Brief dictionary of geographical concepts and terms. Definitions in geography "geographical concepts" All geographical concepts

The fascinating subject of geography is scientific direction that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. Geography word in literal translation from ancient Greek means "description of the earth". The following is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies physical features Earth and the environment, including the impact of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialty. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps the surrounding area, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places on the Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized, and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a major discipline at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software revolutionized science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as the branch of geography that includes the study natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on the Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes physical characteristics external appearance of the earth.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study chemical composition marine waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Every geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physical and geographical features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at different points in time geological history Earth. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
• Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial point of view.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on the topography and ecosystem of the coast.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth ( geographical history Earth spanning the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures in the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
• Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographic space.
• Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact geographical location on the health and well-being of people.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
• Geography settlements: researches urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and interdependence between humans and animals.

To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune - you should learn geography well. You will find the definition of the word and its meaning in this article. In addition, you will find out what one of the ancient sciences and what are its main features.

What is geography: definition and meaning of the term

Geography is the oldest of the existing scientific disciplines. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. In the sphere of her interests - the seas and oceans, mountains and plains, as well as society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the environment.

The definition of the concept of "geography" is impossible without the interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as "description of the earth". The term consists of two Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (I write, describe).

In the third century BC (when geography was born as a science), this term was quite consistent with the essence. Ancient Greek thinkers were really engaged in “description of the earth”, without going too far into the subtleties natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.

What does science do present stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. Definition of this scientific discipline you will find further in our article.

Early history of geographical science

So, as we have already figured out, the term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps of the area. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development gradually moved to the Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a lot of new lands, but also made many important innovative discoveries.

The Chinese civilization also greatly contributed to the development of geographical science. Particularly instrumental. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.

The most famous representatives early period in the history of geographical science:

• Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
• Claudius Ptolemy.
• Strabo.
• Muhammad al-Idrisi.
• Ibn Battuta.

The development of geography in the XVI-XX centuries

During the era of the European Renaissance, the vast empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the "science of land description", and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of a geographer arose in society.

In the 18th century this science begin to study at universities as a separate discipline. In the first half of the 19th century, Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Today, thanks to satellite technologies and the latest geographic information systems, geography is entering a completely new stage in its development.

Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of European geographical science:

• Gerhard Mercator.
• Alexander von Humboldt.
• Carl Ritter.
• Walter Crystaller.
• Vasily Dokuchaev.

Definition of geography as a science

“A linear representation of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, large cities, peoples, significant rivers.” This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get a unique opportunity to "view the entire Earth in one picture."

IN early XIX century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed to replace "description of the earth" with the term "geography". By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). “The territory influences the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory” - Ritter expressed this fair thought back in 1804.

Another German scientist Hermann Wagner gave the following definition of geography: it is the science of the power of space, which is manifested in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.

An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseniy Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the limits of the dwelling allotted to him by nature.

There are many other interesting interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographical shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will go into more detail about what this is in the next section.

The geographic area is...

Under the geographical shell is meant the shell of the planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:

• Troposphere.
• Earth's crust.
• Hydrospheres.
• Biosphere.

At the same time, all these "spheres" are in close interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographic shell of the Earth was first described in 1910 by the Russian scientist P. I. Brounov.

Within the geographic envelope, there is a constant and continuous process of movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly enters the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth's crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter the water bodies.

The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the sole earth's crust, the top - at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the geographic envelope of the Earth is approximately 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin "film" that is precisely the main object of study for geographical science.

Structure of geographical science

Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science, which includes dozens of particular disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first is studying general patterns the development and existence of the geographical shell and its individual parts, and the second one is engaged in the study of the processes of interaction between society and the natural environment.

Among the physical and geographical disciplines, the following stand out:

• Geodesy.
• Geomorphology.
• Hydrology.
• Oceanology.
• Landscape science.
• Soil science.
• Paleogeography.
• Climatology.
• Glaciology, etc.

