The scientific method is a system of rules and regulations that direct human activity (industrial, political, cultural, scientific, educational, etc.) to achieve the goal.
If the methodology is a strategy of scientific research that ensures the achievement of the goal formulated in the hypothesis of the alleged scientific results (the general path of knowledge), then the method is a tactic that shows how best to go this way.
Method (gr. methodos) is a way of knowing, studying the phenomena of nature and public life; reception, method and mode of action.
Method - a way of research, a way to achieve a goal, solve specific problems. This is a set of approaches, techniques, operations of practical or theoretical development of reality.
From the definition of the method it follows that there are two large groups of methods: knowledge (research) and practical action (transformative methods.
1) Research methods- techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge and study of the phenomena of reality. With the help of this group of methods, reliable information is obtained that is used to build scientific theories and develop practical advice. The system of research methods is determined by the initial concept of the researcher: his ideas about the essence and structure of what is being studied, the general methodological orientation, the goals and objectives of a particular study.
2) The methods are divided into the following:
General, or philosophical, general scientific and methods of private sciences;
ascertaining and transforming;
empirical and theoretical;
qualitative and quantitative;
meaningful and formal;
methods for collecting empirical data, testing and refuting hypotheses and theories;
descriptions, explanations and forecasts;
processing of research results.
The universal, or philosophical method is the universal method of materialistic dialectics.
Common methods include:
Observation is a way of knowing the objective world, based on the direct perception of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses without interference in the process by the researcher.
Comparison is the establishment of a difference between the objects of the material world or finding something in common in them; carried out both with the help of the sense organs and with the help of special devices.
Counting is finding a number that determines the quantitative ratio of objects of the same type or their parameters that characterize certain properties. Measurement is the physical process of determining the numerical value of some quantity by comparing it with a standard.
An experiment is one of the spheres of human practice in which the truth of put forward hypotheses is tested or the laws of the objective world are revealed.
Generalization is the definition of a general concept, which reflects the main, basic, characterizing objects of a given class.
Abstraction is a mental distraction from non-essential properties, connections, relations of objects and the selection of several aspects of interest to the researcher.
Formalization is the display of an object or phenomenon in the symbolic form of some artificial language (mathematics, chemistry, etc.).
The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which certain statements are accepted without proof.
Analysis is a method of cognition by dismembering or decomposing objects of study into component parts.
Synthesis is the combination of individual aspects of an object into a single whole.
Induction is a conclusion from facts to some hypothesis (general statement).
Deduction is an inference in which a conclusion about a certain element of a set is made on the basis of knowledge common properties the whole set.
Analogy is a method by which knowledge is achieved about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others.
The hypothetical method of cognition involves the development of a scientific hypothesis based on the study of the physical, chemical, etc., the essence of the phenomenon under study, the formulation of a hypothesis, the compilation of the calculation scheme of the algorithm (model), its study, analysis, development of theoretical provisions.
The historical method of cognition involves the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.
Idealization is the mental construction of objects that are practically impracticable.
System methods: operations research, queuing theory, control theory, set theory, etc.
Methods of private sciences are specific ways of knowing and transforming certain areas of the real world, inherent in a particular system of knowledge (sociology - sociometry; psychology - psychodiagnostics).
3) Methods as a technique, method and mode of action (methods of practical activity) include methods of influence, a set of techniques, operations and procedures for preparing and making a decision, organizing its implementation.
To select methods at each stage, it is necessary to know the general and specific capabilities of each method, its place in the system of research procedures. The task of the researcher is to determine the optimal set of methods for each stage of the study.
Various methods of scientific knowledge are conditionally divided into a number of levels: empirical, experimental-theoretical, theoretical and meta-theoretical.
Empirical level methods: observation, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, tests, trial and error, etc.
Methods of the experimental-theoretical level: experiment, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, hypothetical, historical and logical methods.
Methods of the theoretical level: abstraction, idealization, formalization, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, axiomatics, generalization, etc.
The methods of the metatheoretical level include the dialectical and the method of system analysis
In accordance with the two levels of scientific knowledge, empirical and theoretical methods are distinguished. The former include observation, comparison, measurement, and experiment; the latter include idealization, formalization, the ascent of the abstract to the concrete, etc. However, it should be noted that this division is relative. For example, comparison is widely used not only in empirical, but also in theoretical research, the experiment is used mainly at the empirical level, but experimentation is also possible with what are called mental models. The modeling method is difficult to attribute unconditionally to one of the two levels of knowledge.
Abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, historical and logical methods are considered by some authors as techniques that are used at the empirical and theoretical levels of research. Methods and techniques described in formal logic - abstraction and generalization, analysis, synthesis, etc. are sometimes called universal, considering them as methods inherent in human cognition as a whole, both scientific and non-scientific cognition are built on their basis.
Consider the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.
empirical methods.
Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of an object that provides primary material for scientific research.
Purposefulness is the most important characteristic of observation. Concentrating attention on the object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object repeatedly and under different conditions, regularity, which excludes gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.
In scientific observation, the interaction between the subject and the object is mediated by the means of observation: the devices and instruments with which the observation is carried out. A microscope and a telescope, photographic and television equipment, a radar and an ultrasound generator, and many other devices significantly expand the capabilities of the observer, transform phenomena that are not accessible to the naked human senses - viruses, microbes, elementary particles, etc. - in empirical objects.
As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.
Comparison and measurement play an important role in cognition. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a reference, then such a comparison is called a measurement. In addition to the subject (meter) and object, the measurement includes a unit of measurement (standard, or reference object), a measuring device, and also a measurement method. So, when comparing two objects by weight, it can be established that one of them is heavier than the other. In this case, the standard, measuring device, measurement method are not applied. When measuring these objects, to establish that one object weighs 3 kg, the other weighs 4, these measurement elements are necessary. With the help of measurement, the numerical characteristics of objects are established, and this is important for many areas of scientific knowledge, where accurate quantitative characteristics of the objects under study are needed, primarily in natural and technical sciences. As for comparison, such sciences as comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, comparative historical linguistics, and some others are based on this method.
General scientific
Specific scientific
Analysis
Synthesis -
induction
deduction
Currently in Russia there is a revision of the principles of organization and content of education. The activities of educational institutions are subject to standardization and the idea of the need to manage the quality of education is being increasingly advocated. The trends emerging in Russia towards convergence with global economic practice impose other requirements on specialists responsible for the correctness of accounting, reporting and analytical procedures. Under the conditions of economic reforms, the training of top-level economists is of particular importance. Radical changes in the economy inevitably affect the principles and improvement of the analytical training of future accountants, auditors, and financiers. One of the main sections curriculum included in the curriculum is a block of analytical disciplines.
The modern unified course of economic analysis consists of the following interrelated sections (disciplines): "Theory of economic analysis", "Analysis of financial statements", "Comprehensive economic analysis of economic activity". In accordance with the State Educational Standard, students of the specialty "Accounting, analysis and audit" study a special discipline "Theory of economic analysis", which provides for lectures and practical classes, performance of tests, as well as independent study of special literature.
