Presentation on the topic "A brief outline of the history of the development of chemistry" in chemistry in powerpoint format. The presentation tells about the history of the emergence and development of chemistry as a science, the issue of the formation of chemistry in our country is considered separately. Presentation author: teacher of biology and chemistry of the first qualification category Yakovleva Larisa Alexandrovna.

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Chemistry in antiquity

Chemical production existed already for 3-4 thousand years BC. e.

Egypt

• IN Ancient Egypt they knew how to smelt metals from ores, obtain their alloys, produced glass, ceramics, pigments, paints, perfumes, and made wine. The Egyptians were unsurpassed sculptors and builders.
• Egyptian priests mastered the techniques of embalming the bodies of the dead pharaohs and nobility.

Ancient Mesopotamia

Some chemical production existed in ancient Mesopotamia,

Democritus.

Lived in the 5th century BC e., for the first time expressed the idea that. That all bodies are composed of the smallest, invisible, indivisible solid particles of matter, which he called atoms.

Aristotle

believed that the basis surrounding nature are the four elements.

Alchemy.

The purpose of alchemy is to find ways to transform base metals into noble ones with the help of an imaginary substance - the philosopher's stone.

Agricola - the "father" of metallurgy

AGRICOLA Georg (real name Bauer, Bauer) (1494-1555), German scientist. For the first time, he summarized the experience of mining and metallurgical production in the work “On Mining ...” (1550, 12 books, published in 1556), which until the 18th century. served as the main textbook on geology, mining and metallurgy.

Paracelsus - the "father" of iatrochemistry - the science of drugs

PARACELSUS (real name Philip Aureol Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, von Hohenheim) (1493-1541), physician and naturalist, one of the founders of iatrochemistry. Contributed to the introduction of chemicals in medicine.

Chemistry in Ancient Rus'

IN Kievan Rus smelted metals, produced glass, salts, paints, fabrics. Under Ivan the Terrible, a pharmacy was opened in Moscow in 1581.

Russian scientists - chemists

• M.V. Lomonosov;
• DI. Mendeleev;
• A.M. Butlerov;
• N.N. Beketov;
• V.V. Markovnikov;
• C.V. Lebedev;
• D.K. Chernov;
• P.P. Anosov.

M.V. Lomonosov

Formulated the law of conservation of mass of substances in chemical reactions

DI. Mendeleev

Discovered the Periodic Law and created the Periodic System chemical elements.

A.M. Butlerov

Created the theory of structure organic matter.

N.N. Beketov

Discovered the activity series of metals.

V.V. Markovnikov

Worked in the field of theoretical chemistry

S.V. Lebedev

Got the first synthetic rubber

D.K. Chernov

Developed the best conditions for casting, forging and heat treatment of steel.

P.P. Anosov

Metallurgist, invented a method for hardening steel. Revealed the secret of obtaining damask steel

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Avogadro

Born August 9, 1776. Died July 9, 1856. The Italian physicist and chemist Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro DiKvaregna E DiCerreto was born in Turkey, in the family of a judicial officer. Discovered - The law of the combination of gases, etc.

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Arrhenius

Born February 9, 1859. Died October 2, 1927. Nobel Prize in chemistry [1903]. The Swedish physicist and chemist Svante August Arrhenius was born on the Veik estate, near Uppsala. He was the second son of Svante Gustav Arrhenius, the manager of the estate. Arrhenius' ancestors were farmers. Discovered - The theory of electrical dissociation

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Beketov

Born January 13, 1827. Died December 13, 1911. Russian chemist Nikolai Nikolaevich Beketov, one of the founders of physical chemistry, was born in the village of. New Beketovka, Penza province. Discoveries - Investigated the behavior of organic substances at high temperatures; discovered the displacement of metals from solutions of salts by hydrogen under pressure.

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Berthelot

Born October 25, 1827. Died March 18, 1907. French chemist and public figure Pierre Eugene Marselin Berthelot was born in Paris in the family of a doctor. Discoveries - Synthesized many of the simplest hydrocarbons - methane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene - received analogues of natural fats - investigated the effect of explosives.

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BERZELIUS

Born August 20, 1779. Died August 7, 1848. Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius was born in the village of Veversund in southern Sweden. His father was the director of a school in Linköping. Discoveries - He proved the reliability of the laws of constancy of composition - introduced modern designations of chemical elements and the first formulas of chemical compounds.

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BOLTZMANN

Born February 20, 1844. Died September 5, 1906 Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann was born in Vienna in the family of an employee. Discoveries - Carried out the most important research in the field of the kinetic theory of gases, derived the law of distribution of gas molecules by velocities - for the first time applied the laws of thermodynamics to radiation processes.

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BOYLE

Born January 25, 1627 Died December 31, 1691 British physicist, chemist and theologian Robert Boyle was born in the Irish castle of Lismore. Robert was the seventh son of Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork. Discoveries - The discovery in 1660 of the law of change in the volume of air with a change in pressure - introduced into chemistry the concept of analyzing the composition of bodies - for the first time used indicators to determine acids and alkalis.

