from Napoleon and an offer of peace, deceptively signified from Moscow, while Napoleon was already not far ahead of Kutuzov, on the old Kaluga road. Kutuzov answered this letter in the same way as the first one sent from Lauriston: he said that there could be no talk of peace.
Shortly thereafter from partisan detachment Dorokhov, who was walking to the left of Tarutin, received a report that troops appeared in Fominsky, that these troops consisted of Brusier's division, and that this division, separated from other troops, could easily be exterminated. Soldiers and officers again demanded activity. Staff generals, excited by the memory of the ease of victory at Tarutin, insisted on Kutuzov's execution of Dorokhov's proposal. Kutuzov did not consider any offensive necessary. The average came out, that which was to be accomplished; a small detachment was sent to Fominsky, which was supposed to attack Brussier.
By a strange chance, this appointment - the most difficult and most important, as it turned out later - was received by Dokhturov; that same modest, little Dokhturov, whom no one described to us as making battle plans, flying in front of regiments, throwing crosses at batteries, etc., who was considered and called indecisive and impenetrable, but the same Dokhturov, whom during all the Russian wars with the French, from Austerlitz and up to the thirteenth year, we find commanders wherever only the situation is difficult. In Austerlitz, he remains the last at the Augusta dam, gathering regiments, saving what is possible when everything is running and dying and not a single general is in the rearguard. He, sick with a fever, goes to Smolensk with twenty thousand to defend the city against the entire Napoleonic army. In Smolensk, he had barely dozed off at the Molokhov Gates, in a paroxysm of fever, he was awakened by the cannonade across Smolensk, and Smolensk held out all day. On Borodino day, when Bagration was killed and the troops of our left flank were killed in the ratio of 9 to 1 and the entire force of the French artillery was sent there, no one else was sent, namely the indecisive and impenetrable Dokhturov, and Kutuzov was in a hurry to correct his mistake when he sent there another. And the small, quiet Dokhturov goes there, and Borodino is the best glory of the Russian army. And many heroes are described to us in verse and prose, but almost not a word about Dokhturov.
Again Dokhturov is sent there to Fominsky and from there to Maly Yaroslavets, to the place where the last battle with the French took place, and to the place from which, obviously, the death of the French already begins, and again many geniuses and heroes describe to us during this period of the campaign , but not a word about Dokhturov, or very little, or doubtful. This silence about Dokhturov most obviously proves his merits.
Naturally, for a person who does not understand the movement of the machine, at the sight of its operation, it seems that the most important part of this machine is that chip that accidentally fell into it and, interfering with its movement, is rattling in it. A person who does not know the structure of the machine cannot understand that not this spoiling and interfering chip, but that small transmission gear that turns inaudibly is one of the most essential parts of the machine.
On October 10, on the very day Dokhturov walked halfway to Fominsky and stopped in the village of Aristovo, preparing to execute the given order exactly, the entire French army, in its convulsive movement, reached the position of Murat, as it seemed, in order to give the battle, suddenly, for no reason, turned to the left onto the new Kaluga road and began to enter Fominsky, in which only Brussier had previously stood. Dokhturov under command at that time had, in addition to Dorokhov, two small detachments of Figner and Seslavin.
On the evening of October 11, Seslavin arrived in Aristovo to the authorities with a captured French guard. The prisoner said that the troops that had now entered Fominsky were the vanguard of the entire large army, that Napoleon was right there, that the entire army had already left Moscow for the fifth day. That same evening, a courtyard man who came from Borovsk told how he saw the entry of a huge army into the city. Cossacks from the Dorokhov detachment reported that they saw the French guards walking along the road to Borovsk. From all this news, it became obvious that where they thought to find one division, there was now the entire French army, marching from Moscow in an unexpected direction - along the old Kaluga road. Dokhturov did not want to do anything, because it was not clear to him now what his duty was. He was ordered to attack Fominsky. But in Fominsky there used to be only Brussier, now there was all french army. Yermolov wanted to do as he pleased, but Dokhturov insisted that he needed to have an order from his Serene Highness. It was decided to send a report to headquarters.