The ultimate goal of teaching the discipline is to reveal the essence and content of economic analysis, its subject and tasks, the information base, the relationship and interdependence of indicators, research methodology, the need and possibility of using various methods and techniques of analysis.
"Theory of Economic Analysis" is one of the major courses in the system vocational training specialists in accounting, analysis and audit, therefore, the knowledge gained is the basis for an in-depth study of other related major disciplines and can be used in practice. To study this subject, previously acquired knowledge is required in such disciplines as: Economic theory, Philosophy, Theory of accounting, Economic and mathematical methods and applied models, Statistics, Finance.
TOPIC 1 Theoretical and methodological foundations of economic analysis
There are the following methods of cognition: general scientific and concrete scientific.
General scientific- characteristic of all sciences, associated with observation, comparison, formalization, modeling, analysis and synthesis.
Specific scientific- characteristic of individual sciences, are detailing and concretization of general scientific methods knowledge.
Analysis- this is a way of cognition based on the decomposition of the object under study into its constituent parts and studying them in interconnection and interdependence.
Synthesis - this is a way of cognition based on the connection of the elements of the object under study into a single whole and the study of the relationships and interdependencies between them.
Analysis is in contradictory unity with the concept of synthesis. Tandem "analysis - synthesis" is a synonym for any scientific research. Analysis without synthesis is impossible, since the whole, which consists of parts, ceases to be a whole when it is divided. They have gained particular importance in the economy, since economic analysis is associated with identifying the influence of factors (parts, causes) on the result (outcome, consequence). In the process of research, that is, in the analysis and synthesis, the following methods are used:
induction- judgment from particular to general (whole);
deduction- a judgment from the general (whole) to the particular.
An essential, sometimes decisive role in the construction of any scientific work is played by the applied research methods.
Regarding research methods, the following circumstance should be noted. In the literature, there is a division of theoretical methods into methods of cognition (dialectical method) and methods of theoretical research proper (analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, etc.).
A similar division takes place with empirical research methods. So, V.I. Zagvyazinsky divides empirical research methods into two groups:
Working, private methods: study of literature, documents and results of activities; observation; survey (oral and written); method of expert assessments; testing.
Complex, general methods, which are based on the application of one or more private methods: survey; monitoring; study and generalization of experience; experimental work; experiment.
However, the name of these groups of methods is not entirely appropriate, since it is difficult to answer the question: "private" - in relation to what? as well as "general" - in relation to what? The distinction should probably go on a different basis.
It is possible to resolve this double division both in relation to theoretical and empirical methods from the standpoint of the structure of activity.
Considering scientific research as a cycle of activity, as its structural units, directed actions, distinctive feature which is the presence of a specific goal.
The structural units of action are operations, correlated with the objective-objective conditions for achieving the goal.
The same goal, correlated with action, can be achieved in different conditions; an action can be implemented by different operations. However, the same operation may be included in different actions(A.N. Leontiev).
Based on this, we highlight:
– methods-operations;
– action methods.
This approach does not contradict the definition of the method, which gives the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- method - a way to achieve a goal, solve a specific problem - a method-action;
- method - a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical development of reality - method-operation.
Research methods are divided into:
- theoretical;
- empirical (empirical - literally - perceived through the senses).
Thus, in the future we will consider research methods in the following grouping (Table 1):
Theoretical methods:
- methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, building a hypothesis, etc.;
– methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc.
Empirical methods:
- methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc.;
– methods-operations: observation, measurement, questioning, testing, etc.
Scientific research methods
| THEORETICAL | EMPIRICAL | ||
| operation methods | action methods | operation methods | action methods |
| - analysis; - synthesis; - comparison; - abstraction; - concretization; - generalization; - formalization; - induction; - deduction; - idealization; - analogy; - modeling; - thought experiment; - imagination | - dialectics; - scientific theories; - proof; - method of knowledge systems analysis; - deductive (axiomatic) - inductive-deductive; - identification and resolution of contradictions; - posing problems; - building hypotheses | - study of literature, documents and results of activities; - observation; - measurement; - survey (oral and written); - expert assessments; - testing | object tracking methods: - inspection; - monitoring; - study and generalization of experience, methods of object transformation: - experimental work; - experiment |
1.1. Theoretical Methods
1.1. Theoretical methods-operations
Theoretical methods - operations are defined (considered) according to the main mental operations, which are: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, formalization, induction, deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.
1) Analysis- this is the decomposition of the whole under study into parts, the allocation of individual features and qualities of a phenomenon, process or relations of phenomena, processes.
Analysis is an organic component of any scientific research and usually enters its first phase, when there is a transition from an undivided description of the object under study to the identification of its structure, composition, properties and features.
One and the same phenomenon, process can be analyzed in many aspects. A comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon allows you to consider it deeper.
2) Synthesis- the connection of various elements, sides of the subject into a single whole - the system.
Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. If we simply connect phenomena, no system of connections will arise between them, only a chaotic accumulation of individual facts is formed. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, but they are closely related.
If the researcher has a more developed ability to analyze, there may be a danger that he will not be able to find a place for details in the phenomenon as a whole.
The relative predominance of synthesis leads to superficiality, to the fact that details essential for the study, which can be of great importance for understanding the phenomenon as a whole, will not be noticed.
3) Comparison is to find similarities or differences between objects.
With the help of comparison, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out.
Comparison is comparing one thing with another. In this case, an important role is played by the bases, or signs of comparison, which determine the possible relationships between objects.
Comparison makes sense only in a set of homogeneous objects that form a class. At the same time, objects that are comparable in one feature may not be comparable in other features.
Analysis is always an integral part of comparison, since for any comparison in phenomena, it is necessary to isolate the corresponding signs of comparison. Since comparison is the establishment of certain relationships between phenomena, then, naturally, synthesis is also used in the course of comparison.
4) abstraction- an operation that allows you to mentally isolate and turn individual aspects, properties or states of the object into an independent object of consideration.
Abstraction underlies the processes of generalization and concept formation.
Abstraction consists in isolating such properties of an object that do not exist by themselves and independently of it. Such isolation is possible only in the mental
in terms of abstraction. Thus, the geometric figure of the body does not really exist by itself and cannot be separated from the body.
But thanks to abstraction, it is mentally singled out, fixed, for example, with the help of a drawing, and independently considered in its special properties.
5) Concretization - the process of finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral and complex.
The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, through concretization, reproduces this integrity (mental concrete), but at a qualitatively different level of cognition of the concrete. Therefore, dialectics distinguishes in the process of cognition in the coordinates "abstraction - concretization" two processes of ascent: ascent from the concrete to the abstract and then the process of ascent from the abstract to the new concrete (G. Hegel).
The dialectic of theoretical thinking consists in the unity of abstraction, the creation of various abstractions and concretization, the movement towards the concrete and its reproduction.
6) Generalization- this is the selection and fixation of relatively stable properties of objects and their relationships.
Generalization implies the display of properties and relations of objects, regardless of the particular and random conditions of their observation.
Comparing objects of a certain group from a certain point of view, a person finds, singles out and designates with a word their identical, common properties, which can become the content of the concept of this group, class of objects.