Among the socio-geographical sciences, it is customary to single out the following disciplines:

• Demography.
• Economical geography.
• Geopolitics.
• Geography of culture.
• medical geography.
• Geourbanistics.
• Political geography.
• Country studies, etc.

The main problems and discussions of modern geography

Oddly enough, the question “what is geography?” remains one of the most complex and controversial among representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it should set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the present generation of geographers.

In addition, theoretical geography is trying today to solve a number of other problems. actual problems. The most important ones include the following:

• The problem of the loss of interest in geography in society.
• The problem of "withering away" of such purely practical disciplines like melioration, land management, soil science.
• Problem general classification geographical science.
• Definition of a number of key concepts: “ geographical envelope”, “landscape”, “geosystem”, etc.

IN Lately such a fresh direction as "constructive geography" is gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into a practical and useful one.

Finally

Geography is one of the oldest sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today, geography is an independent scientific branch that is engaged in a deep and comprehensive study of the geographic envelope of the Earth, from processes in the thickness of the earth's crust to human production activities.

Geography is one of the oldest sciences in the world. Even primitive people studied their area, drew the first primitive maps on the walls of their caves. Of course modern science Geography sets itself quite different tasks. What exactly? What is she studying? And what is the definition of this science?

Definition of geography: main problems and difficulties

If physics teaches "how", history explains "when" and "why", then geography tells "where". Of course, this is a very simplified view of the subject.

Geography is a very old science. The term itself has ancient Greek roots and is literally translated as "description of the earth". And its foundation was laid precisely in antiquity. The first scientist-geographer is called Claudius Ptolemy, who in the second century published a book with an unambiguous title: "Geography". The work consisted of eight volumes.

Among other scientists who made a solid contribution to the development of geography as a science, it is worth highlighting Gerhard Mercator, Alexander Humboldt, Karl Ritter, Walter Kristaller, Vladimir Vernadsky,

An accurate and unified definition of geography is still a rather difficult task. According to one of several interpretations, the sciences that study various aspects of the functioning and structure of the geographical There is another definition of geography, according to which this science studies the patterns of distribution of any phenomenon on the earth's surface. But Professor V.P. Budanov wrote that although it is very difficult to determine the content of geography, its object, without a doubt, is the surface of everything. the globe.

Geography as a science of the geographic shell of the Earth

Nevertheless, the main object of study is the geographic envelope of the Earth. Domestic science gives the following definition of this term. is an integral and continuous shell of the planet Earth, which consists of five structural parts:

• lithosphere;
• hydrosphere;
• atmosphere;
• biosphere;
• anthroposphere.

Moreover, all of them are in close and constant interaction, exchanging matter, energy and information.

The geographic envelope has its own parameters (thickness - about 25-27 kilometers), and also has certain patterns. Among these are integrity (the unity of components and structures), rhythm (periodic repetition of natural phenomena), latitudinal zonality, altitudinal zonality.

Structure of geographical science

The distinction between the natural and the bold line has passed through the "body" of the once unified geographical science, scattering its individual disciplines into completely different planes of scientific research. Thus, some physiographic branches are more closely related to physics or chemistry than to population or economics.

The geography of the Earth is divided into two major disciplines.

1. Physical.
2. Social and economic.

The first group includes hydrography, climatology, geomorphology, glaciology, soil geography, and others. It is not difficult to guess that they are engaged in the study of natural objects. The second group includes population, urban studies (the science of cities), regional studies and others.

Connections with other sciences

How closely is geography related to other sciences? What place does it occupy in the system of scientific disciplines?

Geography has the closest links with such sciences as mathematics, history, physics and chemistry, economics, biology and psychology. Like any other discipline, it is also genetically related to philosophy and logic.