For this, an intelligent officer, Bolkhovitinov, was chosen, who, in addition to a written report, was supposed to tell the whole story in words. At twelve o'clock in the morning, Bolkhovitinov, having received an envelope and a verbal order, galloped, accompanied by a Cossack, with spare horses to the main headquarters.
The night was dark, warm, autumnal. It has been raining for the fourth day. Having changed horses twice and galloping thirty miles along a muddy, viscous road in an hour and a half, Bolkhovitinov was at Letashevka at two o'clock in the morning. Climbing down at the hut, on the wattle fence of which there was a sign: "General Staff", and leaving the horse, he entered the dark passage.
- The general on duty soon! Very important! he said to someone who was getting up and snuffling in the darkness of the passage.
“From the evening they were very unwell, they didn’t sleep for the third night,” whispered the orderly voice intercessively. “Wake up the captain first.
“Very important, from General Dokhturov,” said Bolkhovitinov, entering the open door he felt for. The orderly went ahead of him and began to wake someone:
“Your honor, your honor is a courier.
- I'm sorry, what? from whom? said a sleepy voice.
- From Dokhturov and from Alexei Petrovich. Napoleon is in Fominsky,” said Bolkhovitinov, not seeing in the darkness the one who asked him, but from the sound of his voice, assuming that it was not Konovnitsyn.
The awakened man yawned and stretched.
“I don’t want to wake him up,” he said, feeling something. - Sick! Maybe so, rumors.
“Here is the report,” said Bolkhovitinov, “it was ordered to immediately hand it over to the general on duty.
- Wait, I'll light the fire. Where the hell are you always going to put it? - Turning to the batman, said the stretching man. It was Shcherbinin, Konovnitsyn's adjutant. “I found it, I found it,” he added.
The orderly cut down the fire, Shcherbinin felt the candlestick.
“Oh, the nasty ones,” he said in disgust.
By the light of the sparks, Bolkhovitinov saw the young face of Shcherbinin with a candle and in the front corner of a still sleeping man. It was Konovnitsyn.
When at first the sulphurous tinder lit up with a blue and then a red flame, Shcherbinin lit a tallow candle, from the candlestick of which the Prussians gnawed at it ran, and examined the messenger. Bolkhovitinov was covered in mud and, wiping himself with his sleeve, smeared his face.
- Who delivers? Shcherbinin said, taking the envelope.
“The news is true,” said Bolkhovitinov. - And the prisoners, and the Cossacks, and scouts - all unanimously show the same thing.
“There is nothing to do, we must wake up,” said Shcherbinin, getting up and going up to a man in a nightcap, covered with an overcoat. - Pyotr Petrovich! he said. Konovnitsyn did not move. - Headquarters! he said, smiling, knowing that these words would probably wake him up. And indeed, the head in the nightcap rose at once. On Konovnitsyn's handsome, hard face, with feverishly inflamed cheeks, for a moment there still remained an expression of dream dreams far removed from the present situation, but then he suddenly shuddered: his face assumed its usual calm and firm expression.
- Well, what is it? From whom? he asked slowly but immediately, blinking in the light. Listening to the officer's report, Konovnitsyn printed it out and read it. As soon as he read, he put his feet in woolen stockings on the dirt floor and began to put on shoes. Then he took off his cap and, combing his temples, put on his cap.
- Did you arrive soon? Let's go to the brightest.
Konovnitsyn immediately realized that the news he had brought was of great importance and that it was impossible to delay. Whether it was good or bad, he did not think and did not ask himself. It didn't interest him. He looked at the whole matter of the war not with the mind, not with reasoning, but with something else. There was a deep, unspoken conviction in his soul that everything would be fine; but that it is not necessary to believe this, and even more so, it is not necessary to say this, but one must only do one's own business. And he did his job, giving him all his strength.
Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn, like Dokhturov, only as if out of decency included in the list of the so-called heroes of the 12th year - Barklaev, Raevsky, Yermolov, Platov, Miloradovich, just like Dokhturov, enjoyed the reputation of a person of very limited abilities and information, and, like Dokhturov, Konovnitsyn never made plans for battles, but was always where it was most difficult; always slept with the door open since he was appointed general on duty, ordering each sent one to wake himself up, he was always under fire during the battle, so that Kutuzov reproached him for this and was afraid to send him, and was, like Dokhturov, one of those inconspicuous gears which, without crackling or making noise, constitute the most essential part of the machine.