Separating general properties from private ones and designating them with a word makes it possible to cover the entire variety of objects in an abbreviated, concise form, reduce them to certain classes, and then, through abstractions, operate with concepts without directly referring to individual objects. One and the same real object can be included in both narrow and wide classes, for which the scales of common features are built according to the principle of genus-species relations.
The function of generalization consists in ordering the variety of objects, their classification.
7) Formalization- displaying the results of thinking in precise terms or statements.
It is, as it were, a mental operation of the “second order”.
Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking. In mathematics and formal logic, formalization is understood as the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign form or in a formalized language.
Formalization allows you to perceive concepts abstractly from their content, facilitates the systematization of concepts, and the construction of relationships between them.
Formalization plays an essential role in the development of scientific knowledge, since intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer from the point of view of ordinary consciousness, are of little use for science: in scientific knowledge it is often impossible not only to solve, but even to formulate and pose problems until the structure of the concepts related to them will be clarified.
In scientific judgments, links are established between objects, phenomena or between their specific features.
In scientific conclusions, one judgment proceeds from another; on the basis of already existing conclusions, a new one is made. There are two main types of inference: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).
8) Induction- this is a conclusion leading from particular judgments to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.
9) Deduction- this is a conclusion leading from a general fact to a particular one, from general judgments to particular conclusions.
10) Idealization- this is a mental representation of objects or phenomena that do not exist in reality, but have prototypes in it.
The process of idealization is characterized by abstraction from the properties and relations inherent in the objects of reality and the introduction into the content of the formed concepts of such features that, in principle, cannot belong to their real prototypes.
Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization can be the mathematical concepts of "point", "line"; in physics - material point”, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.
Concepts that are the result of idealization are said to be thought of as idealized (or ideal) objects. Having formed concepts of this kind about objects with the help of idealization, one can subsequently operate with them in reasoning as with really existing objects and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them. In this sense, idealization is closely related to modeling.
11) Analogy- the transfer of knowledge obtained from the consideration of any one object (model) to another, less studied or less accessible for study (prototype, original).
It opens up the possibility of transferring information by analogy from model to prototype. This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling.
12) Modeling– construction and research of models.
The difference between analogy and modeling is that if analogy is one of the mental operations, then modeling can be considered in different cases and as mental operation and as an independent method - an action method.
Simulation is always used together with other research methods, it is especially closely related to the experiment. The study of any phenomenon on its model is a special kind of experiment - a model experiment, which differs from a conventional experiment in that in the process of cognition an “intermediate link” is included - a model that is both a means and an object pilot study replacing the original.
A special kind of modeling is a thought experiment.
13) thought experiment– representation of ideal objects and their interactions that could take place in a real experiment.
At the same time, ideal models and objects help to identify “in pure form” the most important, essential connections and relationships, to mentally play out possible situations, to weed out unnecessary options.
1.2. Theoretical Methods - Cognitive Actions
1) Dialectics- a general scientific method that represents the logic of meaningful creative thinking.
Dialectics- a universal method of knowing the truth.
Dialectics itself is, translated from ancient Greek, the art of arguing, reasoning.
In dialectics, various phenomena are considered in the interaction of opposing forces, the variety of connections in the process of their development. The essence of dialectics is manifested in the presence of conflicting views on phenomena, as well as in their further advancement.
The internal structure of dialectics, as a method, is made up of a number of principles. Their main task is to understand the essence of contradictory phenomena.
Basic principles of dialectics:
- Comprehensive consideration of the objects of study.
This principle is implemented in an integrated approach to the objects of study. Thanks to him, we are able to explore many aspects, properties of the subject of study, bringing the information received into the big picture.
- Consideration of the relationship between the elements in their totality.
Absolutely any process or phenomenon consists of separate elements. Interacting with each other, they form a certain system. Only by studying the qualitative side of each element of the system and its role in this set, we will be able to study the relationship of all elements of the presented set.
- Determinism - (lat. I determine) - the presence of causality - investigative connection all the happenings.
And sometimes there are several connections emanating from the same cause.
- Study in development.
One of the most important principles of the dialectical method of cognition. It consists in studying the subject of research in a "live" state. Only by understanding and studying its past, the history of creation and formation, we will be able to know its present state, and also, in some way, foresee the future.
2) Use of scientific theories, proven by practice
Any theory obtained in the framework of the study acts as a method in the construction of new theories, as well as in the function of a method that determines the content and sequence of the researcher's experimental activity.
Therefore, the difference between scientific theory as a form of scientific knowledge and as a method of cognition in this case is of a functional nature:
the theoretical result of past research acts as a starting point and condition for subsequent research.
3) Proof- a method that involves reasoning, establishing the truth of a statement by citing other statements, the truth of which has already been established.
The proof is different:
- thesis- the statement to be proven
- base(or arguments) - those statements with which the thesis is proved.
For example, the thesis “Platinum conducts electricity" can be proved using the following true statements: "Platinum is a metal" and "All metals conduct electricity."
According to the method of conducting evidence, there are direct and indirect:
With direct proof, the task is to find such convincing arguments from which the thesis logically follows.
Indirect evidence establishes the validity of the thesis by revealing the fallacy of the opposite assumption, the antithesis.
Evidence Rules:
1. The thesis and arguments must be clear and precise.
2. The thesis must remain identical throughout the proof.
3. The thesis should not contain a logical contradiction.
4. The arguments given in support of the thesis must themselves be true, not subject to doubt, must not contradict each other and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.
5. The proof must be complete.
4) The method of analyzing knowledge systems - is to study scientific achievements in the field of research when choosing an initial theory, hypothesis, for solving a chosen research problem, substantiating new possibilities for applying scientific results, for harmonizing with other knowledge systems.
Any scientific knowledge system has a certain independence in relation to the reflected subject area. In addition, knowledge in such systems is expressed using a language whose properties affect the relationship of knowledge systems to the objects being studied - for example, if any sufficiently developed psychological, sociological, pedagogical concept is translated into, say, English, German, French - Will it be unequivocally perceived and understood in England, Germany and France? Further, the use of language as a carrier of concepts in such systems presupposes one or another logical systematization and logically organized use of linguistic units to express knowledge. And, finally, no system of knowledge exhausts the entire content of the object under study. In it, only a certain, historically concrete part of such content always receives a description and explanation.
The method of analysis of scientific knowledge systems plays an important role in empirical and theoretical research tasks: when choosing an initial theory, a hypothesis for solving a chosen problem; when distinguishing between empirical and theoretical knowledge, semi-empirical and theoretical solutions scientific problem; when substantiating the equivalence or priority of the use of certain mathematical tools in various theories related to the same subject area; when studying the possibilities of disseminating previously formulated theories, concepts, principles, etc. to new subject areas; substantiation of new possibilities for the practical application of knowledge systems; when simplifying and clarifying knowledge systems for training, popularization; to harmonize with other knowledge systems, etc.
5) Methods for constructing scientific theories
5.1) Deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions of the axiom (synonym - postulates), from which all other provisions of this theory (theorem) are logically derived through proof.