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BOR

Born October 7, 1885 Died November 8, 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1922 Danish physicist Niels Henrik David Bohr was born in Copenhagen, the second of three children of Christian Bohr and Ellen (nee Adler) Bohr. Discoveries - Theories of electrons in metals - magnetic phenomena in metals - the radioactivity of elements and the structure of the atom - brought many consequences from the nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford.

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History of Chemistry

Chemistry of antiquity. Chemistry, the science of the composition of substances and their transformations, begins with the discovery by man of the ability of fire to change natural materials. Apparently, people knew how to smelt copper and bronze, fire clay products, and get glass as far back as 4000 BC. By the 7th c. BC. Egypt and Mesopotamia became centers of dye production; In the same place, gold, silver and other metals were obtained in their pure form. From about 1500 to 350 BC distillation was used to produce dyes, and metals were smelted from ores by mixing them with charcoal and blowing air through the burning mixture. The very procedures for the transformation of natural materials were given a mystical meaning.

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Greek natural philosophy. These mythological ideas penetrated into Greece through Thales of Miletus (c. 625 - c. 547 BC), who erected all the variety of phenomena and things to a single element - water. However, Greek philosophers were not interested in the methods of obtaining substances and their practical use, but mainly in the essence of the processes taking place in the world. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Anaximenes (585-525 BC) argued that the fundamental principle of the Universe is air: when rarefied, air turns into fire, and as it thickens, it becomes water, then earth and, finally, stone. Heraclitus of Ephesus (late 6th - early 5th centuries BC) tried to explain natural phenomena by postulating fire as the first element.

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Alchemy. Alchemy is the art of improving matter through the transformation of metals into gold and the improvement of man by creating the elixir of life. In an effort to achieve the most attractive goal for them - the creation of incalculable wealth - alchemists solved many practical problems, discovered many new processes, observed various reactions, contributing to the formation of a new science - chemistry.

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Achievements of alchemy. The development of crafts and trade, the rise of cities in Western Europe 12th-13th centuries accompanied by the development of science and the emergence of industry. Alchemists' recipes were used in technological processes such as metalworking. During these years, systematic searches for methods for obtaining and identifying new substances began. There are recipes for the production of alcohol and improvements in the process of its distillation. The most important achievement was the discovery of strong acids - sulfuric, nitric. Now European chemists were able to carry out many new reactions and obtain substances such as salts of nitric acid, vitriol, alum, salts of sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. The services of alchemists, who were often skilled doctors, were used by the highest nobility. It was also believed that alchemists possessed the secret of transmuting ordinary metals into gold.

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Iatrochemistry. Completely different views on the goals of alchemy were held by Paracelsus (1493-1541). Under such a name chosen by him ("superior to Celsus"), the Swiss doctor Philipp von Hohenheim went down in history. Paracelsus, like Avicenna, believed that the main task of alchemy was not the search for ways to obtain gold, but the manufacture of medicines. He borrowed from the alchemical tradition the doctrine that there are three main parts of matter - mercury, sulfur, salt, which correspond to the properties of volatility, combustibility and hardness. These three elements form the basis of the macrocosm (Universe) and are associated with the microcosm (man) formed by the spirit, soul and body. Turning to the definition of the causes of diseases, Paracelsus argued that fever and plague come from an excess of sulfur in the body, paralysis occurs with an excess of mercury, and so on. The principle that all iatrochemists adhered to was that medicine is a matter of chemistry, and everything depends on the ability of the doctor to isolate pure principles from impure substances. Within this scheme, all the functions of the body were reduced to chemical processes, and the task of the alchemist was to find and prepare chemical substances for medical needs. The main representatives of the iatrochemical direction were Jan Helmont (1577-1644), a doctor by profession; Francis Silvius (1614-1672), who enjoyed great fame as a physician and eliminated "spiritual" principles from the iatrochemical doctrine; Andreas Libavius ​​(c. 1550-1616), physician from Rothenburg Their research contributed greatly to the formation of chemistry as an independent science.

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Technical chemistry. Scientific advances and discoveries could not but affect technical chemistry, elements of which can be found in the 15th-17th centuries. In the middle of the 15th century blower technology was developed. The needs of the military industry stimulated work to improve the technology of gunpowder production. During the 16th century the production of gold doubled and the production of silver increased ninefold. There are fundamental works on the production of metals and various materials used in construction, in the manufacture of glass, dyeing of fabrics, for the preservation of food products, and leather dressing. With the expansion of the consumption of alcoholic beverages, distillation methods are being improved, new distillation apparatuses are being designed. Numerous production laboratories appear, primarily metallurgical ones. Among the chemical technologists of that time, we can mention Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539), whose classic work On Pyrotechnics was published in Venice in 1540 and contained 10 books dealing with mines, testing minerals, preparing metals, distillation, military art and fireworks. . Another famous treatise, On Mining and Metallurgy, was written by George Agricola (1494-1555). Mention should also be made of Johann Glauber (1604-1670), a Dutch chemist, creator of Glauber's salt.