Coming out of the hut into the damp, dark night, Konovnitsyn frowned, partly from a worsening headache, partly from an unpleasant thought that had entered his head about how this whole nest of staff, influential people would now be excited at this news, especially Benigsen, after Tarutin, the former at knives with Kutuzov; how they will propose, argue, order, cancel. And this presentiment was unpleasant to him, although he knew that without it it was impossible.
Indeed, Tol, to whom he went to inform the new news, immediately began to express his thoughts to the general who lived with him, and Konovnitsyn, silently and wearily listening, reminded him that he had to go to his Serene Highness.
Kutuzov, like all old people, slept little at night. He often dozed off unexpectedly during the day; but at night, without undressing, lying on his bed, for the most part he did not sleep and thought.
And so he lay now on his bed, leaning his heavy, large, mutilated head on his plump arm, and thought, peering into the darkness with one open eye.
Since Benigsen, who corresponded with the sovereign and had the most strength in the headquarters, avoided him, Kutuzov was calmer in the sense that he and his troops would not be forced to again participate in useless offensive operations. The lesson of the Battle of Tarutino and its eve, painfully remembered by Kutuzov, should also have had an effect, he thought.
The Buryat language is multi-dialect. Differences between dialects are largely related to the ethnic divisions of their speakers. The speakers of each group of dialects constitute a certain ethnic group - Khori, Tsongol, Sartul, Khamnigan, Khongodor, Ekhirit and Bulagat. But this is not absolute, since a considerable period (centuries) of interaction between the Mongolian-speaking ethnic groups - representatives of different tribal associations in the same or adjacent territory could not but be reflected in their language.
Despite the obviousness of such a dialectal differentiation of the modern Buryat language, some dialectologists still, probably due to tradition, continue to adhere to the so-called territorial principle of division into western, eastern and southern dialectal groups. Such a classification of the Buryat dialects, firstly, is not terminologically accurate, and secondly, the factual material itself contradicts this. For example, one of the most eastern (geographically) dialects - Barguzin belongs to the western dialect group.
With such a division of the Buryat dialects, the Barguzin and Tunkinsky dialects turn out to be in one group, which differ both genetically and linguistically, not to mention the purely territorial association of two large and independent dialect arrays: Alar and Ekhirit-Bulagat dialects. The speakers of these dialects are not related either by origin or by language. Genetically, the Alar Buryats belong to the Khongodor tribal association, while the genealogy of the Ekhirites and Bulagats stretches from the ancient Mongolian tribes of the Ikires and Bulgachins. The most typical phonetic isoglosses of the type ž ↔ j and their lexicalization: alar. ž argal- ekhirit.-bulag. jargal"happiness", alar. žƐ l- ekhirit.-bulag. jel"year", alar. ž ada- ehi-rit.-bulag. jada"spear", etc. do not give grounds for combining them into one dialect group. Even territorially, the speakers of the Ekhirit Bulagat and Alar dialects are significantly distant from each other. Up to recent years(before the formation of a single autonomous okrug) they had almost no contacts, the wayward Angara separated them. The Alar Buryats had closer ties with the Tunkinsky Buryats rather than with the Ekhirites and Bulagats.
This was noted by the outstanding figure of Buryat culture and science Ts. Zhamtsarano, who recorded folklore just in the above-mentioned regions of ethnic Buryatia.
Thus, the division of this large Buryat-speaking massif, not quite justifiably attributed to one Western Buryat dialect, into two independent dialect groups, will be justified both historically and linguistically. Therefore, quite rightly and logically fit into the system of classification of Buryat dialects are the dialects of the Tunkinsky, Zakamensky, Barguzin and Baikal-Kudarinsky Buryats, who were previously attributed either to some artificially invented intermediate dialects, or purely geographically to the Baikal-Sayan, or simply mechanically combined with Western - Buryat dialects.