5.2) Inductive-deductive method- consists in the accumulation of an empirical basis on the basis of which the theory of research is built (induction), and then these generalizations are extended to all objects and phenomena covered in this theory (deduction).
The inductive-deductive method is used to construct most of the theories in the sciences of nature, society and man: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.
6) Identification and resolution of contradictions,
7) Statement of the problem,
8) Building hypotheses
9) Research planning etc.
(were reflected in the construction of phases, stages and stages of scientific research).
2.empirical methods.
2.1.Empirical methods-operations.
1) Study of literature, documents and results of activities
The issues of working with scientific literature will be considered separately below, since this is not only a research method, but also an obligatory procedural component of any scientific work.
A variety of documentation also serves as a source of factual material for the study: archival materials in historical research; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc.
The study of performance results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of professional training of pupils and students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; and, for example, in archeology, during excavations, an analysis of the results of people's activities: according to the remains of tools, utensils, dwellings, etc. allows you to restore their way of life in a particular era.
2) Observation - a purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the outside world, associated with the solution of a certain scientific problem.
Observation is the most informative research method.
This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes under study, accessible to the perception of the observer - both directly and with the help of various instruments.
Depending on the goals that are pursued in the process of observation, the latter can be scientific and non-scientific.
Scientific observations involve obtaining certain information for further theoretical understanding and interpretation, for the approval or refutation of a hypothesis, etc.
Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:
Definition of the purpose of observation (for what, for what purpose?);
Choice of object, process, situation (what to observe?);
Choice of method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);
The choice of methods for registering the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?);
Processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).
According to the method of organization of observation, it can be:
- open and hidden, field and laboratory,
According to the method of obtaining information, observations are divided into:
- direct and instrumental.
According to the scope of the studied objects, there are
- continuous and selective observations;
By frequency - constant, periodic and single.
A special case of observation is introspection widely used, for example, in psychology.
Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, therefore, the theoretical construction of knowledge would also be impossible.
However, observation as a method of cognition has a number of significant drawbacks. The personal characteristics of the researcher, his interests, and finally, his psychological condition can significantly affect the results of the observation.
The objective results of observation are even more subject to distortion in those cases when the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, on confirming his existing hypothesis.
The disadvantage of observation is subjectivity.
Replacing direct observation with instruments indefinitely expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subjective influence of the researcher can still take place.
To obtain objective results of observation, it is necessary to comply with the requirements intersubjectivity, that is, the observational data should (and/or can) be obtained and recorded, if possible, by other observers.
Observation is most often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.
2) Measurement is cognitive process, which consists in comparing a given value with some of its value, taken as a comparison standard.
Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. So, almost every person during the day takes measurements dozens of times, looking at the clock.
You can select a specific dimension structure that includes the following elements:
A cognizing subject that carries out measurement with certain cognitive goals;
Means of measurement, among which there can be both instruments and instruments designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;
The object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;
Method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;
The result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using the appropriate names or characters.
The epistemological substantiation of the measurement method is inextricably linked with the scientific understanding of the ratio of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object (phenomenon) being studied. Although only quantitative characteristics are recorded using this method, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative certainty of the object under study.
It is thanks to the qualitative certainty that it is possible to single out the quantitative characteristics to be measured. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the object under study means both the relative independence of these aspects and their deep interconnection. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics makes it possible to study them during the measurement process, and use the measurement results to analyze the qualitative aspects of the object.
Measurement accuracy depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors in the measurement process.
Objective factors:
– the possibility of identifying stable quantitative characteristics in the object under study To.
In many cases, research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes is difficult, and sometimes even impossible.
– the possibilities of measuring instruments;
– conditions under which the measurement process takes place.
In some cases, finding the exact value of the quantity is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the trajectory of an electron in an atom, and so on.
Subjective factors:
- choice of measurement methods;
- organization of this measurement process;
- complex of cognitive abilities of the subject
(from the qualification of the experimenter to his ability to correctly and competently interpret the results).
Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other quantities associated with the first functional dependence. According to the measured values of the mass and volume of the body, its density is determined; the resistivity of a conductor can be found from the measured values of resistance, length and cross-sectional area of the conductor, etc. Particularly important is the role indirect measurements in cases where direct measurement in the conditions of objective reality is impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations based on the use of measurement data of other physical quantities.
3) Survey is the process of obtaining the required information through the answers of respondents (surveyed subjects) to the questions of the researcher.
This empirical method is used only in the social and human sciences.
Poll types:
- Oral survey (conversation, interview).
The essence of the method is clear from its name.
During the survey, the questioner has personal contact with the respondent, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the respondent reacts to a particular question.
The observer can, if necessary, ask various additional questions and thus obtain additional data on some uncovered issues.
Oral surveys give concrete results, and with their help you can get comprehensive answers to complex questions of interest to the researcher. However, the respondents answer the questions of a “delicate” nature in writing much more frankly and at the same time give more detailed and thorough answers.
The respondent spends less time and energy on a verbal response than on a written one. However, this method also has its negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can get additional information through leading questions of the researcher; facial expression or any gesture of the researcher has some effect on the respondent.
Questions used for interviews are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where space should also be left for recording (recording) the answer.
Requirements for the question:
1) the survey should not be random, but systematic;
2) questions that are more understandable to the respondent are asked earlier, more difficult questions are asked later;
2) questions should be concise specific and understandable to all respondents;
3) questions should not contradict ethical standards.
4) during the interview, the researcher should be with the respondent alone, without outside witnesses;
5) each oral question is read from the question sheet (questionnaire) verbatim, unchanged;
6) exactly adheres to the order of the questions; the respondent should not see the questionnaire or be able to read the questions following the next one;
7) the interview should be short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the age and intellectual level of the respondents;
8) the interviewer should not influence the respondent in any way (indirectly prompt the answer, shake his head in disapproval, nod his head, etc.);
9) the interviewer can, if necessary, if this answer is unclear, ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: “What did you mean by that?”, “Explain a little more!”).
10) answers are recorded in the questionnaire only during the survey.
The responses are then analyzed and interpreted.
- Written survey - questioning.
It is based on a pre-designed questionnaire (questionnaire), and the answers of respondents (interviewees) to all positions of the questionnaire constitute the desired empirical information.
The quality of the empirical information obtained as a result of a questionnaire depends on factors such as:
Formulation of questions in the questionnaire, which should be clear to the interviewee;
Qualification,
conscientiousness,
Psychological features researchers;
The situation of the survey, its conditions;
The emotional state of the respondents;
Customs and traditions, ideas, everyday situation;
and also attitudes towards the survey.
Therefore, when using such information, it is always necessary to make allowance for the inevitability of subjective distortions due to its specific individual “refraction” in the minds of the respondents. And when it comes to fundamentally important issues, along with the survey, they also turn to other methods - observation, expert assessments, and analysis of documents.
Particular attention is paid to the development of a questionnaire - a questionnaire containing a series of questions necessary to obtain information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study.
The questionnaire must meet the following requirements:
To be justified in relation to the purposes of its use, that is, to provide the required information;
Have stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation under study;
The wording of the questions should be clear to the interviewee and consistent;
Questionnaire questions should not cause negative emotions in the respondent (respondent).
