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General geography is one of the fundamental geographical sciences. It cannot be regarded as an introduction to physical geography.
In essence, this is a methodological introduction to the world of geography as a whole. The doctrine of the geographical shell is the prism that helps to determine the geographical affiliation of the studied objects, processes and entire scientific disciplines. For example, Earth's crust, if you study only it physical properties, is a subject of geophysics; the earth's crust from the point of view of its composition, structure and development is studied by geology; and the same earth's crust as a structural part of the geographic envelope is studied by geography, more precisely, by general geography. The same applies to the atmosphere, which is studied by the geophysical science of meteorology.
1 Gagarin Yu. I see the Earth. M., 1971. S. 56.
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rology. However, its lower layers (troposphere), which are part of the geographic shell, serve as climate carriers and are studied by one of the branch geographical disciplines - climatology. The principles and methods of studying the geographic envelope as an integral dynamic system are cross-cutting for all other physical and geographical sciences - regional studies and branch studies. The systemic approach with the analysis of the relationships between the structural parts of the object, which is widely used in establishing the laws of general geography, retains its significance in all divisions of not only physical, but also economic geography.
Modern geography, like biology, chemistry, physics and other fundamental sciences, is a complex system of different time scientific disciplines. What is the place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences? In answering this question, let us make one clarification. Each science has a different object of study and subject of study. At the same time, the subject of the study of science becomes the object of study of the whole system of sciences at a lower classification level. There are four such classification stages - taxa: cycle, family, genus, species (Fig. 1).
Together with geography, the cycle of Earth sciences includes biology, geoscience, geophysics, geochemistry. All these sciences have one object study- Earth, but each of them has its own subject of study. In biology it is organic life, in geochemistry it is chemical composition Earth, geology - its bowels, and geography - the earth's surface as an inseparable complex of natural and social origin. At the level of the cycle, we see the objective essence of the unity of geography, which V. A. Anuchin (1960) wrote about a long time ago. Geography is isolated in the cycle of Earth sciences not by one subject of study, but also by the main method - descriptive. The oldest and common to all geographical sciences, the descriptive method continues to become more complex and improved along with the development of science. The very name of geography (from the Greek ge-Earth and grapho - I write), contains both the subject and the main method of studying this science.
Geography at the cycle level is an undivided geography, the ancestor of all other geographical sciences. It studies the most general patterns and is called undivided because its conclusions equally apply to all subsequent divisions of geographical science.
The family of geographical sciences is formed by physical and economic geography, regional studies, cartography, history and methodology of geographical science. All of them have one object of study - the earth's surface, while the subjects of study are different. The subject of study of physical geography is the geographic shell of the Earth, economic geography - economy and population in the form of territorial socio-economic systems. Science
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[,Landscape] sphere
Landscape regional studies General landscape management Landscape morphology Landscape mapping Landscape geophysics Landscape geochemistry I 1 Landscape biophysics
Type of landscape science
Rice. 1. The place of general geography in the system classification of geographic
Sciences
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geographic family are in one way or another connected with the sciences of other families of the cycle of Earth sciences. Physical geography is unthinkable without knowledge of the fundamentals of geology, biology, and geophysics. Particularly distant "off-cycle" relationships are characteristic of economic geography - social science, which is largely based on the laws of political economy. And yet it is most closely connected with physical geography, its "neighbor" in the family of sciences. One has to regret that in the recent past a lot of effort was expended not on the search for systemic relationships between physical geography and economic geography, but on their differences, even opposition, which led to a break in these closely related sciences.
The synthesis of physical geography with economic geography finds the most complete expression in regional studies. At the family level, it has a general geographic - triune (nature, population, economy) - character. One of the best country studies monographs of this type is “Kyrgyzstan” (1946) by S. N. Ryazantsev, “ Central Europe"E. Martonne (1938), "North America" by A. Boli (1948), "India and Pakistan" by O. Speight (1957).
In the family of geographical sciences, a special place is occupied by the history and methodology of geographical science. This is not a traditional story geographical discoveries, and the history of geographical ideas (of course, against the backdrop of expanding geographical discoveries), the history of the formation of modern methodological foundations geographical science. The first experience of creating a lecture course on the history and methodology of geographical science belongs to Yu. G. Ca-ushkin (1976).
First of all, geography is a basic geographical discipline on which such sections of geography as biogeography, space geography, climatology, as well as soil science, meteorology and oceanology are based. Thus, without a clear understanding of the tasks and tools of this discipline, a qualitative study of other disciplines is impossible.
Object of study
Geography and geography study the Earth, its surface and structure, and also monitor all the processes that occur in the human environment. Modern scientists refer to geography as a natural science block of geographical disciplines along with paleogeography, hydrology and soil science.
The main object of interest of geologists is the geographic shell of the Earth, which has an extremely complex structure and consists of several spheres, each of which has its own structural features. Today, the main objects of study of geography are the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
It is worth noting that each of these areas is studied by independent science, but the entire shell as a single holistic formation, which has an internal consistent structure and its own laws of functioning, is studied precisely by geography.
Research methods in geography
All diversity scientific methods geography - these are general scientific methods, interdisciplinary and specific. The complexity of each of these methods is due to the complexity of the object under study.
The most productive scheme for studying the earth's shell is considered to be the one in which various methods. For example, it is considered reasonable to combine historical analysis and In addition, the development of modern computer technology makes it possible to use such effective method Earth exploration like simulation.
What makes modeling effective is the fact that today scientists have a huge amount of data on the state of ecology, climate and hydrology, and thanks to the big data method they can generalize all the information they have, drawing important conclusions.
Origin of the Earth
Grade 6 geography also pays attention to how the formation of the planet took place. Today, scientists, thanks to the modeling method and the available data, have a fairly clear idea that the planet was formed from a gas-dust cloud, which, as it cooled, formed planets and small space objects such as meteorites.
In addition, Grade 6 Geography and Geography study the continents and oceans, as well as the tectonic platforms that form the earth's crust. It is worth paying attention to the fact that the thickness of the crust varies depending on whether it is measured on the continent or on the ocean floor.
The continental crust consists of granite, basalt and sedimentary layers and reaches a thickness of 40-50 kilometers. At the same time, the thickness of the earth's crust on the ocean floor does not exceed six kilometers.
Earth's hydrosphere
The hydrosphere of the planet is one of those shells that are studied by geography. This is one of the most important spheres for human life, since without clean water a person cannot live for a long time, at the same time, a significant number of the world's inhabitants do not have regular access to clean, high-quality drinking water. The entire hydrosphere of the earth consists of groundwater, rivers, lakes, oceans, seas and glaciers.
Groundwater refers to all sources and reservoirs of water located under the earth's surface. The beds of underground reservoirs are water-resistant layers of the earth's crust, which are clay deposits and granites.