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Pneumatic chemistry. The shortcomings of the phlogiston theory were most clearly revealed during the development of the so-called. pneumatic chemistry. The largest representative of this direction was R. Boyle: he not only discovered the gas law, which now bears his name, but also designed apparatus for collecting air. Chemists got essential tool for the isolation, identification and study of various "airs". an important step was the invention by the English chemist Stephen Hales (1677-1761) of the "pneumatic bath" in the early 18th century. - a device for trapping gases released when a substance is heated, into a vessel with water, lowered upside down into a bath of water. Later, Hales and Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) established the existence of certain gases ("airs") that differ in their properties from ordinary air. In 1766, Cavendish systematically studied the gas formed during the interaction of acids with certain metals, later called hydrogen. A great contribution to the study of gases was made by the Scottish chemist Joseph Black (1728-1799). He took up the study of gases released by the action of acids on alkalis. Black found that the mineral calcium carbonate, when heated, decomposes with the release of gas and forms lime (calcium oxide). The liberated gas (carbon dioxide - Black called it "bound air") could be recombined with lime to form calcium carbonate. Among other things, this discovery established the inseparability of bonds between solid and gaseous substances.

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Atomic theory. The English chemist John Dalton (1766-1844), like the ancient atomists, proceeded from the concept of the corpuscular structure of matter, but, based on the concept of Lavoisier's chemical elements, he accepted that "atoms" (this term Dalton retained as a tribute to Democritus) of a given element are identical and are characterized, among other properties, by the fact that they have a certain weight, which he called atomic. Dalton discovered that two elements can combine with each other in different ratios, and each new combination of elements gives a new connection. In 1803 these results were generalized in the form of the law of multiple ratios. Dalton's work was published in 1808. New system chemical philosophy, where he detailed his atomic theory. In the same year, the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) published the assumption that the volumes of gases that react with each other are related to each other as simple multiples (the law of volume ratios). Unfortunately, Dalton failed to see in the conclusions of Gay-Lussac anything but an obstacle to the development of his theory, although these conclusions could be very fruitful in determining the relative atomic weights.

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Organic chemistry. Throughout the 18th century in the question of the chemical relationships between organisms and substances, scientists were guided by the doctrine of vitalism - a doctrine that considered life as a special phenomenon, subject not to the laws of the universe, but to the influence of special vital forces. This view was inherited by many scientists of the 19th century, although its foundations were shaken as early as 1777, when Lavoisier suggested that respiration is a process analogous to combustion. The first experimental evidence of the unity of the inorganic and organic worlds was obtained at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1828, the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882), heating ammonium cyanate (this compound was unconditionally classified as inorganic substances), received urea - a waste product of humans and animals. In 1845 Adolf Kolbe (1818-1884), a student of Wöhler, synthesized acetic acid from the starting elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In the 1850s, the French chemist Pierre Berthelot (1827-1907) began systematic work on the synthesis of organic compounds and obtained methyl and ethyl alcohols, methane, benzene, and acetylene. A systematic study of natural organic compounds has shown that they all contain one or more carbon atoms and very many hydrogen atoms. As a result of all these studies, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekule (1829-1896) in 1867 defined organic chemistry as the chemistry of carbon compounds. New approach to organic analysis was summarized by the German chemist Justus Liebig (1803-1873) - the creator of the famous research and teaching laboratory at the University of Giessen. In 1837, Liebig, together with the French chemist Jean Baptiste Dumas (1800-1884), refined the concept of a radical as a specific, unchanged group of atoms that is part of many organic compounds (an example is the methyl radical CH3). It became clear that the structure of large molecules could be determined only by establishing the structure of a certain number of radicals.

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Structural chemistry. In 1857, Kekule, proceeding from the theory of valence (by valence was understood as the number of hydrogen atoms that combine with one atom of a given element), suggested that carbon is tetravalent and therefore can combine with four other atoms, forming long chains - straight or branched. Therefore, organic molecules began to be depicted not as combinations of radicals, but as structural formulas - atoms and bonds between them. By the 1860s, the work of Kekule and the Russian chemist Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828-1886) laid the foundation for structural chemistry, which makes it possible to explain the properties of substances based on the arrangement of atoms in their molecules. In 1874 the Danish chemist Jacob van't Hoff (1852-1911) and the French chemist Joseph Ashille-Le Bel (1847-1930) extended this idea to the arrangement of atoms in space. They believed that molecules are not flat, but three-dimensional structures. This concept made it possible to explain many well-known phenomena, such as spatial isomerism, the existence of molecules of the same composition but with different properties. The data of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) on the isomers of tartaric acid fit very well into it. By the end of the 19th century the ideas of structural chemistry were supported by data obtained by spectroscopic methods. These methods made it possible to obtain information about the structure of molecules based on their absorption spectra. By 1900, the concept of a three-dimensional organization of molecules - both complex organic and inorganic - was accepted by almost all scientists.