Now, the dialects of the Barguzin and Baikal-Kudara Buryats naturally belong to the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect, and the dialects of the Alar, Tunkinsky, Okinsky, Zakamensky Buryats, according to all their linguistic and, to some extent, territorial criteria, constitute an independent dialect group, which is most appropriate to call Alar- Tunkin dialect. The unconditional attribution of the Unga Buryat dialect to this dialect group was very problematic just a few decades ago. However, at present, thanks to intensive contacts in recent years, mainly related to external factors of a socio-economic nature, it is already possible to attribute the Unginsky dialect to the Alaro-Tunkinskaya dialect group.
Actually, the Alar dialect is not limited to the current administrative boundaries, it spreads to several Buryat villages of the Ziminsky and Ust-Udinsky regions, forming a kind of Alar dialect koine.
Alar dialect has significant internal differences. They were not recorded in due time by N. Poppe, since his work "Alar Dialect" is the result of observations made during the summer of 1928 in only one village. Elzetuye, as the author himself writes. Description of the phonetic features of the dialect p. Elzetuy is given to them in detail, with reasonable generalizations. However, such large and peculiar massifs with a Buryat population as Alyaty, Zones, Shapshaltuy, Nelkhay, Baltui, Kuyty, not to mention the settlements of the Ungin Buryats, remained out of sight of the researcher.
The expedition of the Department of Linguistics of the IMB&T SB RAS in 1962 covered all the settlements populated by the Buryats. In the "report on the work of the Alar-Unga detachment" it is noted that the dialect of the Unga Buryats differs only lexically from the dialect of the Alar Buryats proper. The dialect of the Buryats living in the former has serious internal differences. First of all, the Nelhai bush stands apart, which includes, except for the village itself. Nelkhay, uluses of Bakhtai, Khadakhan, Undur Huan, Abhayta, Zangei and Kundulun. It is striking that the inhabitants of these villages use the middle language fricative sonant j at the beginning of words instead of the fricative softened voiced consonant ž, which is used in the language of other Alar and Unga Buryats. One of characteristic features is that in speaking with. Baltuy, located 15 km southeast of the village. Nelkhai, as well as in the Baikal-Kudara dialect, there is a consistent replacement of the common Buryat h fricative at the beginning of a word X. The dialect of the Nelkhay Buryats is adjacent to the Bulagat dialect.
To compile a complete picture of the dialect differentiation of the Buryat-speaking territory of the western part of the Irkutsk region, one should also say about the dialect of the Nizhneudinsk Buryats. Based on the research of G.D. Sanzheeva, D.A. Darbeeva, V.I. Rassadin, as well as on the expeditionary materials of the staff of the Linguistics Department of the IMBiT, we can confidently conclude that the allocation of the language of the Lower Udinsk Buryats into a special dialect is beyond doubt. It should be noted that this dialect was spoken not only by the population of the villages of Kushun and Muntu-Bulak, that is, the Nizhneudin Buryats proper, but also by the population of the villages of Kukshinai and Podsochka of the Tulunsky district. With regret, we have to admit that recently this dialect has actually been closed in one village of Kushun, Irkutsk Region.
The largest dialect layer in the Buryat-speaking territory of the Irkutsk region is occupied by the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect, which includes quite independent dialects of the Idin and Osin, as well as the Saigut and Kitoi Buryats, who have not yet lost touch with the Idin and Bulusin (Bulagats living in the Irkutsk region) Buryats. The Ekhirites and Bulagats, living compactly in the Ekhirit-Bulagat, Bayandaevsky, Kachugsky districts, have long ago formed a kind of koine, based on the Ekhirit dialect, which is the most widespread in this territory, and has absorbed the features of the Bulagat dialects common in the current Ekhirit-Bulagat administrative region.
The language of the Olkhon Buryats differs little from the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect. True, Ts.B. Tsydendambaev clarifies this in a very peculiar way: "... the language of the Buryats living along the northern coast, west of the village of Kurma, and on the island, is basically the same as the language of the Baikal-Kudara Buryats ... The language of the Buryats living in the more eastern part of the northern coast of Lake Baikal and Olkhon Island, strongly resembles the language of the Barguzin Buryats ... It is already possible to speak, firstly, about the inclusion of the villages of Kacherikovo, Onguryony and Zama into the territory of the Barguzin dialect, and secondly, about the allocation of the Olkhon-Kudarinsky dialect "(from the report ).