Rivers are natural streams of water that move from a source located on a hill to a mouth located in a lowland. The rivers are fed by melt water, rains and underground springs. An important feature The river as a natural body of water is considered to be that it moves along the channel, which itself paves for a long time.
There are several great rivers on the planet that have a huge impact on the development of culture and the productive forces of mankind. These rivers include the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Amazon, Volga, Yenisei and Colorado, as well as some other full-flowing rivers.
Biosphere of the Earth
Earth science is not only the science of the structure of the earth's shell and the physical processes taking place in the earth's crust, but also a discipline that studies the development and interaction of large biological communities. The modern biosphere consists of tens of thousands of different ecosystems, each of which was formed in unique natural and historical conditions.
It should be noted that the biological mass is distributed on the Earth extremely unevenly. Most of the many millions of species of living organisms are concentrated in places where there is enough oxygen, sunlight and nutrients - i.e. on the surface of the earth and in the upper layers of the earth's crust and ocean.
However, recent scientific evidence suggests that life also exists at the bottom of the oceans, and even in the permafrost of Antarctica.
Purpose of the course
Course objectives
The development of natural science in the ancient period of history.
It is very difficult to single out the point of origin of natural science. Already in ancient times, people tried to understand and explain the natural world to themselves. Knowledge of its laws was necessary for them, first of all, in practical terms (preparation for the change of seasons, for the seasons of drought, rains and river floods, knowledge of the signs of soil fertility, climatic features, and so on). Thus, "the need to calculate the periods of rise and fall of the waters in the Nile created Egyptian astronomy, and at the same time the dominance of the caste of priests as leaders of agriculture."
Significant knowledge was accumulated in mechanics, medicine, botany, and zoology. A special place among the sciences of nature was occupied by astronomy, which equally satisfied both the practical needs and the ideological needs of an inquisitive mind. Already in 1800 BC, under the ruler Hammurabi, an extensive catalog of stars existed in Babylon, and in the 8th century. BC. established a regular astronomical service.
The special place of astronomy was due to the fact that its tasks also included astrological divination, which had an appropriate "ideological base". The thinking of ancient peoples is characterized by ideas about the consubstantiality of all elements of the surrounding world - people, plants, animals, celestial bodies.
No less than practical needs, the origin and development of science is also due to ideological stimuli. Being no less, if not more inquisitive than now, people of distant antiquity tried to compensate for the lack of knowledge with a flight of imagination, bold conjectures, embodied in the beautiful mythologies of Egypt, Babylon and Sumer, China, India, ancient Greece. In the minds of that era, there was a bizarre interweaving of scientific observations, mythology and religion; myths, fairy tales, epos served as a receptacle for knowledge, many components of which are lost in attempts to “translate” the knowledge contained in them “into our language”.
The conditions of aristocratic Greece, with a relatively soft and humane slave system, were unique for the creation of natural-philosophical systems that comprehend and describe the world as a whole. Of course, they made up for the lack of scientific data with a flight of imagination. This path gave rise not only to the "three pillars" on which the Earth rests, but also to such conjectures as the concept of atoms.
In ancient ideas about nature, the path “from myth to logos” is clearly traced, to the search for internal patterns and mechanisms. natural phenomena, the logic of their relationships.
So if in Homer and Hesiod many natural phenomena occur according to the whims and whims of the vengeful gods, then the philosopher Anaximander already has the motive of “dominance in the world of cosmic justice, which moderates the struggle of opposites.”
A. Humboldt's law of altitudinal bioclimatic zonation (1850s)
The attention of naturalists and geographers has long been attracted by the change soil and vegetation as you climb the mountains. The first to draw attention to this as a general pattern was the German naturalist A. Humboldt. Altitudinal zonality is a natural change natural conditions, natural areas, landscapes in the mountains.
In contrast to the plains in the mountains, both flora and fauna are 2-5 times richer in species. The number of altitudinal belts in the mountains depends on the height of the mountains and on their geographical position.
The nature of altitudinal zonality changes depending on the exposure of the slope, and also as the mountains move away from the ocean. In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. For mountains in the central regions of the mainland, treeless landscapes are typical.
Each high-altitude landscape belt surrounds mountains from all sides, but the system of tiers on opposite slopes of the ridges can differ dramatically.
Geographical law of K. Baer (1860s)
K. Baer's law is a provision according to which rivers flowing in the direction of the meridian in the Northern Hemisphere shift the channel to the right (wash away the right bank), and in the South - to the left (wash away the left bank). Formulated by K. M. Baer in 1857, who associated this phenomenon with the rotation of the Earth around its axis. It is known that a body moving translationally in a rotating system experiences Coriolis acceleration. At the equator it is zero. Its highest values are at the poles. Therefore, Baer's law is more pronounced in middle and high latitudes. The effect of Baer's law is directly proportional to the mass of moving water, therefore it is most pronounced on such large rivers as the Volga, Dnieper, Don, Ob, Irtysh, Lena, Danube and Nile, which in many areas have a high right and low left bank. In the valleys of small rivers, this pattern is practically not manifested.
Natural resources are components of nature that are used by man at a given level of development of civilization in economic activity.
The structure of the earth.
25. Features of the terrain plan, geographical map, globe, aerospace image, as spatial models of the Earth.
Terrain plan- a drawing of a small area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain on a large scale and in conventional signs, built without taking into account the curvature of the earth's surface.
Geographic map - a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built according to certain mathematical laws in the system of symbols. The map shows the location of natural phenomena, their properties, relationships, man-made environment. A geographical map is not a reduced copy of the area, unlike a plan. It is possible to distort and apply only the necessary important objects.
globe- a reduced model of the Earth, reflecting its spherical shape. Saved on the globe geometric properties depicted objects, their linear and areal dimensions, angles and shapes, the accepted scale is the same in all parts of the globe, and the degree network is built without distortion.
aerospace image - this is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remote registration of the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.
Earth's atmosphere.
Atmosphere- the gaseous shell (geosphere) surrounding the planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partially the earth's crust, while its outer surface borders on the near-Earth part of outer space. The thickness of the atmosphere is about 120 km from the Earth's surface.
Weather.
Weather- a set of values of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a certain point in time at a particular point in space.
Distinguish between periodic and non-periodic weather changes. Periodic weather changes depend on the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. Non-periodic due to the transfer of air masses. They disrupt the normal course of meteorological quantities (temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, etc.). Mismatches of the phase of periodic changes with the nature of non-periodic ones lead to the most dramatic changes in the weather.
Climate.
Climate- long-term weather regime, characteristic of a given area due to its geographical location.
Climate-forming factors:
The position of the earth;
Distribution of land and sea;
Atmospheric circulation;
ocean currents;
The relief of the earth's surface.
Wind.