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New research methods. All new ideas about the structure of matter could be formed only as a result of the development in the 20th century. experimental technique and the emergence of new research methods. The discovery in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) of X-rays served as the basis for the subsequent creation of the X-ray crystallography method, which makes it possible to determine the structure of molecules from the X-ray diffraction pattern on crystals. Using this method, the structure of complex organic compounds - insulin, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), hemoglobin, etc. was deciphered. With the creation atomic theory new powerful spectroscopic methods have appeared that provide information about the structure of atoms and molecules. Various biological processes, as well as the mechanism chemical reactions are examined using radioisotope labels; Radiation methods are also widely used in medicine.

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Biochemistry. This scientific discipline, engaged in the study of the chemical properties of biological substances, was at first one of the branches of organic chemistry. It emerged as an independent region in the last decade of the 19th century. as a result of research on the chemical properties of substances of plant and animal origin. One of the first biochemists was the German scientist Emil Fischer (1852-1919). He synthesized substances such as caffeine, phenobarbital, glucose, many hydrocarbons, introduced huge contribution into the science of enzymes - protein catalysts, first isolated in 1878. The formation of biochemistry as a science was facilitated by the creation of new analytical methods. In 1923, the Swedish chemist Theodor Svedberg (1884-1971) designed an ultracentrifuge and developed a sedimentation method for the determination molecular weight macromolecules, mainly proteins. Svedberg's assistant Arne Tiselius (1902-1971) in the same year created the method of electrophoresis - a more advanced method for separating giant molecules, based on the difference in the speed of migration of charged molecules in an electric field. At the beginning of the 20th century Russian chemist Mikhail Semenovich Tsvet (1872-1919) described a method for separating plant pigments by passing their mixture through a tube filled with an adsorbent. The method was called chromatography. In 1944, the English chemists Archer Martin (b. 1910) and Richard Sing (b. 1914) proposed a new version of the method: they replaced the adsorbent tube with filter paper. This is how paper chromatography appeared - one of the most common analytical methods in chemistry, biology and medicine, with the help of which in the late 1940s and early 1950s it was possible to analyze mixtures of amino acids resulting from the breakdown of various proteins and determine the composition of proteins. As a result of painstaking research, the order of amino acids in the insulin molecule was established (Frederick Sanger, 1953), and by 1964 this protein had been synthesized. Now many hormones, medicines, vitamins are obtained by biochemical synthesis methods.

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Industrial chemistry. Probably the most important stage in the development modern chemistry was created in the 19th century. various research centers engaged, in addition to fundamental, also applied research. At the beginning of the 20th century a number of industrial corporations created the first industrial research laboratories. In the USA, the chemical laboratory DuPont was founded in 1903, and in 1925 the laboratory of the Bell firm. After the discovery and synthesis of penicillin in the 1940s, and then other antibiotics, large pharmaceutical companies appeared, employing professional chemists. Works in the field of the chemistry of macromolecular compounds were of great practical importance. One of its founders was the German chemist Hermann Staudinger (1881-1965), who developed the theory of the structure of polymers. Intensive search for ways to obtain linear polymers led in 1953 to the synthesis of polyethylene (Karl Ziegler, 1898-1973), and then other polymers with desired properties. Today, the production of polymers is the largest branch of the chemical industry. Not all advances in chemistry have been good for man. In the 19th century in the production of paints, soaps, textiles, hydrochloric acid and sulfur were used, which posed a great danger to environment. In the 20th century the production of many organic and inorganic materials has increased due to the recycling of used substances, as well as through the processing of chemical waste that poses a risk to human health and the environment.

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Pre-alchemical period (before the 3rd century) In the pre-alchemical period, the theoretical and practical aspects of knowledge about matter developed relatively independently of each other. Practical operations with the substance were the prerogative of handicraft chemistry. The beginning of its origin should be primarily associated with the emergence and development of metallurgy. IN ancient era 7 metals were known in their pure form: copper, lead, tin, iron, gold, silver and mercury, and in the form of alloys - also arsenic, zinc and bismuth. In addition to metallurgy, the accumulation of practical knowledge took place in other areas, such as the production of ceramics and glass, the dyeing of fabrics and tanning of leather, the manufacture of medicines and cosmetics. It is on the basis of success and achievements practical chemistry antiquity, the development of chemical knowledge took place in subsequent eras.

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Pre-alchemical period (up to III century) Attempts to theoretically comprehend the problem of the origin of the properties of matter led to the formation in ancient Greek natural philosophy - the doctrine of elements-elements. The teachings of Empedocles, Plato and Aristotle had the greatest influence on the further development of science. According to these concepts, all substances are formed by a combination of four principles: earth, water, air and fire. At the same time, the elements themselves are capable of mutual transformations, since each of them, according to Aristotle, is one of the states of a single primary matter - a certain combination of qualities. The position on the possibility of the transformation of one element into another later became the basis of the alchemical idea of ​​the possibility of mutual transformations of metals (transmutation). Almost simultaneously with the doctrine of elements-elements, atomism arose in Greece, the founders of which were Leucippus and Democritus.