The combination of the above dialects on such a platform is expressed for the first time. If the existence of the Olkhon-Kudara local dialect is quite acceptable, then the unification of the Barguzin dialect with the dialect of the Olkhon people living in the eastern villages of the northern coast of Lake Baikal is very problematic, since there is no constant contact between them. But it is indisputable that these related dialects have not yet lost their linguistic unity with the native Ekhirite dialect and, accordingly, with each other.
Ekhirit-bulagat dialects differ noticeably from each other, but according to a number of significant phonetic features they are combined into one dialect. Moreover, this dialect is quite close in its grammatical structure and other features to the Khori dialects. It is no coincidence that, as mentioned above, Ts. Zhamtsarano noted that the dialect of the Ekhirites and Bulagats is closer to the Khori-Buryat than to the dialect of the Alar and part of the Balagan Buryats.
One of characteristic features This group of dialects in the field of phonetics is yokanye, that is, where ž is pronounced in the literary language and some other dialects in Anlaut, j is pronounced in Ekhirit-Bulagat dialects. For example: lit. ž abar"chius" (wind) - ekhirit.-bulag. jabar. lit. ž alga"valley" - ekhirit.-bulag. jalga. lit. ž ada"spear" - ekhirit.-bulag. jada etc.
In the eastern part of the Buryat-speaking territory, the predominant place is occupied by a vast region of the Khori dialect proper, which formed the basis of the literary Buryat language. The speakers of the Khori dialect and in quantitative terms significantly predominate over representatives of other dialect divisions of the Buryat language. Actually, the Khorin people are representatives of 11 Khorin clans living in the Republic of Buryatia and the Chita region. The Khorinsky dialect is the largest dialect subdivision of the Buryat language, which includes the Khorinsky dialect itself, which is common on the territory of the current three large administrative regions of the Republic of Buryatia: Yeravninsky, Khorinsky and Kizhinginsky. In this part, the Khori dialect constitutes a kind of Koine, taken as the basis for literary pronunciation. This dialect also includes the Agin dialect, common in the Chita region (with the exception of the dialect of the Onon Khamnigans), the Tugnui dialect, the main feature of which is the phonetic sign of okanya. This pronunciation feature extends over a fairly vast territory, reaching in the east to Doda-Gol along the Uda, to Oybontuy along the river. Courbet. In Kodun and Kizhing, only sporadic okanya was observed. The people of Mukhorshibir and Zaigraevs are completely surrounded. The Okanya strip runs along the valleys of the Tugnui and Kurba rivers and the middle reaches of the river. Oody.
A noticeable phonetic originality of the Khori dialect proper, which distinguishes it both from other dialects and from the literary language, is the softened pronunciation of consonants in such words as Ɛ rdƐ m"the science", xƐl` iŋ "language" instead Ɛ rdƐ m, xƐ lƐ n in the same meanings in other dialects. The latest norms have been adopted in the literary language. Or, for example, words that have a soft r` stem, such as mor" iŋ "horse", ϋr`i "duty" in the joint case in the Khori dialect take the form: mor" t"Ɛ: ϋ rit"Ɛ: instead of mor" itoe: ϋ r" itƐ : in other dialects and literary language.
Vowels ɵ, y exist in the Khori dialect, but they are not independent phonemes, but are only allophones of the same phoneme. The dialects of the Ivolga and Severo-Selenga (or Near-Selenga) Buryats adjoin the Khori dialect, which, by their origin, belong mainly to the Bulagat and partially Ekhirit clans. It must be assumed that the linguistic assimilation of the Ekhirit-Bulagat Buryats, who settled on a rather vast territory along the Selenga valley, is associated with direct and constant linguistic contact with the speakers of the Khori dialect. Perhaps the influence of the Buryat literary language, which was based on the same Khori dialect, played an important role here ( schooling, print, radio and television). This assimilation process, no doubt, was accompanied by a religious factor. Nevertheless, the main cause-and-effect factor in the transition of the Ekhirites and Bulagats to the Khori speech norm is a living language contact, which was not between the speakers of the Barguzin dialect and the Khori people, between the Khori people and the Baikal-Kudarin people. The Barguzin and Baikal-Kudara Buryats lived to some extent isolated from the main population of the region - the Khori Buryats. Even smaller linguistic offshoots retain their primary appearance when isolated from other related linguistic communities. For example, the westernmost "outpost" of the Buryat-speaking area - the dialect of the Lower Udinsk Buryats remains an independent isolated dialect. As mentioned above, now it is actually preserved, only in one s. Kushun. The opposite picture is presented by the linguistic evolution of the Olkhon and Baikal-Kudara Buryats, who settled among the native Khori in the Yeravninsky and Kizhinginsky districts of Buryatia. Olkhon settlers who settled near the village. Mozhaika, although they live compactly, already speak the literary Buryat language. And the Baikal-Kudara Buryats from several coastal villages that were subjected to a natural disaster (the Baikal failure) moved to the Kizhinginsky region and, despite a relatively short period, they already speak the Khori dialect.