Wind- airflow. On Earth, wind is a stream of air that moves predominantly in a horizontal direction. Winds are classified primarily by their strength, duration and direction. Thus, gusts are considered to be short-term (several seconds) and strong movements of air. Strong winds of medium duration (about 1 minute) are called squalls. The names of longer winds depend on the strength, for example, such names are breeze, storm, storm, hurricane, typhoon. The duration of the wind also varies greatly: some thunderstorms can last several minutes, breezes that depend on the difference in heating features of the relief throughout the day last several hours, global winds caused by seasonal temperature changes - monsoons - last several months, while global winds, caused by the difference in temperature at different latitudes and the Coriolis force, they blow constantly and are called trade winds. Monsoons and trade winds are the winds that make up the general and local circulation of the atmosphere. Winds can also influence the formation of landforms, causing aeolian deposits that form different kinds soils (e.g. loess) or erosion. They can carry sand and dust from deserts over long distances. The winds disperse plant seeds and aid the movement of flying animals, which lead to the expansion of species into new territory. Wind-related phenomena affect wildlife in a variety of ways. Wind occurs as a result of an uneven distribution atmospheric pressure and directed from the high pressure zone to the low pressure zone. Due to the continuous change in pressure in time and space, the speed and direction of the wind is constantly changing. With height, the wind speed changes due to a decrease in the friction force.
Solar radiation.
Solar radiation- electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of the Sun. Solar radiation - main source energy for all physical and geographical processes occurring on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere. The amount of solar radiation depends on the height of the sun, the time of year, and the transparency of the atmosphere. Actinometers and pyrheliometers are used to measure solar radiation. The intensity of solar radiation is usually measured by its thermal effect and is expressed in calories per unit surface per unit of time.
Solar radiation strongly affects the Earth only in the daytime, of course - when the Sun is above the horizon. Also, solar radiation is very strong near the poles, during the polar days, when the Sun is above the horizon even at midnight. However, in winter in the same places, the Sun does not rise above the horizon at all, and therefore does not affect the region. Solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, and therefore it still enters the Earth (when the Sun is directly above the horizon). Solar radiation is a combination of the bright yellow color of the Sun and heat, heat also passes through clouds. Solar radiation is transmitted to Earth through radiation, and not through heat conduction.
Earth's lithosphere.
Earth's lithosphere- the stone shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle; extends to the atmosphere and has a thickness of 150-200 km.
It is broken by deep faults into large blocks (lithospheric plates). They move in a horizontal direction average speed 5-10 cm/year. large lithospheric plates 7: Eurasian, Pacific, African, Indian, Antarctic, North American and South American.
Earth's crust- first shell solid body Earth having a thickness of 30-40 km. The Earth's crust is separated from the mantle by a seismic division called the Mocha system.
Relief classification.
Relief classification- systematization of landforms according to a number of features. There are K. r .: 1) geotext., Emphasizing the dependence of the relief on the text. mode, i.e., the intensity and direction of the latest texts. movements (relief of platforms, areas of mountain building, geosynclinal); 2) genetic - by processes and agents of morphogenesis - denudation-tekt relief. (the highest, high, medium, low mountains and hills) and volcanic, due to Ch. arr. endogenous processes; denudation - basement, reservoir - and accumulative, formed under the influence of predominantly exogenous processes - gravity river, sea, lake, glacial, hydroglacial, permafrost, eolian, karst, biogenic, technogenic; 3) morphogenetic by relief types; 4) age - by age or stages of relief formation.
45. Factors of relief formation.
The relief is formed as a result of the interaction of internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) forces. Endogenous and exogenous processes of relief formation operate constantly. At the same time, endogenous processes mainly create the main features of the relief, while exogenous ones try to level the relief. Endogenous forces cause: movements of the lithosphere, the formation of folds and faults, earthquakes and volcanism. All these movements are reflected in the relief and lead to the formation of mountains and troughs of the earth's crust. Exogenous processes associated with the arrival of solar energy on the earth. But they flow with the participation of gravity. When this happens:
- Weathering of rocks;
- Movement of material under the action of gravity (landslides, landslides, screes on slopes);
- Material transport by water and wind.
Earth's hydrosphere.
Hydrosphere- discontinuous water shell of the Earth, consisting of the World Ocean and inland water bodies; this is the main part of the Earth's surface (the area is more than 75% of the total surface - 510 million km2).
The climate on Earth largely depends on the state of water vapor in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, only solid water or individual molecules remain in the atmosphere, which indicates that open space; in the depths of the Earth, it passes into a vaporous state, then into a plasma state, and even deeper into a chemically bound state.
The hydrosphere contains 1554 million km3 of water.
The science that studies the hydrosphere is called hydrology:
General hydrology:
o Land hydrology (glaciers, swamps, rivers, etc.);
o Hydrology of the seas;
o Groundwater hydrology;
Regional hydrology (specific water bodies);
Engineering hydrology (methods for calculating and forecasting hydrological characteristics - ebbs and flows).
Biosphere of the Earth.
Biosphere- the shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; "film of life"
· Upper limit in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone layer, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms.
· Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of the transition of water into steam and the temperature of denaturation of proteins, however, in general, the spread of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters.
· The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.
Methodological goals and objectives of the course "Geography". The structure of geography as a natural science
Purpose of the course
To acquaint students with basic knowledge about the atmosphere, the physical and chemical processes occurring in it, which form the weather and climate.
Course objectives
To acquaint students with the structure of the atmosphere; air composition spatial distribution on the globe pressure, temperature, humidity; processes of formation of solar radiation in the atmosphere; thermal and water regime; properties of the main circulation systems that determine weather changes at different latitudes.
Familiarize with the instruments and instill the skills of the simplest meteorological, gradient and actinometric observations.
To give an idea of the climate system, the relationship between global and local climates, climate formation processes, climate classification systems, large-scale climate changes and modern climate warming
The subject of geography is the geographic shell - the volume of matter of different composition and state that arose under terrestrial conditions and formed a specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in geography is studied as part of the planet and the Cosmos, which is under the power of earthly forces and develops in the process of complex cosmic-planetary interaction.
In the system of fundamental geographical education geography is a kind of link between geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. This course introduces the future geographer to a complex professional world, laying the foundations of a geographical worldview and thinking.
Geography is one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the hierarchy of the natural cycle of sciences, geography as a particular version of planetary science should be on a par with astronomy, cosmology, physics, and chemistry. The next rank is created by the Earth sciences - geology, geography, general biology, ecology, etc. Geography occupies a special role in the system of geographical disciplines. It appears as if "super-science" that combines information about all the processes and phenomena that occur after the formation of the planet from the interstellar nebula. Earth science serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology - a science that assesses the current state and predicts the next changes in the geographical shell as the environment for the existence of living organisms in order to ensure their ecological well-being. The main task of geoscience is the study of global changes occurring in the geographic envelope in order to understand the interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that determine the Earth's ecosystem.
The subject of geography is geographic shell - the volume of matter of different composition and state that arose under terrestrial conditions and formed a specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in geography is studied as part of the planet and the Cosmos, which is under the power of earthly forces and develops in the process of complex cosmic-planetary interaction.