Questions can be closed or open form.
A question is called closed if it contains a complete set of answers in the questionnaire. The respondent only marks the option that coincides with his opinion.
This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the time of filling out and at the same time makes the questionnaire suitable for processing on a computer. But sometimes there is a need to find out directly the opinion of the respondent on a question that excludes pre-prepared answers. In this case, open-ended questions are used.
When answering an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Therefore, such a response is more individualized.
Compliance with a number of other requirements also contributes to the increase in the reliability of answers. One of them is that the respondent should be provided with the opportunity to evade the answer, to express an uncertain opinion. To do this, the rating scale should provide for answer options: “hard to say”, “difficult to answer”, “it happens in different ways”, “whenever”, etc. But the predominance of such options in the answers is evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent, or the unsuitability of the wording of the question to obtain the necessary information.
In order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon or process under study, it is not necessary to interview the entire contingent, since the object of study can be numerically very large. In cases where the object of study exceeds several hundred people, a selective survey is used.
4) The method of expert assessments is a type of survey associated with the involvement in the assessment of the studied phenomena, processes of people who are the most competent in the issue under study
The opinions of experts, complementing and rechecking each other, make it possible to fairly objectively evaluate the research.
The use of this method requires a number of conditions:
Careful selection of experts - people who know well the area being assessed, the object under study and are capable of an objective, unbiased assessment.
The choice of an accurate and convenient rating system and appropriate measurement scales, which streamlines judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain quantities.
It is often necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for an unambiguous assessment in order to minimize errors and make assessments comparable.
If experts acting independently of each other consistently give identical or similar estimates or express similar opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objective ones. If the estimates differ greatly, then this indicates either an unsuccessful choice of the grading system and measurement scales, or the incompetence of experts.
Heuristics are techniques and decision-making methods that use the intuition and experience of specialists in solving similar problems.
Heuristic forecasting methods are methods used to predict the behavior of complex systems with many parameters and goals, when it is not possible to formalize the forecast in the form of mathematical models.
Distinguish two groups of heuristic forecasting methods :
- intuitive, based on personal erudition, insight and expert experience.
The method of expert assessments (an intuitive group of methods) has received the maximum development, the essence of which is the use of a group of experts (specialists of a certain areas of activity) in the development of predictive solutions.
- analytical, based on the logical analysis of the model of the development process of the object of forecasting.
The analytical method allows you to carry out a logical analysis of any predictable situation and present it in the form of an analytical note. He assumes independent work an expert on the analysis of trends, assessment of the state and development paths of the predicted object.
Methods of expert assessments
a) Individual
- The “interview” method allows for direct contact between an expert and a specialist according to the “question-answer” scheme, during which the forecaster, in accordance with a pre-developed program, puts questions to the expert regarding the prospects for the development of the predicted object.
- The scenario writing method is based on determining the logic of the development of a process or phenomenon in time under various conditions, determining the development goal of the predicted object.
A scenario is a picture that reflects a consistent detailed solution of a problem, identification of possible obstacles, detection of serious shortcomings in order to resolve the issue of a possible termination of ongoing or completion of ongoing work on a predicted object.
- The "tree of goals" method is used in the analysis of systems, objects, processes in which several structural or hierarchical levels can be distinguished.
The "tree of goals" is built by sequentially highlighting smaller and smaller components at lower levels. The figure shows that each branch at each level splits into two branches of the next lower level.
b) Collective
- The "Delphi" method consists in organizing a systematic collection of expert assessments, their mathematical and statistical processing and consistent adjustment by experts of their assessments based on the results of each processing cycle.
Its main features are: anonymity of experts; a multi-round procedure for interviewing experts through their questioning; providing experts with information, including its exchange between experts, after each round of the survey, while maintaining the anonymity of the assessments; substantiation of the experts' answers at the request of the organizers. The method is designed to obtain relatively reliable information in situations of its acute insufficiency, for example, in problems of long-term scientific and technical complex forecasting.
- The method of "collective generation of ideas" (brainstorming) is appropriate for determining options development of the object of forecasting and obtaining productive results in a short time by involving all experts in an active creative process.
The essence of this method is to mobilize the creative potential of experts during brainstorming and generate ideas, followed by the destruction (destruction, criticism) of these ideas and the formulation of counter-ideas.
- The “commissions” method consists in determining the consistency of expert opinions on promising areas for the development of the forecasting object, previously formulated by individual specialists.
The final result is displayed either as an average judgment, or as an arithmetic mean, or as a weighted average of the assessment.
5) Testing - a diagnostic procedure, which consists in the application of tests.
Tests are usually given to the subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks, the solution of which does not take much time and also requires unambiguous solutions, or in the form of some short-term practical work examinees, for example qualification trial work V vocational education, in labor economics, etc. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.
Here, perhaps, are all the empirical methods-operations that the scientific community has at its disposal today. Next, we will consider empirical methods-actions, which are based on the use of methods-operations and their combinations.
2.2. Empirical methods (methods-actions)
Empirical methods-actions should, first of all, be divided into two classes.
2.2.1. Object tracking methods are methods for studying an object without significant changes or transformations.
After all, according to the principle of complementarity, the researcher (observer) cannot but change the object.
These include: the tracking method itself and its particular manifestations - examination, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.
1) Tracking - a method consisting of the operations of observation and measurement.
Tracking, often, in a number of sciences is, perhaps, the only empirical method-action. For example, in astronomy. After all, astronomers cannot yet influence the studied space objects. The only possibility is to track their state through methods-operations: observation and measurement. The same, to a large extent, applies to such branches of scientific knowledge as geography, demography, etc., where the researcher cannot change anything in the object of study.
In addition, tracking is also used when the goal is to study the natural functioning of an object. For example, when studying certain features of radioactive radiation or when studying the reliability of technical devices, which is checked by their long-term operation.
2) Survey - as a special case of the tracking method - is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher.
A synonym for the word “examination” is “inspection”, which means that the examination is basically the initial study of an object, carried out to familiarize itself with its state, functions, structure, etc.
Surveys are most often applied in relation to organizational structures - enterprises, institutions, etc. - or in relation to public entities, for example, settlements for which examinations can be external and internal.
External surveys: a survey of the socio-cultural and economic situation in the region, a survey of the goods and services market and the labor market, a survey of the state of employment of the population, etc. Internal surveys: surveys within the enterprise, institutions - surveys of the state of the production process, surveys of the contingent of employees, etc.
The examination is carried out by means of methods-operations empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written survey, involvement of experts, etc.
Any examination is carried out according to a detailed program developed in advance, in which the content of the work, its tools (compilation of questionnaires, test kits, questionnaires, a list of documents to be studied, etc.), as well as criteria for assessing the phenomena and processes to be studied, are planned in detail.
This is followed by the following stages: collecting information, summarizing materials, summing up and preparing reporting materials.
At each stage, it may be necessary to adjust the survey program when the researcher or a group of researchers conducting it is convinced that the collected data is not enough to obtain the desired results, or the collected data do not reflect the picture of the object under study, etc.