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ALCHEMICAL PERIOD III - XVI C.V. Alexandrian alchemy Arab alchemy European alchemy The alchemical period is the time of the search for the philosopher's stone, which was considered necessary for the transmutation of metals. Alchemical theory, based on ancient ideas about the four elements, was closely intertwined with astrology and mysticism. Along with the chemical-technical “goldmaking”, this era is also notable for the creation of a unique system of mystical philosophy. The alchemical period, in turn, is divided into three sub-periods: Alexandrian (Greco-Egyptian), Arabic and European alchemy.

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Alexandrian alchemy "Chrysopeia Cleopatra" - an image from the alchemical treatise of the Alexandrian period In Alexandria, a combination of theory (the natural philosophy of Plato and Aristotle) ​​and practical knowledge about substances, their properties and transformations took place; from this compound was born new science- chemistry

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Alexandrian alchemy The word "chemistry" itself (and the Arabic al-kīmiya) is usually considered ancient name Egypt - By whom or Khem; originally, the word, apparently, was supposed to mean something like "Egyptian art." Sometimes, the term is derived from the Greek χυμος - juice or χυμενσιζ - casting. The main objects of study of Alexandrian chemistry were metals. In the Alexandrian period, the traditional metal-planet symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven metals known then was compared with the corresponding planet: silver - the Moon, mercury - Mercury, copper - Venus, gold - the Sun, iron - Mars, tin - Jupiter, lead - Saturn. The heavenly patron of chemistry in Alexandria became egyptian god That or his Greek counterpart Hermes.

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Alexandrian alchemy Among the significant representatives of Greco-Egyptian alchemy, whose name has survived to this day, we can note Bolos Demokritos, Zosima Panopolit, Olympiodorus. Image of a distillation apparatus from the manuscript of Zosim Panopolit Zosim Panopolit dates of birth and death are unknown, probably III-IV centuries. Zosima of Panopolis was a Greco-Egyptian alchemist who worked at the Alexandria Academy. Considered one of the founders of alchemy. Born in Panopolis (now Akhmim, Egypt). Numerous mystical and allegorical writings by Zosimas were widely known among Alexandrian and, later, among medieval alchemists.

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Arabic alchemy The theoretical basis of Arabic alchemy was still the teachings of Aristotle. However, the development of alchemical practice required the creation of a new theory based on chemical properties substances. Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) at the end of the 8th century developed a mercury-sulfur theory of the origin of metals - metals are formed by two principles: Hg (the principle of metallicity) and S (the principle of combustibility). For the formation of Au - a perfect metal, it is still necessary to have some substance, which Jabir called an elixir (al-iksir, from the Greek ξεριον, that is, "dry").

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Arab alchemy The problem of transmutation, thus, within the framework of the mercury-sulfur theory was reduced to the problem of extracting an elixir, otherwise called the philosopher's stone (Lapis Philosophorum). Elixir, it was believed, was supposed to have many more magical properties- heal all diseases, and, possibly, give immortality. The mercury-sulfur theory was theoretical basis alchemy for the next few centuries. At the beginning of the 10th century, another outstanding alchemist, Ar-Razi (Razes), improved the theory by adding the principle of hardness (fragility), or philosophical Salt, to Mercury and Sulfur.

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Arab alchemy Arab alchemy, unlike that of Alexandria, was quite rational; the mystical elements in it were rather a tribute to tradition. In addition to the formation of the basic theory of alchemy, during the Arab stage, a conceptual apparatus, laboratory equipment and experimental methods were developed. Arab alchemists achieved undeniable practical successes - they isolated antimony, arsenic and, apparently, phosphorus, obtained acetic acid and dilute solutions of mineral acids. An important merit of the Arab alchemists was the creation of rational pharmacy, which developed the traditions of ancient medicine.

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European alchemy Among the largest alchemists of the European stage, one can note Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, Arnaldo de Villanova, Raymond Lull, Basil Valentin. R. Bacon defined alchemy as follows: "Alchemy is the science of how to prepare a certain composition, or elixir, which, if added to base metals, will turn them into perfect metals."

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European alchemy In Europe, elements of Christian mythology were introduced into the mythology and symbolism of alchemy (Petrus Bonus, Nicholas Flamel); in general, for European alchemy, mystical elements turned out to be much more characteristic than for Arabic. The mysticism and closed nature of European alchemy have given rise to a significant number of alchemy swindlers; already Dante Alighieri in " Divine Comedy"placed in the eighth circle of Hell those who "forged metals with alchemy." characteristic feature European alchemy was its ambiguous position in society. both ecclesiastical and secular authorities repeatedly banned the practice of alchemy; at the same time, alchemy flourished both in the monasteries and in the royal courts.