In the system of fundamental geographical education, geography is a kind of link between geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. This course introduces the future geographer to a complex professional world, laying the foundations of a geographical worldview and thinking. The geographic world in geography appears as a whole, processes and phenomena are considered in a systemic connection with each other and with the surrounding space. “In geography, from facts as such, attention is shifted to clarifying the comprehensive connections between them and revealing a complex set of geographical processes in the space of the entire globe,” S. V. Kalesnik wrote more than half a century ago.
Geography is one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the hierarchy of the natural cycle of sciences, geography as a particular version of planetary science should be on a par with astronomy, cosmology, physics, and chemistry. The next rank is created by the Earth sciences - geology, geography, general biology, ecology, etc. Geography plays a special role in the system of geographical disciplines. It appears as if "super-science" that combines information about all the processes and phenomena that occur after the formation of the planet from the interstellar nebula. During this time, the earth's crust, air and water shell, to varying degrees saturated with living matter. As a result of their interaction along the periphery of the planet, a specific material volume was formed - a geographical shell. The study of this shell as a complex formation is the task of geography.
Earth science serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology - a science that assesses the current state and predicts the next changes in the geographical shell as the environment for the existence of living organisms in order to ensure their ecological well-being. Over time, the state of the geographic shell has changed and is changing from purely natural to natural-anthropogenic and even essentially anthropogenic. But it has always been and will be the environment in relation to man and living beings. From such positions, the main task of geography is the study of global changes occurring in the geographic envelope, in order to understand the interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that determine the Earth's ecosystem.
Earth science is the theoretical basis of evolutionary geography - a huge block of disciplines that study the history of the emergence and development of our planet and its environment. It provides an understanding of the past and argumentation of causes and effects. modern processes and phenomena in the geographical envelope. Based on the fact that the past determines the present, geoscience significantly helps to decipher the development trends of almost all global problems modernity. This is a kind of key to understanding the world.
The term "geography" appeared in the middle of the 19th century. when translating the works of the German geographer K. Ritter by Russian translators under the guidance of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. This word has a purely Russian sound. Currently in foreign languages the concept of "geography" corresponds to different terms and its literal translation sometimes difficult. We have already expressed the opinion that the term "geography" was introduced by Russian researchers as the most fully reflecting the essence of the translated descriptions. In this regard, it is hardly correct to say that "earth science" is of foreign origin and was introduced by K. Ritter. There is no such word in Ritter's works, he spoke about the knowledge of the Earth or general geography, and the Russian-language term is the fruit of Russian specialists.
Geoscience as a systematic doctrine developed mainly during the 20th century. as a result of research by major geographers and naturalists, as well as generalizations of accumulated knowledge. However, its initial focus has been noticeably transformed, going from the knowledge of fundamental natural and geographical patterns to the study of “humanized” nature on this basis in order to optimize the environment (natural or natural-anthropogenic) and manage it at the planetary level, having a noble task - conservation of all biological diversity.
Considering geography as a fundamental natural science of a geographical profile, it is necessary to pay attention to the main methodological method of studying geographical objects - spatial-territorial, i.e., the study of any object in its spatial arrangement and relationship with surrounding objects. In this regard, we emphasize that the geographical envelope is a three-dimensional concept, where the territory with its depth (subsoil and water) and height (air) is formed jointly under the influence of geographical processes and phenomena that are constantly changing in time.
So, geography - fundamental science that studies the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of the geographical shell in unity and interaction with the surrounding space-time at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom) and establishes the ways of creating and existing modern natural (natural-anthropogenic) situations and their trends possible transformation in the future.
Literature
Bokov V.A., Seliverstov Yu.P., Chervanev I.G. General geography. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
Budyko M.I. Evolution of the biosphere. - L., 1984.
Budyko M.I., Ronov A.B., Yanshin A.L. History of the atmosphere. -L., 1985.
Veklich M.V. Problems of paleoclimatology. - Kyiv, 1987.
Vronsky V. A., Voitkevich G. V. Fundamentals of paleogeography. - Rostov-on-Don, 1997.
Geographical problems of the late XX century / Ed. ed. Yu. P. Seliverstov. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
Geography: on the verge of centuries / Ed. ed. Yu. P. Seliverstov. Tr. XI Congress of the Russian Geographical Society. - T. 1.-SPb., 2000.
Gerenchuk K.I., Bokov V.A., Chervanev I.G. General geography. - M., 1984.
Isachenko A. G. Landscape science and physical-geographical zoning. - M., 1991.
Kalesnik SV. General geographical patterns of the Earth. - M., 1970.
Lyubushkina S. G., Pashkang K. V. Natural science: Earth science and local history. - M., 2002.
Markov KK, Dobrodeev OP, Simonov Yu.G., Suetova IA Introduction to physical geography. - M., 1970.
Milkov F.I. General geography. - M., 1990.
Neklyudova M.N. General geography. - M., 1976.
Nikolaev V. A. Landscape science. - M., 2000.
Sinitsyn V.M. Introduction to paleoclimatology. - L., 1980.
Shubaev L.P. General geography. - M., 1977.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS OF EARTH SCIENCE
The origins of geography were laid in ancient times, when man became interested in his environment on Earth and in Space. However, ancient thinkers did not only describe the surroundings. Already from the very beginning, people systematically observed changes in the surrounding space and natural coincidences, trying to establish causal relationships. Long before religious teachings and ideas about the divine principle of nature and life, there were views on the world. In this way, concepts and ideas gradually developed, many of which were undoubtedly of an geography nature.
The Egyptians and Babylonians predicted the time of floods depending on the location of the stars, the Greeks and Romans measured the Earth and established its position in space, the Chinese and the ancestors of the Hindus comprehended the meaning of life and the relationship of man with his natural environment. Megalithic cultures of unknown peoples used the laws of the Earth's movement and the position of the planets and stars for their ideological views and the construction of religious buildings. These achievements characterize the pre-scientific period of knowledge and the formation of geographical knowledge. Many of the discoveries attributed to the thinkers of the medieval Renaissance were already known in ancient times.
In the pre-antique period ancient india the doctrine of a material substance arose, which was a separate indivisible elements (atoms) or their combinations. In addition to matter, inanimate substances included space and time, as well as the conditions of rest and movement. The people of India were the first to proclaim the principle of doing no harm to living organisms. In ancient China, the doctrine of the universal law of the world of things was created, according to which the life of nature and people proceeds along a certain natural path, which, together with the substance of things, forms the basis of the world. In the world, everything is in motion and change, in the process of which all things turn into their opposite. ancient babylon And Ancient Egypt gave examples of the use of the achievements of astronomy, cosmology and mathematics in practical life peoples. Here the doctrines about the origin of the world (cosmogony) and its structure (cosmology) arose. The Babylonians established the correct sequence of the planets, formed a stellar astral worldview, singled out the signs of the zodiac, introduced a 60-ary system of calculation that underlies the degree measure and the time scale, established the periods of recurrence of solar and lunar eclipses. In the era of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms in Egypt, the foundations for predicting the Nile floods were developed, a solar calendar was created, the length of the year was accurately determined and 12 months were allocated. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians used their knowledge of astronomy to navigate and navigate by the stars. The ancient peoples expressed the correct and still fundamental idea about the evolution of the surrounding world (from simple to complex, from disorder to order), its constant variability and renewal.