According to the degree of depth, detail and systematization, surveys are divided into:
– aerobatic(reconnaissance) surveys carried out for preliminary, relatively surface orientation in the object under study;
– specialized(partial) surveys conducted to study certain aspects, aspects of the object under study;
– modular(complex) examinations - for the study of whole blocks, complexes of questions programmed by the researcher on the basis of a sufficiently detailed preliminary study of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;
– systemic surveys - conducted already as full-fledged independent studies on the basis of isolating and formulating their subject, purpose, hypothesis, etc., and involving a holistic consideration of the object, its system-forming factors.
At what level to conduct a survey in each case, the researcher or the research team decides, depending on the goals and objectives of scientific work.
3) Monitoring is a constant supervision, regular monitoring of the state of an object, the values of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena.
For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.
4) Study and generalization of experience (activity).
When conducting research, the study and generalization of experience (organizational, industrial, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) used for various purposes:
- to determine the existing level of detail of enterprises, organizations, institutions,
- functioning of the technological process,
- identifying shortcomings and bottlenecks in the practice of a particular field of activity,
- studying the effectiveness of the application of scientific recommendations,
- identifying new patterns of activity that are born in the creative search of advanced leaders, specialists and entire teams.
The study and generalization of best practices is one of the main sources for the development of science, since this method allows to identify actual scientific problems, creates a basis for studying the patterns of development of processes in a number of areas of scientific knowledge, primarily in the so-called technological sciences.
The object of study can be:
Mass experience - to identify the main trends in the development of a particular industry National economy;
Negative experience - to identify typical shortcomings and bottlenecks;
Best practices, in the process of which new positive findings are identified, generalized, become the property of science and practice.
Best Practice Criteria:
1) Novelty. It can manifest itself in varying degrees: from the introduction of new provisions in science to the effective application of already known provisions.
2) High performance. Best practices should deliver above average results for the industry, group of similar facilities, etc.
3) Compliance with modern achievements of science. Achievement high results does not always indicate the correspondence of experience to the requirements of science.
4) Stability- maintaining the effectiveness of the experiment under changing conditions, achieving high results for a sufficiently long time.
5) Replicability– possibility of use of experience by other people and organizations. Best practices can be made available to other people and organizations. It cannot be associated only with the personal characteristics of its author.
6) Optimality experience - achieving high results with a relatively economical expenditure of resources, and also not to the detriment of solving other problems.
The study and generalization of experience is carried out by such empirical methods as operations such as observation, surveys, the study of literature and documents, etc.
The disadvantage of the tracking method and its varieties - survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience as empirical methods-actions - is the relatively passive role of the researcher - he can study, track and generalize only what has developed in the surrounding reality, without being able to actively influence what is happening. processes. We emphasize once again that this shortcoming is often due to objective circumstances. This shortcoming is deprived of object transformation methods: experimental work and experiment.
Another class of methods is associated with the active transformation of the object being studied by the researcher - let's call these methods transforming methods - this class will include such methods as experimental work and experiment.
2.2.2. Transformative methods - methods associated with the active transformation of the object being studied by the researcher
The methods that transform the object of study include experimental work and experiment. The difference between them lies in the degree of arbitrariness of the researcher's actions.
1) Experimental work - a non-strict research procedure in which the researcher makes changes to the object based on the idea of expediency
An experiment is a completely rigorous procedure where the researcher must strictly follow the requirements of the experiment.
Experimental work is, as already mentioned, a method of making deliberate changes to the object under study with a certain degree of arbitrariness. So, the geologist himself determines where to look, what to look for, by what methods - to drill wells, dig pits, etc. In the same way, an archaeologist, paleontologist determines where and how to excavate. Or in pharmacy, a long search for new drugs is carried out - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes a drug. Or, for example, experienced work in agriculture.
Experimental work as a research method is widely used in the sciences related to human activities - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models are created and tested, as a rule, copyright: firms, educational institutions etc., or various author's methods are created and tested. Or an experimental textbook, an experimental preparation, a prototype are created and then they are tested in practice.
Experimental work is in a sense similar to a thought experiment - both here and there, as it were, the question is posed: “what happens if ...?” Only in a mental experiment the situation is played out “in the mind”, while in experimental work the situation is played out by action.
But, experimental work is not a blind chaotic search through “trial and error”.
Experimental work becomes a method of scientific research with the following conditions :
- When it is put on the basis of data obtained by science in accordance with a theoretically justified hypothesis.
- When it is accompanied by deep analysis, conclusions are drawn from it and theoretical generalizations are created.
In experimental work, all methods-operations of empirical research are used: observation, measurement, analysis of documents, peer review, etc.
Experimental work occupies, as it were, an intermediate place between object tracking and experiment.
It is a way of active intervention of the researcher in the object. However, experimental work gives, in particular, only the results of the effectiveness or inefficiency of certain innovations in a general, summary form. Which of the factors of the implemented innovations give a greater effect, which less, how they influence each other - experimental work cannot answer these questions.
For a deeper study of the essence of a particular phenomenon, the changes occurring in it, and the reasons for these changes, in the process of research, they resort to varying the conditions for the occurrence of phenomena and processes and the factors influencing them. Experiment serves this purpose.
2) Experiment - a general empirical research method, the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and controlled conditions.
Basic principle of the experiment- a change in each research procedure of only one of some factors, while the rest remain unchanged and controllable.
If it is necessary to check the influence of another factor, the following research procedure is carried out, where this last factor is changed, and all other controlled factors remain unchanged, and so on.
During the experiment, the researcher deliberately changes the course of some phenomenon by introducing a new factor into it.
A new factor introduced or changed by the experimenter is called experimental factor, or independent variable.
Factors that have changed under the influence of the independent variable are called dependent variables.
There are many classifications of experiments in the literature.
Depending on the nature of the object under study, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. experiments.
According to the main goal, experiments are divided into verification (empirical verification of a certain hypothesis) and search (collection of the necessary empirical information to build or refine the put forward conjecture, idea).
Depending on the nature and variety of the means and conditions of the experiment and the methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions, for example, in space), laboratory (under artificial conditions) experiment.
Finally, one can speak of qualitative and quantitative experiments, based on the difference in the results of the experiment.
Qualitative experiments, as a rule, are undertaken to identify the impact of certain factors on the process under study without establishing an exact quantitative relationship between characteristic quantities.
To ensure the exact value of the essential parameters that affect the behavior of the object under study, a quantitative experiment is necessary.
Depending on the nature of the experimental research strategy, there are:
1) experiments carried out by the method of "trial and error";
2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;
3) experiments using the "black box" method, leading to conclusions from knowledge of the function to knowledge of the structure of the object;
4) experiments with the help of an “open box”, which allow, based on knowledge of the structure, to create a sample with specified functions.
In recent years, experiments have become widespread, in which the computer acts as a means of cognition. They are especially important when real systems do not allow either direct experimentation or experimentation with the help of material models. In some cases computer experiments dramatically simplify the research process - with their help, situations are “played out” by building a model of the system under study.