In the dialectological literature, the dialect of Tongol and Sartul, common in the southern part of ethnic Buryatia, is called differently: southern, Tsongo-Sartul, clattering, etc. Probably, each name in its own way reflects the essence of the problem. Indeed, representatives of this dialect are relatively recent immigrants from Mongolia (late XVII - early 18th c.) and have not yet lost the features of the Mongolian language. The use of affricates is still preserved, instead of the common Buryat pharyngeal sound h, a strong spirant s is pronounced, etc.
Recently, this group of dialects has also included the dialect of the Onon Khamnigans, scattered throughout the Kyrensky, Duldurginsky, Akshinsky, Mogotuisky, Shilkinsky and Karymsky districts of the Chita region. If in terms of language there are indeed a number of unifying moments between the Tsongol, Sartul and Khamnigan dialects, then in all other respects the Hamnigans have nothing in common with the Tsongols and Sartuls. There are various hypotheses regarding the origin of the Hamnigan. Some believe that the current Hamnigans are from Inner Mongolia and Mongols by origin. (Damdinov. 1993, p. 28); others believe that they are of Tungus origin, linguistically assimilated with the Mongols (Tsydendambaev. 1979, p. 155).
In territorial terms, the Tsongols and Sartuls are close to each other, they occupy adjacent regions, but the Hamnigans are significantly distant from them and have no contacts with them and never had.
One way or another, these dialects in the last 200-300 years are in direct mutual influence with the adjacent Buryat dialects. From the point of view of phonetic characteristics, they can be attributed to the Buryat language only conditionally. True, a significant period of interaction between these dialects and Buryat dialects left noticeable traces in them. At present, these dialects are a transitional type between the Mongolian and Buryat languages.
The composition of phonemes in clattering dialects and other Buryat dialects does not match. In all three dialects (Tsongol, Sartul and Khamnigan) affricates are widely used t"š. d"ž, ts, dz, pharyngeal is not used h, a deaf strong stop sound is used To, which in the Hamnigan dialect acts as an independent phoneme, and in other dialects the sound To is much less common and acts as an optional variant of the phoneme X.
However, when classifying the Buryat dialects, it is more expedient to abandon the artificial attribution of the dialect of the Onon Khamnigans to the Tsongo-Sartul dialect group, leaving it as an independent isolated dialect in the eastern part of the Buryat dialect area, similar to how the isolated Nizhne-Udin dialect itself remained in the westernmost part of the Buryat-speaking territory. .
The results of the analysis of various classification systems of the Buryat dialects proposed by the leading Mongolian linguists over the past decades show that the Buryat language is currently divided into four dialect groups.
The first - the Khori group of dialects, or the Khori dialect, consists of the Khori dialect proper, Aginsky, Tugnui (or Tugnui-Khilok), North Selenga (or Middle Selenga) dialects.
The second is the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect. These are the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect proper, the Bokhan and Olkhon dialects, as well as the dialects of the Barguzin and Baikal-Kudara Buryats.
The third is the Alaro-Tunkin dialect. This includes the Alar dialect, the Tunkino-Oka and Zakamensky dialects, as well as the dialect of the Unga Buryats.
The fourth is the Tsongo-Sartul dialect, which consists of two dialects: Tson-Gol and Sartul.