In ancient times, an idea was compiled about the geocentric structure of the World (C. Ptolemy, 165 - 87 BC), the concepts of "Universe" and "Cosmos" were introduced, correct estimates of the shape and size of the Earth were given. At this time, a system of Earth sciences was formed, the main directions of which were: descriptive and regional studies (Strabo, Pliny the Elder), mathematical and geographical (Pythagoreans, Hipparchus, Ptolemy) and physical and geographical (Eratosthenes, Posidonius).
Much was given to the development of geography and its individual areas of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance - the time of great geographical discoveries (from the end of the 15th century), when travel was widely developed, bringing huge factual material about the seas and lands, the generalization of which improved ideas about geographical space. The sphericity of the Earth was practically proved, the unity of the waters of the World Ocean, a globe was created for the first time (in the first half of the 15th century until circumnavigation Magellan). N. Copernicus promulgated his heliocentric system of the structure of the Universe, and D. Bruno expressed the idea of the infinity of the Universe and the plurality of worlds. In the oceans, currents (in particular, the Gulf Stream), zones of calm and monsoons were discovered. G. Mercator proposed a new projection and created a world map that is convenient for navigation. This period is associated with the emergence of relatively geographical descriptions, the creation of theories of scientific conclusions by the methods of induction (F. Bacon) and deduction (R. Descartes), the development of the isoline method for compiling bathymetric and then hypsographic maps. The construction of the telescope, thermometer and barometer made it possible to begin the development of experimental geography and instrumental observations.
At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. the contours of geography begin to take shape. N. Carpenter (1625) tried to bring together information about the nature of the Earth. Somewhat later (1650), the work of B. Varenius appeared, which can be considered the official beginning of geography, where he wrote that “universal geography is called that which considers the Earth in general, explains its properties, without entering into detailed countries description". In 1664, R. Descartes gave a natural-scientific explanation of the origin of the Earth. He believed that the Sun and all the planets solar system were formed as a result of the vortex motion of the smallest particles of matter, and during the formation of the Earth, differentiation of matter into a fiery-liquid metal core, solid crust, atmosphere and water occurred. This work gave rise to many ideas (T. Barnet, J. Woodward, W. Whiston) about the origin of the bodies of the surrounding space and the behavior of the earth's masses. A hypothesis of contraction arose, based on the views on the reduction in the volume of the planet as it cools (E. Beaumont), assumptions about the dependence large forms relief from the movements of earth masses, ideas about the continuous connection of internal and external forces development of the Earth (M. Lomonosov). For the first time, attempts were made to classify living organisms (J. Ray, K. Linnaeus, J. Lamarck), and the natural history of the Earth began to be considered together with living organisms, including humans (J. Buffon, G. Leibniz).
In the middle of the XVIII century. new scientifically based theories and hypotheses have appeared. The first in this series should be called the theory of the universe and the formation of the solar system by I. Kant (1755), in which the author relied on the laws discovered by I. Newton (1686) gravity and motion of matter. He offered mechanical model the origin of the world from initially scattered inhomogeneous matter by spontaneous complication of its structure. Recognizing the eternity and infinity of the Universe, I. Kant spoke about the possibility of finding life in it. In essence, knowledge of the history of nature and the Earth began with I. Kant on a strictly scientific basis. Among the many remarkable names, we note the researchers who created the foundation of modern geography as a generalizing science about the Earth.
A. Humboldt and K. Ritter are the largest geographers and travelers of the first half of XIX in., who have made a huge contribution to the development of many geographical concepts and patterns. A. Humboldt (1769-1859) created a 5-volume work "Cosmos" on comparative geography (physical worldview in the original edition) and wrote about his travels in the New World in 30 volumes. In them, he outlined the latest ideas: he introduced the concepts of "terrestrial magnetism", "magnetic pole" and "magnetic equator", substantiated evolutionary changes in the earth's surface, laid the foundations of paleogeography, compared fauna South America and Australia, having established their connections and differences, studied the outlines of the continents and the position of their axes, studied the heights of the continents and determined the position of the centers of gravity of the continental masses. When studying the atmosphere, Humboldt established changes in air pressure depending on the latitude and height of the place and time of the year, clarified the climatic distribution of heat, humidity, air electricity, proved a close connection between intraterrestrial and atmospheric processes, as well as the interdependence of the atmosphere-ocean-land system. The scientist used the concept of "climate" in a broad geographical sense as a property of the atmosphere, "... highly dependent on the conditions of the sea and land and the vegetation growing on it." He also substantiated the dependence of wildlife on climate and laid the foundations of scientific geochemistry.
The formation of modern geography is associated with the name of K. Ritter (1779-1859). He showed the integrating role of geography in natural science and knowledge of the surrounding world, formulated a completely materialistic view of nature as the totality of all things "existing near and far from us, united by time and space into a harmonious system", expressed the idea of the balance of natural processes and phenomena in constant cycles and transformations, proved the interaction of land, sea and air in the process of functioning. In 1862, Ritter created the first course in geography (translated into Russian in 1864), the basis of which he believed was physical geography, which explains the forces (processes) of nature. The scientist considered the original system of the nature of the Earth as a kind of organized and constantly developing single organism, distinguished by a special structure, laws and mechanisms of development. K. Ritter was of the opinion that only relying on the idea of an earthly organism or the integrity of the Earth, it is possible to imagine the emergence and development of its constituent parts, to understand the secret of the planet's structure. He substantiated the concepts of "terrestrial space" as an integral three-dimensional unity and one of the objects of physical geography and "landscape" in his modern meaning while emphasizing its important role as the basis of organic life. The scientists developed an idea of the relief as a plasticity and configuration of the earth's surface, created a classification of large landforms, introduced the concepts of "highland", "plateau", "mountainous country", "environment", "element", and also considered the dependence of various natural bodies and ethnic groups from geographical location.
K. Ritter created scientific school, which included such major geographers as E. Reclus, F. Ratzel, F. Richthofen, E. Lenz, who made a significant contribution to understanding the geographical features of individual parts of the Earth and enriched the content of theoretical geography and physical geography.
Second half of the 19th century characterized by new developments in the geographical sciences, from which emerged independent disciplines. The greatest role at this time belongs to Russian researchers.
AI Voeikov (1842-1916) is known as the founder of climatology. He installed critical factors climate formation, substantiated the energy balance of the globe, explained the mechanism of heat transfer and climatic processes in various geographical zones.