It is worth noting that some of these interscientific links were so strong that they gave rise to completely new so-called cross-cutting disciplines. These include the following:

• cartography (geography + geometry);
• toponymy (geography + linguistics);
• historical geography (geography + history);
• soil science (geography + chemistry).

The main geographical problems at the present stage of development of science

Strange as it may sound, but one of the most important geographical problems is the definition of geography as a science. Moreover, methodologists and theorists have become so carried away with solving this problem that the question has already arisen, does such a science exist at all?

In the 21st century, the role of the prognostic function of geographical science has increased. With the help of a huge amount of analytical and factual data, various geomodels (climatic, geopolitical, environmental, etc.) are built.

The main task of geography at the present stage is not only to realize the deep connections between natural phenomena and social processes, but also learn to predict them. Geourbanistics is one of the most important branches of science today. The world's urban population is growing every year. Largest cities planets face new problems and challenges that require immediate and constructive solutions.

Altitude- the height of any point on the earth's surface above sea level.

Azimuth - the angle between the direction of north and the direction of the given object.

Icebergs, ice mountains- large fragments of continental glaciers that float in the ocean.

artesian waters– pressure interstratal waters.

Archipelago- a group of islands in the ocean or sea, having the same origin and located close to each other.

Atoll- a ring-shaped coral island with a shallow pool located inside it.

river basin, river basin- the area from which the river collects water.

Endorheic lakes - lakes without river flow. Rivers do not originate from such lakes.

inland seas- seas that cut deep into the land; are connected to the ocean or adjacent sea by straits.

Waterfall- the fall of water from a ledge created in the riverbed.

Watershed- the boundary between river basins.

Reservoirs - artificial lakes on rivers created by damming.

Land waters- these are the waters of rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and waters in the upper part of the earth's crust. They are divided into surface and underground.

uplands- flat areas of land, which are located at absolute heights from 200 to 500 m.

hollows- closed areas of land located below sea level.

Volcanism- a set of processes associated with the introduction of magma into the thickness of the earth's crust or its exit to the earth's surface.

Volcanic lakes, crater lakes- lakes in the craters of volcanoes.

Volcanoes- mountains that are formed when rising from the bowels of the Earth and eruption on its surface of magma and other volcanic products.

Weathering- mechanical and chemical change of rocks on the earth's surface or near it under the influence of fluctuations in temperature, air, water and organisms. It is physical, chemical and biological.

Geyser- periodically gushing hot spring.

Geographic longitude- distance in degrees from the prime meridian to the west or east to the given point. There is western and eastern.

Geographic map- a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane using conventional signs.

Geographic latitude- distance in degrees from the equator north or south to any point. It happens north and south.

Geographic poles- points of intersection of the imaginary earth's axis with the surface of the globe.

Geography- the science of the natural conditions of the earth's surface (physical geography), the population of the Earth and its economic activity (economic geography).

Hydrosphere – water shell Earth. Its main components are the oceans and land waters.

deep sea trenches- long narrow depressions of the ocean floor with depths over 6000 m.

Contours- lines on the map that connect points with the same absolute height.

mountain country, mountains- a vast area of ​​the earth's surface, which is elevated above sea level above 500 m and is characterized by significant and sharp fluctuations in altitude over relatively short distances. By absolute height, low, medium and high mountains are distinguished.

mountain glaciers- glaciers in the mountains; have a variety of shapes.

Rocks- natural mineral formations that make up the earth's crust. They are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

mountain rivers- rivers of mountainous countries with narrow rocky valleys and fast currents.

Graticule- a grid of parallels and meridians on the globe and map.

ground water- groundwater of the first permanent aquifer from the surface, which is not covered from above by a continuous waterproof layer.

Delta- the mouth of the river in the form of a triangle. Usually formed in shallow areas of the sea or lake at the confluence of a river that carries a large number of sediment.

Valley mountain glaciers- glaciers in the mountains, having the form in the form of ice streams moving down from the feeding areas along mountain valleys.

volcano mouth- a channel through which magma erupts to the surface of the Earth.