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European alchemy By the beginning of the 14th century, European alchemy had achieved its first significant successes, having managed to surpass the Arabs in comprehending the properties of matter. In 1270, the Italian alchemist Bonaventure, in one attempt to obtain a universal solvent, obtained a solution of hydrochloric and nitric acid (aqua fortis), which turned out to be capable of dissolving gold, the king of metals (hence the name - aqua Regis, that is, aqua regia). Pseudo-Geber - one of the most significant medieval European alchemists, who worked in Spain in the XIV century and signed his works with the name of Geber - described in detail concentrated mineral acids (sulfuric and nitric). The use of these acids in alchemical practice led to a significant increase in the knowledge of alchemists about the substance.

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European alchemy In the middle of the 13th century, the manufacture of gunpowder began in Europe; the first to describe it (no later than 1249) was apparently R. Bacon (often mentioned monk B. Schwartz can be considered the founder of the gunpowder business in Germany). The advent of firearms became a strong stimulus for the development of alchemy and its close interweaving with handicraft chemistry. Berthold Schwartz Berthold Schwarz

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Technical Chemistry Beginning with the Renaissance, in connection with the development of production, production and general practical direction: metallurgy, production of ceramics, glass and paints. In the first half of the 16th century, rational trends emerged in alchemy: technical chemistry, the beginning of which was laid by the works of V. Biringuccio, G. Agricola and B. Palissy, and iatrochemistry, the founder of which was Paracelsus.

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Technical chemistry Paracelsus argued that the task of alchemy is the manufacture of medicines; while the medicine of Paracelsus was based on the mercury-sulfur theory. He believed that in a healthy body, the three principles - Mercury, Sulfur and Salt - are in balance; disease represents an imbalance between principles. To restore it, Paracelsus introduced into practice medicinal preparations of mineral origin - compounds of arsenic, antimony, lead, mercury, etc. - in addition to traditional herbal preparations.

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Significance of technical chemistry Technical chemistry and iatrochemistry led directly to the creation of chemistry as a science; At this stage skills were accumulated experimental work and observations, in particular, the design of furnaces and laboratory instruments, methods of purification of substances (crystallization, distillation, etc.) were developed and improved, and new chemical preparations were obtained.

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Significance of the alchemical period The main result of the alchemical period as a whole, in addition to the accumulation of a significant stock of knowledge about matter, was the emergence of an empirical approach to the study of the properties of matter. The alchemical period became an absolutely necessary transitional stage between natural philosophy and experimental natural science.

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Formation period (XVII - XVIII centuries) The second half of the XVII century was marked by the first scientific revolution, which resulted in a new natural science, entirely based on experimental data. Creation heliocentric system world (N. Copernicus, I. Kepler), new mechanics (G. Galileo), the discovery of vacuum and atmospheric pressure(E. Torricelli, B. Pascal and O. von Guericke) led to a deep crisis in the Aristotelian physical picture of the world. F. Bacon put forward the thesis that experiment should be the decisive argument in scientific discussion; atomistic ideas were revived in philosophy (R. Descartes, P. Gassendi).

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New Chemistry One of the consequences of this scientific revolution was the creation of new chemistry, the founder of which is traditionally considered R. Boyle. Boyle, having proved the inconsistency of alchemical ideas about elements as carriers of certain qualities, set the task of finding real chemical elements for chemistry. Elements, according to Boyle, are practically indecomposable bodies, consisting of similar homogeneous corpuscles, of which all complex bodies are composed and into which they can be decomposed. Boyle considered the main task of chemistry to be the study of the composition of substances and the dependence of the properties of a substance on its composition.

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The creation of theoretical ideas about the composition of bodies that could replace the teachings of Aristotle and the mercury-sulfur theory turned out to be a very difficult task. In the last quarter of the XVII century. appeared so-called. eclectic views, the creators of which are trying to link alchemical traditions and new ideas about chemical elements (N. Lemery, I. I. Becher).

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Phlogiston theory - driving force development of the doctrine of the elements ( I half XVIII century) Proposed by the German chemist G. E. Stahl. She explained the combustibility of bodies by the presence in them of a certain material principle of combustibility - phlogiston, and considered combustion as decomposition. Summarized a wide range of facts relating to the processes of combustion and roasting of metals, served as a powerful stimulus for the development quantitative analysis complex bodies, without which it would be absolutely impossible to experimentally confirm ideas about chemical elements. It also stimulated the study of gaseous combustion products in particular and gases in general; as a result, pneumatic chemistry appeared, the founders of which were J. Black, D. Rutherford, G. Cavendish, J. Priestley and K. V. Scheele.