The relationship of natural phenomena was studied by V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903). The main result of his work should be considered the development of the concept of "natural complex" in relation to the soil - an independent natural-historical body and a product of the interaction of climate, living organisms and parent rocks. Investigating soils and vegetation, he introduced the concept of "natural historical processes” and “zones of nature”, which formed the basis of the law of world zonality discovered by him. Dokuchaev formulated a program for a complex and unified paradigm of a new natural science - the science of the relationship between animate and inanimate nature, between man and the world around him.
G.N.Vysotsky (1865-1940) made a significant contribution to understanding the processes of functioning of natural complexes. He established the water-regulating role of the upper soil horizon, identified soil types according to the nature of the water regime. He managed to show the importance of the forest in the hydroclimatic features of the geographic envelope and its role as one of the factors in the development of the geographic environment. Methodologically, his research enriched the earth sciences with the use of space-time diagrams to detect changes.
Approximately in the same years, Z. Passarguet (1867-1958) introduced the fundamental concept of physical geography - "natural landscape" - a territory where all components of nature show correspondence. He singled out landscape factors, made a landscape classification using the example of Africa.
In Russia in the same years, L. S. Berg (1876-1950) dealt with related issues, who substantiated the concept of “landscape zone” as a set of the same landscapes and developed a reasonable division of the territory of Siberia and Turkestan, and then the whole Soviet Union into geographic (landscape) zones. He approved the concept of the landscape as a natural unity of objects and phenomena, where the whole affects the parts, and the parts affect the whole. He laid the foundations for landscape-geographical zoning with the allocation of zones and landscapes as real-life natural formations with natural boundaries. Berg formulated the idea of changing landscapes during the development of the planet and proved the irreversibility of these changes. He considered geography to be the science of geographical landscapes, thereby giving it a regional character, and considered geography as a branch of physical geography.
AN Krasnov (1862-1914) is known as the founder of constructive geography, which allowed him to develop and implement measures for the transformation of the Black Sea subtropics on this basis. He created the first course "General Geography" (1895-1899), whose task was to find causation between forms and phenomena that cause the dissimilarity of various parts of the earth's surface, as well as the study of their nature, distribution and influence on human life and culture. Krasnov emphasized the anthropocentricity of geography. He belongs to the classification of climates and vegetation cover of the Earth, the zoning of the globe according to the types of vegetation, based on the zonal-regional principle. He approached the understanding of the zonality of geographical processes and phenomena before the discovery by V.V. Dokuchaev of the law of world zonality and descriptions by L. S. Berg landscape zones. Assessing the scientific heritage of A. N. Krasnov, it must be emphasized that he was the first researcher of geography who practically embodied part of his conclusions in the reconstruction of a vast territory. Unlike his predecessors, the scientist considered the task of geography not to describe disparate natural phenomena, but to identify the interconnection and interdependence between natural phenomena, believing that scientific geography is not interested in the external side of phenomena, but in their genesis.
Following the textbook by A. N. Krasnov, General Geography by A. A. Kruber (1917) was published, where the concept of "earth shell" or "geosphere" (subsequently developed by A. A. Grigoriev) was given. Kruber emphasized the unity of all components of the geographic environment, which must be studied in integrity. This textbook was the main one throughout the first half of the 20th century.
The works of VI Vernadsky (1863-1945), mainly his theory of the biosphere, were of great importance for the development of geography. The concept of "living matter" introduced by him and the proof of its widest distribution and constant participation in natural processes and phenomena, raised the question of the need for a new understanding of the essence of the geographical shell, which should be considered as a bio-inert formation. Scientific and philosophical reasoning allowed Vernadsky, along with other scientists (L. Pasteur, P. Curie, I. I. Mechnikov), to express an opinion about the cosmic origin of life (the theory of panspermia) and the special nature of living matter. The scientist understood the biosphere as an interconnected system of living organisms and their habitat. Unfortunately, many of Vernadsky's views, including his doctrine of the noosphere, were not in sufficient demand for a long time and were practically not taken into account in geography.
A new stage in the development of geography coincides with the beginning and middle of the 20th century. and is associated with the names of A. A. Grigoriev (1883-1968), S. V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), K. K. Markov (1905-1980) and other scientists who brought geography to the modern path of development. A.A.Grigoriev introduced the fundamental concepts that are the object and subject of geography - “geographical shell” and “single physical and geographical process”, combining the ecological approach in the study of geography with the need for an interconnected consideration of all processes and phenomena on Earth. He declared geography as a potential developer and carrier of a planetary strategy for the survival of mankind in relations with nature.
S. V. Kalesnik summarized the achievements of geography in his textbook (1947 and subsequent editions), including new judgments about the components of the geographic envelope. This textbook still retains its value and is a kind of example for writing educational materials.
The continuing differentiation of geography has led to detailed developments of its individual parts. There were special studies of the ice sheet and its paleogeographic significance (K. K. Markov), the geophysical mechanism of differentiation of the earth's surface by geographical zones and altitudinal zonality (M. I. Budyko), climate history against the background of changes in the geographic envelope in the past (A. S. Monin), the energy balance of the Earth from remote observations (K.Ya. Kondratiev), the landscape systems of the World in their unity and genetic differences (A.G. Isachenko), the landscape shell as part of the geographical shell (F.N. Milkov). During these years, the Grigoriev-Budyko periodic law of geographical zoning was established, the huge role of bioorganic matter in the formation of specific geological formations of the distant past (A.V. Sidorenko) was revealed, new areas of geography appeared - space geography, ecological geography, or global ecology, practically merged together the study of "exact" (physico-mathematical) and "natural" (biological-geographical) natural sciences into an integrated system of geography.
Middle and second half of the 20th century. were especially filled with events in various branches of knowledge that required qualitative changes in views and judgments.