This clear dialectal system of the modern Buryat language does not fit in any way the dialect of the Lower Udin Buryats, which remained on the westernmost outskirts of the Buryat-speaking territory, as well as the dialect of the Onon Khamnigans in the Chita region. They are included in the classification system of dialects of the Buryat language as independent isolated dialects, not related to any of the dialects listed above, divided into four dialect groups.
According to the UNESCO classification, four languages of Buryatia are included in the so-called "Red Book of Endangered Languages". Soyot, Evenk, Khamnigan and Buryat languages are noted in the interactive atlas on the organization's website. Moreover, the latter was introduced recently and, as scientists note, is in more or less good condition.
It is worth noting that, unlike UNESCO experts, the Soyot and Khamnigan languages are considered by Buryat scientists as dialects of the Buryat language, and not as independent languages, while recognizing the huge influence of the ancient writing and culture of these peoples on the formation of the Buryat language. Recall that the UNESCO atlas is based on open data, like Wikipedia. Today, one of the main sources of data on the languages of Buryatia is the work of the Finnish researcher Juha Janhunen.
Buryat language
This language is considered definitely endangered, according to the five-level classification of the UNESCO atlas it has the fourth degree, which in principle is considered not so bad. There are about 300 thousand native speakers of this language in the republic, with the total number of speakers of the Buryat language being 368,807 people, such data were obtained based on the 2002 population census. This figure includes, along with the inhabitants of Buryatia, Baikal speakers (Irkutsk region, Ust Orda, Olkhon), Transbaikal (Aga, Transbaikal region), and a small number of Manchu Buryats.
The main part is still the older generation living in the ethnic regions of Buryatia. Young people speak their native language less and less, about 20% of Buryats are completely Russian-speaking, and 60% are bilingual.
The Buryats, unlike the Turkic-speaking peoples (Yakuts, Tuvans), adapt very quickly, both in terms of linguistic assimilation and socially, - says Galina Dyrkheeva, Doctor of Philology, Chief Researcher of the Linguistics Department of the Institute of Mongolian Studies, Buddhology and Tibetology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, - therefore the group of bilinguals today is a risk group, if we most likely don’t teach Russian-speakers to speak (although we only interviewed the adult population), then we still hope for this group, they will either be able to pass the language to their children, or they will learn the Buryat language separately families will “end”, since the family is one of the most important language environments.
In addition to learning the language in the family, philologists consider the lack of external language environment, there are no children's illustrated books that can interest kids, over the past twenty years not a single major novel has been written that reflects modern reality through the prism of the Buryat mentality and philosophy.
We have concerns about the state of the Buryat language, primarily due to the narrowing of the areas of use, both at the level of everyday communication and in the field of education, - says Babasan Tsyrenov, Candidate of Philology, Head of the Department of Linguistics of the Institute of Mongolian Studies, Buddhology and Tibetology of the SB RAS , - the language of instruction is Russian, the sphere socio-political life is connected with the Russian language, and of course the means mass media, very poor development in the Buryat language. The issue that needs to be resolved urgently is the issue of propaganda of the Buryat language, based on modern conditions, technologies and financial situation of our republic.
Despite the obvious processes of the disappearance of the Buryat language, an important point is its status as one of the two state languages in the republic, this is noted by all experts. In Buryatia, there is also compulsory language teaching in primary school. For comparison, after the entry of the two Buryat Autonomous Okrugs into the neighboring subjects of the federation, the teaching of the Buryat language was canceled, which led to sad consequences, not a single Buryat, a resident of the Irkutsk region, could fill out a questionnaire in the Buryat language during the linguistic study.
Evenki language
Evenks are one of the most ancient and mysterious peoples of Siberia and Far East. The total number according to the 2002 census is 35,357 people, of which 7,584 speak the Evenki language.
Historically, the Evenks are dispersed and strongly settled throughout the country. Evenks live compactly in 11 subjects Russian Federation, the largest number, about 13 thousand live in Sakha Yakutia. Such resettlement hinders the creation of a unified Evenki literary base, which also does not contribute to the preservation of the language. According to the UNESCO classification, the Evenki language is in an extremely serious situation of extinction - the third degree.
In Buryatia, Evenks live mainly in the Bauntovsky district on Northeast, on the border with the Trans-Baikal Territory.