slide number 28

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The Chemical Revolution The process of turning chemistry into a science was completed by the discoveries of A. L. Lavoisier. With the creation of the oxygen theory of combustion by him (1777), a turning point in the development of chemistry began, called the "chemical revolution". The rejection of the theory of phlogiston required a revision of all the basic principles and concepts of chemistry, changes in the terminology and nomenclature of substances

slide number 29

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In 1789, Lavoisier published his famous textbook Elementary Course in Chemistry, based entirely on the oxygen theory of combustion and the new chemical nomenclature. He gave the first list of chemical elements in the history of new chemistry (a table of simple bodies). He chose experience, and only experience, as the criterion for determining the element, categorically rejecting any non-empirical reasoning about atoms and molecules, the very existence of which cannot be confirmed experimentally. Lavoisier formulated the law of conservation of mass, created a rational classification of chemical compounds, based, firstly, on the difference in the elemental composition of compounds and, secondly, on the nature of their properties. The chemical revolution finally gave chemistry the appearance of an independent science, dealing with the experimental study of the composition of bodies; it completed the period of formation of chemistry, marked a complete rationalization of chemistry, the final rejection of alchemical ideas about the nature of matter and its properties.

slide number 30

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The period of quantitative laws: the end of the 18th - the middle of the 19th centuries. The main result of the development of chemistry during the period of quantitative laws was its transformation into an exact science based not only on observation, but also on measurement. A number of quantitative regularities were discovered - stoichiometric laws: The law of equivalents (J. V. Richter, 1791-1798) The law of constancy of composition (J. L. Proust, 1799-1806) The law of multiple ratios (J. Dalton, 1803) The law of volume ratios , or the law of gas combination (J. L. Gay-Lussac, 1808) Avogadro's law (A. Avogadro, 1811) The law of specific heat capacities (P. L. Dulong and A. T. Petit, 1819) The law of isomorphism (E. Micherlich, 1819) The laws of electrolysis (M. Faraday, 1830s) The law of constancy of the amount of heat (G. Hess, 1840)

slide number 31

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Chemistry in the second half of the 19th century. This period is characterized by the rapid development of science: the periodic system of elements, the theory chemical structure molecules, stereochemistry, chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics; Applied inorganic chemistry and organic synthesis achieved brilliant successes. In connection with the growth in the volume of knowledge about matter and its properties, the differentiation of chemistry began - the allocation of its separate branches, acquiring the features of independent sciences.

slide number 32

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Periodic system of elements In 1869, D. I. Mendeleev published the first version of his Periodic Table and formulated the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements. Mendeleev not only stated the existence of a relationship between atomic weights and the properties of elements, but took the liberty of predicting the properties of several elements that had not yet been discovered. After Mendeleev's predictions were brilliantly confirmed, the Periodic Law began to be considered one of the fundamental laws of nature.

slide number 33

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Structural chemistry ISOMERIA - the existence of isomer compounds (ch. arr. organic), identical in composition and mol. mass, but different in physical. and chem. to you. As a result of the controversy between J. Liebig and F. Wöhler, it was established (1823) that there are two sharply different compositions of AgCNO - cyanate and silver fulminate. Wine and grape acids served as another example, after studying which I. Berzelius introduced the term "isomerism" in 1830 and suggested that the differences arise due to "a different distribution of simple atoms in a complex atom" (i.e., molecule). The true explanation of isomerism was received only in the 2nd floor. 19th century based on the theory of chem. structures of A. M. Butlerov (structural isomerism) and stereochemical. the teachings of J. G. van't Hoff (spatial isomerism). Structural isomerism is the result of differences in chem. building.

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Physical chemistry In the middle of the 19th century, the frontier area of ​​science began to develop rapidly - physical chemistry. It was started by M. V. Lomonosov, who defined and introduced the very name of this discipline into the scientific thesaurus. The subject of study of physical chemistry was chemical processes - speed, direction, accompanying thermal phenomena and the dependence of these characteristics on external conditions.

slide number 36

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Physical Chemistry The study of the thermal effects of reactions was started by A. L. Lavoisier, who, together with P. S. Laplace, formulated the first law of thermochemistry. In 1840, G. I. Hess discovered the basic law of thermochemistry (“Hess's law”). M. Berthelot and J. Thomsen in the 1860s formulated the "principle of maximum work" (Berthelot-Thomsen principle), which made it possible to foresee the fundamental feasibility of chemical interaction.

slide number 37

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In 1867, K. M. Guldberg and P. Waage discovered the law of mass action. Representing the equilibrium of a reversible reaction as the equality of two affinity forces acting in opposite directions, they showed that the direction of the reaction is determined by the product of the active masses (concentrations) of the reacting substances. The theoretical treatment of chemical equilibrium was carried out by J. W. Gibbs (1874-1878), D. P. Konovalov (1881-1884) and J. G. Van't Hoff (1884). Van't Hoff also formulated the principle of moving equilibrium, which was later generalized by A. L. Le Chatelier and C. F. Brown. The creation of the doctrine of chemical equilibrium became one of the main achievements of physical chemistry of the 19th century, which was important not only for chemistry, but for the entire natural science of K.M. Guldberg and P. Waage Henri-Louis Le Chatelier

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. After the discovery of the divisibility of the atom and the establishment of the nature of the electron as its component, real prerequisites arose for the development of theories of chemical bonding. In the late 20s - early 30s of the XX century, fundamentally new - quantum mechanical - ideas about the structure of the atom and the nature of the chemical bond were formed. The quantum mechanical approach to the structure of the atom has led to the creation of new theories that explain the formation of bonds between atoms.