We note the most significant of them:
The surfaces of the planets and their satellites are composed of rocks of the basic and ultrabasic composition and dotted with crater irregularities - traces of falling meteorites or other cosmic bodies;
At the objects of the solar system, volcanic processes and ice formations are almost universally noted, some of which may be frozen water; most cosmic bodies have
own atmosphere with traces of oxygen and organic compounds(methane, etc.); widespread in outer space organic matter, including outside the solar system; there is a dust sphere around the earth - cosmic dust, consisting of mineral and organic substances;
Living organisms on Earth have been found in all spheres and various environments: inside rocks at a distance of thousands of meters from the surface, at an ambient temperature of hundreds of degrees Celsius and a pressure of thousands of atmospheres, under conditions of high levels of radioactive and other radiation, at low temperatures almost to absolute zero, at the bottom of the oceans in conditions of volcanic eruptions (white and black smokers), in various brines, including metal-bearing ones, in absolute darkness and without the presence of oxygen; photosynthesis can take place without sunlight (with light from underwater eruptions), and bacteria can produce organic matter using chemical energy (chemosynthesis); living organisms are extremely diverse and complex in structure, although they consist of a limited number of biochemical compounds and genetic codes;
The ocean floor is formed mainly by young basalts interbedded with sediments during the last 150 Ma; the expansion of rift formations at the bottom of the oceans is currently going on at an average rate of 4 - 5 cm/year; at the bottom of the oceans, the processes of degassing of the mantle matter - magma, volcanic gases, juvenile (first appeared) deep waters, thermal and metal-bearing formations are widely developed;
The structure of the crust of the continents and the bottom of the oceans differ fundamentally;
The continents have ancient (more than 3.0 - 3.5 billion years) Archean cores, which indicates the constant location of their central parts and the growth of the areas of modern continents mainly due to the growth of younger geological structures along the periphery; rocks of the continents of pre-Paleozoic age (more than 1 billion years) are in most cases metamorphosed;
The specific gravity of atmospheric oxygen is greater than the specific gravity of photosynthetic oxygen, which indicates a deep source of its origin during degassing of the mantle substance; a study of a degassable substance within the land showed the presence in it (%) of carbon dioxide - about 70, carbon monoxide - up to 20, acetylene - 9, sulfur oxide - 3.7, methane - 2.1, the proportion of nitrogen, hydrogen and ethane does not exceed 1 %;
In the depths of the World Ocean, there is a widespread mixing of waters in the form of ascending and descending currents, various multi-tiered currents, eddies, etc.;
Ocean-atmosphere interactions are more complex than previously thought (eg El Niño and La Niña);
Natural disasters lead to the movement of huge masses of matter and energy, which exceeds the effect of anthropogenic impact on the environment.
New data convince of the need to take them into account when improving theoretical foundations modern geography. The task is huge, but feasible for researchers of the 21st century. The available facts should be taken into account as much as possible, interpreting them not only from the standpoint of today's conditions on the Earth's surface and the progressive-evolutionary direction of the formation of geosystems, but also the possibility of a different path of development (in particular, directionally spasmodic, evolutionary-catastrophic).
What are the main milestones in the development of geography?
What is the contribution of scientists ancient world in geography?
What discoveries stimulated the development of geography during the Renaissance?
How did the development of geography take place in the 17th-19th centuries?
What is the contribution of Russian researchers to geography?
What is the latest stage in the development of geography?
What are contemporary issues geography?
LITERATURE
Aplonov SV. Geodynamics. - SPb., 2001.
Golubchik M.M., Evdokimov S.P., Maksimov G.I. History of geography. - Smolensk, 1998.
James P., Martin J. All possible worlds. History of geographical ideas. - M., 1988.
Johnston R.J. Geography and geographers. - M., 1987.
Esakov V. A. Essays on the history of geography in Russia XVIII -beginning XX century. - M., 1999.
Isachenko A. G. Development of geographical ideas. - M., 1971.
Zhekulin V. S. Introduction to geography. - L., 1989.
Mukitanov N.K. From Strabo to the present day. - M., 1985.
Russian geographical society. 150 years. - M., 1995.
Saushkin Yu.G. History and methodology of geographical science. - M., 1976.
Geoscience is currently fundamental science, the basis for the development of other physical and geographical disciplines, in particular - soil science, landscape science, biogeography, space geography, geology, meteorology, oceanology, climatology and others. Earth science studies the structure of the planet Earth, its immediate environment, as well as the geographical shell - the environment of human activity. Currently in environment there is a rapid development of negative processes, in particular, climate change, increased pollution, etc.
The problems of the relationship between human society and nature are more relevant today than ever. For competent control over the ongoing processes, it is necessary, first of all, to know the structure of our planet and the laws that govern its development. The earth is ours common Home, and the quality and comfort of living for our and future generations will depend on the modern actions of human society.
How Earth science has come a long way historical development. Problems of the structure of the Earth have worried scientists since ancient times. Already in ancient China, Egypt, Babylon, images of the Earth's surface were made. Plans for the city of Babylon and the Mediterranean coast have survived to this day. Land description, i.e. geography (from geo - Greek "Earth" and graphil - "description") was actively developed in Ancient Greece. Many scientists of the ancient period were interested in the question of the shape of the Earth. Various ideas have been expressed, in particular, that the Earth is on three elephants that stand on a turtle floating in the ocean, and others.
Prominent ancient Greek scientist Aristotle(384-322 BC) in work "Meteorology" expressed brilliant ideas about the structure of the Earth, its spherical shape, the existence of different "spheres" that penetrate each other, the water cycle, sea currents, Earth zones, the causes of earthquakes, etc. Modern ideas of geography largely confirm his guesses.
Many scientists were also interested in the question of the size of the Earth. The most accurate measurements have been taken Eratosthenes Kirensky - an ancient Greek scientist (about 276-194 BC). They laid the foundations of mathematical geography. He was the first to calculate the circumference of the Earth along the meridian, and, surprisingly, the figures obtained are close to modern calculations - 40 thousand km. Eratosthenes first used the term "geography".
ancient geography performed mainly descriptive functions. A significant role in the development of this direction was played by the works of the ancient Greek geographer and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy(about 90-168 BC). In his work "Guide to Geography" which includes eight volumes, he proposes to distinguish between geography and chorography. Geography deals with depicting the entire known part of the Earth and everything that is on it. chorography is engaged detailed description locality, i.e., a kind of local history, according to modern concepts. Ptolemy made various maps, and it is he who is considered the "father" of cartography. They proposed several new map projections. He was most famous for the idea of the geocentric structure of the world, which considered the Earth to be the center of the universe, around which the Sun and other planets revolve.
It is believed that the works of Ptolemy complete the ancient period in the development of geography, which then dealt mainly with the description of newly discovered lands.
In the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries (XVI-XVII centuries), another direction appeared - analytical.
The beginning of the formation of geography as an independent scientific discipline is considered to be the publication in Holland General Geography by Bernhard Varenius in 1650. This work presents achievements in the field of astronomy and the creation heliocentric system world (N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler). Along with this, the results of the Great geographical discoveries are summarized. The subject of study of geography, according to B. Varenius, is amphibian circle, consisting of earth, water, atmosphere, penetrating each other. However, the significance of man and his activities was excluded.
The leading idea of this period was analysis of relationships between different parts of nature. In developing this idea great importance had jobs Alexander von Humboldt(1769-1859), an outstanding German scientist-encyclopedist, naturalist, traveler. There is an opinion that the works of B. Varenius are the beginning of the development of general geography, and the achievements of Humboldt are one of the remarkable peaks. A. Humboldt traveled a lot, studied the nature of Europe, Central and South America, the Urals, Siberia. It was in his works that the significance relationship analysis as the basic idea of all geographical science. Analyzing the relationship of relief, climate, fauna and vegetation, A. Humboldt laid the foundations of plant geography and animal geography, the doctrine of life forms, climatology, general geography, substantiated the idea of vertical and latitudinal zonality. In his works "Journey to Equinox Regions new world», vols. 1-30 (1807-1834) and "Space" the idea of the earth's surface as a special shell is developed, where not only there is a relationship, but also the interaction of earth, air, water, the unity of inorganic and organic nature is observed. A. Humboldt for the first time uses the terms "life sphere", which in meaning corresponds to the modern "biosphere", and "sphere of the mind", corresponding to the "noosphere".