In talking about experiment as a method of cognition, one cannot fail to note one more type of experimentation, which plays an important role in natural science research. This is a mental experiment - the researcher operates not with concrete, sensual material, but with an ideal, model image. All knowledge gained in the course of mental experimentation is subject to practical verification, in particular in a real experiment. Therefore, this type of experimentation should be attributed to the methods of theoretical knowledge (see above). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is really experimental only when the conclusion is drawn not from speculative reasoning, but from sensory, practical observation of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or thought experiment is not actually an experiment. A thought experiment is an ordinary theoretical reasoning that takes outer shape experiment".
The theoretical methods of scientific knowledge should also include some other types of experiment, for example, the so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. "The essence of the method of mathematical experiment is that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description in the language of the corresponding section of mathematics." A simulation experiment is an idealized study by simulating the behavior of an object instead of actual experimentation. In other words, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. More details about mathematical modeling and simulation experiments are discussed below in the third chapter.
So, we have tried to describe the research methods from the most general positions. Naturally, in each branch of scientific knowledge, certain traditions have developed in the interpretation and use of research methods. Thus, the frequency analysis method in linguistics will refer to the tracking method (method-action) carried out by the methods of document analysis and measurement operations. Experiments are usually divided into ascertaining, training, control and comparative. But all of them are experiments (methods-actions) carried out by methods-operations: observations, measurements, testing, etc.
Scientific research can be defined as purposeful knowledge. To conduct research means to study, to learn patterns, systematizing facts.
Scientific research has a number of distinguishing features: the presence of a clear formulated goal; desire to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; substantiation and verification of the obtained conclusions and generalizations.
It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and ordinary knowledge. Scientific knowledge, unlike everyday knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, there is a need for a constant search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.
What are research methods
Research methods are ways to achieve the goal in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called "Methodology".
Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and the actor (subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.
Translated from Greek"method" means "way of knowing". A correctly chosen method contributes to a faster and more accurate achievement of the goal, serves as a special compass that helps the researcher avoid most mistakes, paving his way.
The difference between a method and a technique and methodology
Very often there is confusion in the concepts of method and methodology. The methodology is a system of ways of knowing. For example, when conducting a sociological study, quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined. The totality of these methods will be a research methodology.
The concept of methodology is close in meaning to the research procedure, its sequence, algorithm. Without a quality technique, even the right method will not give a good result.
If methodology is a way of implementing a method, then methodology is the study of methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is
Classification of scientific research methods
All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.
Philosophical Methods
The most famous among them are the oldest methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutical, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistical and others.
General scientific methods
An analysis of the process of cognition allows us to identify the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human knowledge is built. These include theoretical level methods:
- Analysis - the division of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
- Synthesis is the combination of separate parts into a single whole.
- Abstraction is the mental selection of any essential properties of the subject under consideration while simultaneously abstracting from a number of other features inherent in it.
- Generalization - the establishment of a unifying property of objects.
- Induction is a way of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.
Examples of research methods
For example, by studying the properties of certain liquids, it is revealed that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, they conclude that all liquids have the property of elasticity.
Deduction- a way of constructing a private conclusion, based on a general judgment.
For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper - metal. It can be concluded that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.
Analogy- such a method of cognition, in which knowledge of a number of common features for objects allows us to conclude that they are similar in other ways.
For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously established that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. Based on this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).
Modeling- creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its study.
In addition to methods of the theoretical level, there are methods of the empirical level.
Classification of general scientific methods
Empirical level methods
| Method | Definition | Example |
| Observation | Research based on the senses; perception of phenomena | In order to study one of the stages in the development of children, J. Piaget observed the manipulative games of children with certain toys. On the basis of observation, he concluded that the child's ability to put objects into each other occurs later than the motor skills necessary for this. |
| Description | Fixing information | The anthropologist writes down all the facts about the life of the tribe, without exerting any influence on it. |
| Measurement | Comparison by common features | Determining body temperature with a thermometer; determination of weight by balancing weights on a balance scale; radar distance determination |
| Experiment | Research based on observation in conditions created specifically for this | On a busy city street, groups of people in various numbers (2,3,4,5,6, etc. people) stopped and looked up. Passers-by stopped nearby and also began to look up. It turned out that the percentage of those who joined increased significantly when the experimental group reached 5 people. |
| Comparison | Research based on the study of the similarities and differences of subjects; comparison of one thing with another | Comparison of economic indicators of the base year with the past, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about economic trends |
Theoretical Level Methods
| Method | Definition | Example |
| Formalization | Disclosure of the essence of processes by displaying them in a sign-symbolic form | Flight simulation based on knowledge of the main characteristics of the aircraft |
| Axiomatization | Application of axioms to construct theories | Geometry of Euclid |
| Hypothetical-deductive | Creating a system of hypotheses and deriving conclusions from this | The discovery of the planet Neptune was based on several hypotheses. As a result of their analysis, it was concluded that Uranus is not the last planet. solar system. The theoretical justification for finding a new planet in a certain place was then confirmed empirically |
Specific scientific (special) methods
In any scientific discipline, a set of certain methods is applied, related to different "levels" of methodology. It is quite difficult to tie any method to a particular discipline. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Let's take a look at some of them.
Biology:
- genealogical - the study of heredity, the compilation of pedigrees;
- historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that have taken place over a long period of time (billions of years);
- biochemical - the study of the chemical processes of the body, etc.
Jurisprudence:
- historical and legal - obtaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods time;
- comparative legal - search and study of similarities and differences between the state-legal institutions of countries;
- right sociological method - the study of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, surveys, etc.
In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:
- laboratory diagnostics - the study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
- functional diagnostics - the study of organs by their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
- structural diagnostics - the identification of changes in the structure of the body.
Economy:
- economic analysis - study constituent parts the whole being studied;
- statistical and economic method - analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
- sociological method - questioning, survey, interviewing, etc.
- design and construction, economic modeling, etc.
Psychology:
- experimental method - the creation of such circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
- method of observation - through the organized perception of the phenomenon, a mental phenomenon is explained;
- biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.
Empirical study data analysis
Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience, practice.
The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:
- Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
- Comparison. Similarities and differences between the two samples are identified.
- Exploring dependencies. Establishment of interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
- Volume reduction. The study of all variables in the presence of a large number of them, identifying the most informative.
- Grouping.
The results of any study conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research works is quite wide: test papers, abstracts, reports, term papers, abstracts, theses, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and evaluation of the findings, the results of the research are used in practice.
Instead of a conclusion
A. M. Novikov and D. A. Novikova in the book “ ” in the methods of theoretical and empirical research also distinguishes methods-operations (a way to achieve a goal) and methods-actions (solution of a specific problem). This specification is not accidental. A more rigid systematization of scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.
Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru
) experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.
Separate parts of the scientific method were used by the philosophers of ancient Greece. They developed the rules of logic and principles for conducting a dispute, the pinnacle of which was sophistry. However, the goal of the sophists was not so much scientific truth as victory in lawsuits where the formalism exceeded any other approach. At the same time, the conclusions obtained as a result of reasoning were given preference over observed practice. A famous example is the claim that swift-footed Achilles will never overtake a tortoise. The opponent of the Sophists, Socrates, is credited with saying that truth is born in a dispute.