slide number 40

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. In 1929, F. Hund, R. S. Mulliken, and J. E. Lennard-Jones laid the foundation for the molecular orbital method, based on the concept of the complete loss of individuality of atoms combined into a molecule. Hund also created modern classification chemical bonds; in 1931, he came to the conclusion that there are two main types of chemical bonds - a simple, or σ-bond, and a π-bond. E. Hückel extended the MO method to organic compounds, having formulated in 1931 the rule of aromatic stability, establishing the belonging of a substance to the aromatic series

slide number 41

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. Thanks to quantum mechanics, by the 30s of the 20th century, the method of forming a bond between atoms was basically clarified; in addition, within the framework of the quantum mechanical approach, Mendeleev's theory of periodicity received a correct physical interpretation. The creation of a reliable theoretical foundation has led to a significant increase in the possibilities of predicting the properties of matter. A feature of chemistry in the 20th century was the widespread use of the physical and mathematical apparatus and various calculation methods.

slide number 42

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. A real revolution in chemistry was the emergence in the 20th century of a large number of new analytical methods, primarily physical and physicochemical (X-ray diffraction analysis, electronic and vibrational spectroscopy, magnetochemistry and mass spectrometry, EPR and NMR spectroscopy, chromatography, etc.). These methods provided new opportunities for studying the composition, structure, and reactivity of a substance.

slide number 43

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. A distinctive feature of modern chemistry has been its close interaction with other natural sciences, as a result of which biochemistry, geochemistry, and other branches have appeared at the intersection of sciences. Simultaneously with this process of integration, the process of differentiation of chemistry itself proceeded intensively. Although the boundaries between sections of chemistry are rather arbitrary, colloidal and coordination chemistry, crystal chemistry and electrochemistry, the chemistry of macromolecular compounds, and some other sections have acquired features of independent sciences.

slide number 44

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Modern period: from the beginning of the XX century. A natural consequence of the improvement of chemical theory in the 20th century was new successes in practical chemistry - the catalytic synthesis of ammonia, the production of synthetic antibiotics, polymeric materials, etc. The successes of chemists in obtaining substances with desired properties, among other achievements of applied science, by the end of the 20th century led to fundamental changes in the life of mankind.

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Slides captions:

History of chemistry

It originated in Alexandria at the end of the 4th century BC. Ancient Egypt is considered the birthplace of alchemy.

the heavenly patron of science is the Egyptian god Thoth, an analogue of the Greco-Roman Hermes-Mercury, the messenger of the gods, the god of trade, deceit

In the early Christian era, alchemy was declared a heresy and disappeared from Europe for a long time. It was adopted by the Arabs who conquered Egypt. They finalized and expanded the theory of the transformation of metals. The idea of ​​an "elixir" capable of turning base metals into gold was born.

Philosopher's Stone

Aristotle

The most important alchemical signs

Alchemist's instruments

Discoveries of alchemists Oxides Acids Salts Methods for obtaining ores and minerals

The Teaching of the Four Cold Heat Dry Humidity The Four Principles of Nature The Four Elements Earth Fire Air Water Solubility Flammability Metallicity

Preparing the "elixir" Preparing the universal solvent Restoring plants from the ashes Preparing the world spirit - a magical substance, one of the properties of which was the ability to dissolve gold Preparing liquid gold Alchemists' tasks:

Alchemy 12th-14th century Ritual-magical experiments Development of certain laboratory techniques Synthetic art, with which a specific thing is made (practical chemistry)

Alchemy 16th century Iatrochemistry (science of drugs) Technical chemistry

Artisans Panacea - a medicine that supposedly heals all diseases Metallurgy Paracelsus The development of alchemy "Chemistry is one of the pillars on which medical science should rely. The task of chemistry is not at all to make gold and silver, but to prepare medicines."

Development of scientific chemistry (mid-17th century)

M.V. Lomonosov (18th century) Atomic and molecular theory Theory of solutions Studied minerals Creates colored glass (mosaic)

Discoveries of the elements (early 19th century) Aluminum Barium Magnesium Silicon alkali metals Halogens Heavy metals

Discoveries of the 17th - 19th centuries 1663 Robert Boyle used indicators to detect acids and alkalis 1754 J. Black discovered carbon dioxide 1775 Antoine Lavoisier described in detail the properties of oxygen 1801 John Dalton studied the phenomenon of diffusion of gases

Jens Jakob Berzelius (1818) Introduced modern chemical symbolism Determined the atomic masses of known elements

Spectral Analysis (1860) Discoveries: India Rubidium Thallium Cesium

The discovery of the periodic law (1869) Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - creator periodic system chemical elements

M.V. Lomonosov “Chemistry stretches its hands wide into human affairs ... Wherever we look, wherever we look, everywhere we turn before our eyes the successes of its diligence”

The modern laboratory is an alchemist's dream!

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