In the early 90s, studies were carried out in the Bauntovsky district, - says Elizaveta Afanasyeva, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Indigenous Languages of Siberia at the Buryat State University, - which showed that 29% of young people and 100% of the older generation spoke the Evenki language . But that was almost twenty years ago, since then, unfortunately, no research has been carried out, there are no recent data, but it’s impossible to say that the language is dying! Yes, assimilation is taking place, Evenks are assimilated with Buryats and Russians, many speak three languages, but as long as at least one Evenk is alive, the language will also live.
Since 91 in Buryatsky state university a specialty was opened - a teacher of the Evenki language, today there are 32 students studying there. This specialty is in great demand, after graduation, students work in all corners of Russia, where there is at least a small Evenki diaspora. In St. Petersburg, books are printed in the Evenki language, mainly of course textbooks and manuals for learning the language.
Hamnigan language
According to the UNESCO classification, the Hamnigan or Hamnigan-Mongolian language is in the fourth degree of danger, that is, it is definitely under the threat of extinction. According to the Finnish researcher Juha Janhunen, this language is spoken by about 2,000 people.
The Buryat scientists have no doubts that the Hamnigan language does not exist, and the UNESCO Red Book indicates simply a dialect of the modern Buryat language, which once very long ago was its progenitor and progenitor of the modern Mongolian language.
The famous researcher and "Chief Hamnigan" of Buryatia Dashinima Damdinov, Doctor of Philology and Honored Scientist of the Republic of Buryatia, author of twenty four books, textbooks, monographs and over one hundred and fifty scientific articles on problematic issues of the Mongolian languages, history, ethnography, cultural and spiritual population of Khamnigan, one of the tribal associations of the Khitan-Mongols, which will celebrate its 85th anniversary next year, says the following:
As a language, the Hamniganian no longer exists, in its written form it has been preserved in the form of old Mongolian texts (vertical script), as a pure archaic Mongolian language, and in colloquial, only as a dialect of the Buryat language. Now little is spoken in Khamnigan, this is directly related to the Buryat language, as we know, its teaching was canceled in the Trans-Baikal Territory, in the former Aginsky Autonomous Okrug. religious basis, they don’t build datsans there, customs are forgotten. There are few prospects for the Khamnigan language, even the Buryat ones have illusory prospects, let alone a pro-dialect. At the same time, the roots of the Zakamensky, Ivolginsky, Selenga Buryats are from Khamnigan, this is the progenitor language.
The Hamnigan language is a dialect, - agrees Galina Dyrkheeva, - and this definition arose in our department, we, as representatives of the Soviet linguistic school, determine for ourselves what is spoken language, what is written, dialect, dialect, jargon, and so on according to that classification, by which we were taught. The description is already given, grammatical, lexical.
Soyot language
Two interesting situations are immediately connected with the Soyot language, firstly, as in the case of Khamnigan, in Buryatia it is not considered a language, but only a dialect of the Buryat language, and secondly, the Soyots did not have written language, which is considered one of the main characteristics of the language. until the 60s and 70s of the 20th century.
According to the classification of the UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Endangered Languages, the Soyot language is considered to be completely extinct, first degree. This language was once spoken by the inhabitants of the mountainous Oka (Oka district of the Republic of Buryatia).
I do not know who was the initiator of this problem, - says Galina Dyrheeva, - but it is believed that there was some kind of official document regarding small peoples, there were benefits, privileges. People who were officially considered Buryats began to identify themselves as Soyots by their ancestors. Their recognition as an independent nationality was nevertheless initiated by someone, by whom, I cannot say. Later, of course, an independent language became one of the points of recognition, and then they already began to say that someone speaks Soyot, but in fact no one speaks. Valentin Ivanovich Rassadin, our greatest scientist, who now lives in Elista, traveled in the 60-70s, collected material, he wrote a lot of material from that period, because then there were still native speakers.
Then the following happened, thanks to the experience of writing textbooks and primers in the Tofalar language, Rassadin was asked to do the same for the Soyots. That is, we can say that he practically invented writing, based on a colloquial dialect. Before that, there was nothing. For UNESCO, the definition of the Soyot dialect as independent language, most likely important to determine the significance of its Red Book. In any case, even the Soyot dialect of the Buryats practically does not exist today.