A. Humboldt's book "Pictures of nature" can not leave anyone indifferent, because it combines reliable facts and highly artistic descriptions of nature. He is considered the founder of artistic landscape studies.
The founder of the first department of geography at the University of Berlin is who lived at the same time as A. Humboldt Carl Ritter(1779-1859). In his well-known works on geography, he considered the Earth as the home of the human race, existing due to the power of Divine providence.
K. Ritter introduced the term "earth science" into science. He tried to quantify the spatial relationships between different objects.
In a multi-volume work “Land and people. General geography" E. Reclus(1830-1905) describes in sufficient detail most of the countries of the world. He is considered the founder of modern regional studies.
From teaching aids on geography published in the 19th century, it should be noted the works E. Lenz (1851), A. Richthofen (1883), E. Lenda (1851). However, these authors excluded biogeography from their works.
In Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the development of geographical ideas is associated with the names of prominent scientists M. V. Lomonosov, V. N. Tatishchev, S. P. Krasheninnikov.
The materialistic approach to the study of phenomena and processes in nature was especially clearly observed in the works M. V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). In work "On the Layers of the Earth" (1763) he outlined the laws of the formation of the Earth's relief, in general, corresponding to modern ideas.
In the XIX-XX centuries. in Russia, works on geography by P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N. M. Przhevalsky, V. A. Obruchev, D. N. Anuchin and others were published.
From the 80s of the XIX century. The Russian Geographical School was at the forefront in the field of general geography. In works V.V. Dokuchaeva (1846-1903)"Russian black soil"(1883) and A. I. Voeikova (1842-1916)"Climates of the World" The complex mechanism of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope is revealed using the example of soils and climate.
V. V. Dokuchaev at the end of the 19th century. opened the law of world geographic zoning. It was an outstanding theoretical generalization. VV Dokuchaev believed that zoning is a universal law of nature. This law applies to both organic and inorganic nature. The natural-historical zones that exist on the globe are the spatial expression of this law. The mirror of the law of world geographic zoning are soil, reflecting the interaction of animate and inanimate nature. The year of publication of the monograph "Russian Chernozem" - 1883 - is considered the year of the birth of a new independent science - soil science. VV Dokuchaev became the founder of scientific soil science. In his work "Russian Chernozem" it is proved that the soil is an independent natural-historical body that arose as a result of the interaction of five factors of soil formation: 1) the parent rock; 2) climate; 3) terrain; 4) living organisms (microorganisms, plants, animals); 5) the age of the country. Subsequently, another factor was added - human economic activity. V. V. Dokuchaev came to the conclusion that it is necessary to study not only individual factors, but also regular connections and interactions between them. He showed that agricultural areas are closely connected with soil zones. It follows that in each zone Agriculture has its own characteristics and its own methods of solving production problems.
Together with V. V. Dokuchaev, his students and followers worked independently: A. N. Krasnov, V. I. Vernadsky, G. I. Tanfilsv, G. N. Vysotsky, K. D. Glinka, S. A. Zakharov, L. I. Prasolov, B. B. Polynov and others. V. R. Williams(1863-1939). In his textbook "soil science" which has gone through five editions, substantiates the idea of a close connection between knowledge about soils and the demands of agriculture. Student of V. V. Dokuchaev and botanist A. N. Beketov (Petersburg University) A. N. Krasnov(1862-1914) in 1889 organized the Department of Geography at Kharkov University, studied the steppes and foreign tropics, created the Batumi Botanical Garden. A. N. Krasnov substantiated the features of scientific geography that distinguish it from the old geography, in particular, the search for mutual connection and mutual conditioning between natural phenomena, the study of the genesis (origin) of phenomena, and the study of changing nature, and not static. He created the first Russian textbook on general geography for universities. In the textbook, A. N. Krasnov develops a new view of geography as a science that studies not individual phenomena and objects, but geographical complexes - deserts, steppes, etc.
Thus, over the centuries - from Aristotle to Dokuchaev - the subject of physical geography has become more complex from a two-dimensional earth's surface to a three-dimensional geographic shell with close links between its components.
In the textbook "Course of physical geography" II. I. Brounov clearly formulated the idea that the outer shell of the Earth consists of four spherical components: the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, penetrating each other: hence the task of physical geography is to study this interaction. His ideas had a significant impact on the further development of physical geography.
The idea that it is the natural shell of the Earth that is the main subject of study of physical geography developed gradually, starting with A. Humboldt.
However, what is the shell of the Earth, what components are included in it, what are its boundaries, it was not clear. These questions were first considered Andrey Alexandrovich Grigoriev(1883-1968) in 1932 in the article "The subject and tasks of physical geography".
In this article, A. A. Grigoriev first proposed the term “physical-geographical shell”, in particular, he believed that “the earth's surface is a qualitatively special vertical physical-geographical zone or shell, characterized by deep interpenetration and active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere , the emergence and development of organic life in it, the presence in it of a complex, but unified physical and geographical process. In 1937, a monograph by A. A. Grigoriev was published, in which he barks a detailed justification of the geographical shell as the main subject of physical geography, considers the boundaries geographical envelope and methods of its study.
Around the same time, L.S. Berg develops the doctrine of V. V. Dokuchaev about geographical zones and develops landscape teaching. A number of scientists in the late 1940s started a discussion, trying to oppose the teachings of A. A. Grigoriev and L. S. Berg. However, in the fundamental work of S. V. Kalesnik "Fundamentals of general geography"(1947, 1955) it was proved that these two directions do not contradict, but complement each other.
A qualitatively new stage in the study of the geographic envelope came after the launches artificial satellites Earth, flight on April 12, 1961 by Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, launching numerous laboratories into near and far space. This made it possible to study the geographical shell from the outside. All astronauts were fascinated by the beauty of the Earth, observed from space, and at the same time, global human pollution of its surface became obvious. Preservation of the purity of the geographical shell has become an urgent task of mankind, and the theory of protection human environment environment - the basis of modern geography.
Today it is one of the main branches in the system of geographical sciences, studying the patterns of the geographical shell, its spatio-temporal organization and differentiation; circulation of substances, energy and information; its functioning, dynamics and evolution. Modern geography explores the geospheres that make up the geographic shell, monitors their state, and makes regional and global forecasts of its development.
All these tasks of geography are solved on the basis of both traditional and new methods. geographical research(cartographic, statistical, geophysical, etc.), as well as the latest achievements of geoinformatics, remote sensing, space geography.