Environmental pollution- change in the properties of the environment as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) intake of various substances.

gulf- a part of the ocean or sea that protrudes into the land, but has a free exchange of water with the rest of the body of water and differs slightly from it in natural conditions.

Dam lakes, platinum lakes- lakes that have arisen as a result of overlapping, damming, cluttering up the valley with a mountain landslide, lava flow, glacier or its deposits.

earthquakes- sharp tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface.

Earth's crust- the upper solid stone shell of the Earth.

isobaths- lines on the map that connect points of the same depth of the bottom of the oceans, seas and lakes.

artificial lakes- lakes created by man (ponds, reservoirs).

river source- the beginning of the river.

source, spring, key- a natural outlet to the earth's surface of groundwater.

Karst- a set of processes associated with the dissolution of surface and groundwater rocks.

Karst lakes- lakes resulting from the dissolution of limestone, gypsum, dolomite with water.

Vibrational movements of the earth's crust- Slow ups and downs of the earth's crust.

Crater- a bowl-shaped depression at the top of a volcano or on its slope, through which volcanic products (magma, gases, etc.) erupt.

Lava- magma that has poured onto the earth's surface.

Map legend- a set of symbols used on the map with explanations.

Glacier- a natural accumulation of ice on the earth's surface, which has independent movement.

Glacial lakes- lakes formed by glaciers.

Lithosphere- the upper shell of the Earth, covering the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle.

Ocean bed- the actual ocean floor with the earth's crust of the oceanic type.

Magma- molten fiery mass, which is saturated with water vapor and gases. Formed in the bowels of the Earth.

Mantle of the Earth the earth's shell located between the earth's crust and the earth's core.

Scale- the ratio of the length of the line in the drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line on the ground.

Continents, continents- large areas of land, surrounded on all or almost all sides by oceans and seas.

Continental shelf, shelf- an underwater slightly inclined shallow plain up to a depth of 200 meters.

continental slope- part of the bottom of the World Ocean, located between the shelf and the ocean floor at a depth of 200 to 2500-3000 m.

low water- the period with the lowest stable water level in the river. It happens in summer and winter.

Interstratal waters- groundwater that occurs between water-resistant layers.

meridians- lines on the globe and maps, conditionally drawn on the surface of the Earth and connecting the poles.

World Ocean- all the water space of the globe outside the land.

Monitoring - observation and control over the state of the natural environment, its individual components and their change by man.

Sea- a part of the ocean, separated by land and underwater uplifts from the rest of the ocean's water space and having its own natural conditions.

Moraine- solid clastic material that is transported and deposited by a glacier.

Sea currents, ocean currents- horizontal movement of water masses in the oceans and seas in the form of huge streams that move along certain paths.

Flood- flooding with water of the area located in the river valley above the floodplain.

uplands- a large part of a mountainous country, which includes both mountain ranges and plateaus.

Lowland- a plain with an absolute height of up to 200 m.

ravines- deep ruts (ditches) with steep slopes, formed by temporary water flows - storm and melt water.

Lake- a natural closed depression of land filled with water. They differ in the origin of lake basins, flow and salinity.

oceans- large parts of the oceans, separated by continents.

marginal seas- seas that cut shallowly into the land, are widely connected with the ocean and separated from it by islands, peninsulas and underwater uplifts.

Landslides- shifts, downward sliding of rock masses on steep slopes under the influence of gravity.

Orientation on the ground- determination of one's position in relation to the sides of the horizon and local objects.

Islands- small, compared to the continents, land areas, surrounded on all sides by water. By origin, they are continental, volcanic and coral.

Elevation and depth marks- figures on maps and terrain plans showing the absolute heights of the land and the depths of the oceans, seas, lakes.

Relative height - the excess of one point on the earth's surface over another.

high water- a rapid, but short-term rise in the water level in the river.

Parallels- lines conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth parallel to the equator.

rifts- Shallow sections of the riverbed.

isthmus- a relatively narrow strip of land in the body of water. Connects different areas of land.

River feeding- flow of water into rivers. There are rain, glacial, underground and mixed feeding of rivers.

Terrain plan- a reduced conditional image of a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface in a drawing, made on a certain scale.

Plesy- the deeper parts of the riverbed between the shallower ones.

Plateau - a large flat area of ​​land with an absolute height of over 500 m.

surface water- waters carried by streams and rivers, concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, swamps and glaciers.

Underwater margin of the continents- part of the bottom of the oceans, which includes the continental shelf and the slope.

The groundwater- waters located in the pores, voids and cracks of rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust (up to a depth of 12-16 km).

floodplain- the lower part of the river valley, flooded with water during the flood.

Cover glaciers, continental glaciers- glaciers in the form of domes or shields that cover the surface of the land, regardless of the relief.

Minerals, mineral resources - natural mineral formations in the earth's crust, which are mined and used by man.

high water- a high and prolonged rise in the water level in the river, accompanied by flooding of the floodplain.

Polynyas- non-freezing sections of the river in winter.

Peninsula - a piece of land that extends into a body of water and is surrounded by water on three sides.

thresholds- shallow rocky or rocky areas in the riverbed with a fast current. Formed as a result of the release of solid rocks.

Fresh lakes- lakes, the content of dissolved salts in which is less than 1 g per liter of water.

Ebb and flow- periodic rises and falls in the water level in the oceans and seas. Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun.

strait- a relatively narrow body of water that separates land and connects separate parts of the oceans.

Pond- a small artificial lake in the valley of a river, a ravine, a beam and in other depressions in the relief, which was formed by building a dam or digging a foundation pit.

Plains- large areas of land and the ocean floor with relatively small fluctuations in relative heights. By the nature of the surface are flat and hilly, in absolute height they are represented by lowlands, uplands and plateaus.

lowland rivers- rivers of the plain with wide river valleys and a smooth, calm course.

River regime - change in the state of the river over time (change in water level, flow rate, water temperature, etc.). High water, low water, floods are usually distinguished.

River- a natural water stream that flows constantly in the same place.

Land reclamation is the restoration of lands disturbed by human activities.

Relief- a set of irregularities of the earth's surface.

river valley- a longitudinally elongated depression from the sources to the mouth, created or modified by the river.

river system a river with its tributaries.

river plains- plains formed by river sediments.

Riverbed A depression in a river valley through which the waters of a river flow.

Snow border (line)- the absolute height above which snowfall exceeds its melting. Snow accumulates and turns into ice. At the snow border, as much snow falls as it can melt.

Salinity of water- the total amount of all salts in grams contained in 1 liter. Or 1 kg of water.

Salt lakes, mineral lakes– lakes with a content of more than 24 g of dissolved substances per liter of water.

brackish lakes- lakes, in which the content of dissolved salts is from 1 to 24 g per liter of water.

mid-ocean ridges- powerful mountain structures at the bottom of the oceans with volcanism and earthquakes.

Staritsy- lakes in old riverbeds, usually crescent-shaped.

Waste lakes- lakes with river runoff. Rivers originate from them.

tectonic lakes- lakes formed as a result of movements of the earth's crust, its lowering along cracks or troughs.

Terrikon - a cone-shaped dump of waste rock near mine workings (for example, coal mines).

river mouth A place where a river flows into another river, lake or sea.

Gorge- a narrow and deep mountain valley with steep slopes.

Tsunami- large sea waves that occur as a result of powerful underwater earthquakes, sometimes - underwater volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world- continents or their parts and located near the island.

Height and depth scale - color scale on physical maps and globes, with the help of which heights and depths are determined.

Equator - a line on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the globe at the same distance from the geographic poles.

Earth's core- the central part of the Earth, located below the mantle.