The experiment is divided into the following stages:
- Collection of information;
- Observation of a phenomenon;
- Analysis;
- Developing a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon;
- Development of a theory that explains the phenomenon based on assumptions in a broader sense.
Scientific research
Scientific research is the process of studying, experimenting, conceptualizing and testing a theory associated with obtaining scientific knowledge.
Research types:
- Basic research undertaken primarily to generate new knowledge regardless of application perspectives.
- Applied research.
Observations
Main article: Observation (science)
Observation is a purposeful process of perception of objects of reality, the results of which are recorded in the description. Repeated observation is necessary to obtain meaningful results.
- direct observation, which is carried out without the use of technical means;
- indirect observation - using technical devices.
measurements
Measurement is the determination of quantitative values, properties of an object using special technical devices and units of measurement.
Truth and Prejudice
Truth and faith are two sisters, daughters of the same Supreme Parent, who can never come into conflict with each other, unless someone, out of some vanity and evidence of his own wisdom, rivets enmity on them. And prudent and good people must consider whether there is any way to explain and avert the imaginary civil strife between them.
Now the assumption of divine intervention automatically brings the theory that used such an assumption out of the bounds of science, because such an assumption is in principle unverifiable and unrefutable (that is, contrary to Popper's criterion). At the same time, the personal beliefs of scientists associated with religion are the most difficult to overcome. In their scientific work, they are forced to look for the causes of phenomena exclusively in the natural field, without relying on the supernatural. As academician Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg noted,
In all cases known to me, believing physicists and astronomers in their scientific works oh, they don’t mention God in a single word ... Dealing with a specific scientific activity, the believer, in fact, forgets about God ...
Even without religion, a simple belief in something based on previous experience or knowledge can change the interpretation of the results of observation. A person who has a certain belief about a certain phenomenon is often inclined to accept facts as evidence of his faith, just because they do not directly contradict it. In analysis, it may turn out that the object of belief is only a special case of more general phenomena (for example, the Corpuscular-wave theory considers previous ideas about light in the form of particles or waves to be special cases) or is not related to the object of observation at all (for example, Teplorod's concept of temperature ).
No less anti-scientific can be ideological prejudice. An example of the incompatibility of such prejudice and the scientific method is the 1948 session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, as a result of which genetics in the USSR was banned until 1952 and biological science was stagnant for almost 20 years. One of the main theses of the "Michurinsk" biologists headed by T. D. Lysenko against genetics was that the founders classical theory heredity (materialistic in essence) Mendel, Weisman and Morgan allegedly, as a result of their idealism, created an incorrect idealistic theory with elements of mysticism instead of a correct materialistic one:
As we noted earlier, the clash of materialistic and idealistic worldviews in biological science has taken place throughout its history ... It is quite clear to us that the main provisions of Mendelism-Morganism are false. They do not reflect the reality of living nature and are an example of metaphysics and idealism ... The true ideological background of Morganist genetics was well (by chance for our Morganists) revealed by the physicist E. Schrödinger. In his book "What is life from the point of view of physics?", approvingly expounding Weismann's chromosome theory, he came to a number of philosophical conclusions. Here is the main one: "... the personal individual soul is equal to the omnipresent, omniscient, eternal soul." Schrödinger considers this his main conclusion "... the greatest that a biologist can give, trying to prove both the existence of God and the immortality of the soul with one blow."
Criticism of the scientific method
Although post-positivists reject the notion of truth, nevertheless, other methodologists of science express the hope of finding common criteria that would make it possible to approach a more adequate description of the world.
Paradigm Phenomenon
Subtle falsificationism
Knowledge and tacit knowledge
see also
- Research and development work
Notes
- Isaac Newton (1687, 1713, 1726). "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", the third part of "The System of the World". Translation from Latin and notes by A. N. Krylov. M., Nauka, 1989, 688 s ISBN 5-02-000747-1
- scientific method - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. merriam-webster.com. - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
- Dobrynina V. I. and others. Philosophy of the XX century. Tutorial . - M .: CINO of the "Knowledge" Society of Russia, 1997. - S. 288. - ISBN 5-7646-0013-8
- Discorsi e dimonstrazioni mathematiche intorno à due nuove scienze attenenti alla meccanica ed movimenti locali. Treatise "Conversations and Mathematical Foundations of Two New Sciences Concerning Mechanics and Laws of Fall" in English translation.
- Lomonosov M. V. The phenomenon of Venus on the Sun, observed at the St. Petersburg Imperial Mayan Academy of Sciences on the 26th day of 1761 // Lomonosov M. V. Complete Works. - M.; L., 1955. - T. 4. - p. 368
- Vitaly Ginzburg Faith in God is incompatible with scientific thinking // Search. - 1998. - № 29-30.
- Alexandrov V. Ya. Difficult years of Soviet biology
- On the situation in biological science: verbatim report of the VASKhNIIL session. 1948.
- V. N. Porus Principles of rational criticism
- I. Lakatos "Falsification and Methodology of Research Programs" Chapter 2. Fallibism vs. Falsificationism
- Paul Feyerabend Against the Method. Essay on the anarchist theory of knowledge.
- T. Kuhn “Logic and methodology of science. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chapter VI. Anomaly and occurrence scientific discoveries
- (English) Nicholas Copernicus. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, 1543
Links
- Martin Goldstein, Inge F. Goldstein. How do we know. Study of the process of scientific knowledge / Abbr. per. from English. A. E. Petrova. - M .: Knowledge, 1984. - 256 p.
- Nesterov, Vyacheslav Series of lectures: Scientific knowledge as a model. Modern theory of truth. . sinor.ru. Retrieved April 4, 2008.
Good example- writing a term paper, where also in the introduction you have to list the methods of conducting research that were used when writing a scientific work.
In this article, you will learn the definition of this concept, what are the methods of scientific research in the thesis, which of them are recommended to be used in projects on certain topics, as well as the features of each method.
What are methods in the thesis
The research method of the graduation project is the use of the principles of the worldview in relation to the processes of cognition.
In simpler terms, the research methodology is nothing more than a correlation of research data with other fundamental sciences, the main of which is philosophy.
In science, a huge number of methods are used. But we will be specifically interested only in what methods are used in the thesis. And all because their choice directly depends on what goals and objectives were set in the work. Based on this, the student will determine the methods of graduation design.
Despite the huge number of methods in science, everyone will pursue a single goal: to find the truth, the correct understanding and explanation of the current situation, and in rare cases, even try to change it.
Classification
Research methods used in the thesis can be divided into:
- general (theoretical, universal) research methods in the thesis;
- private (empirical or practical) research methods in the thesis.
Let's take a closer look at each group in order to reasonably choose the right method for solving a specific problem.
Theoretical Methods
These methods are universal and serve to systematize facts in scientific work.
When writing a dissertation, the following methods are mainly used.
Analysis
The most commonly used method used in the thesis.
Methods of analysis in the thesis are designed to decompose the subject or the described phenomenon into signs and properties in order to study it more specifically.
As an example, we can cite frequent comparisons of different artistic styles, automobile characteristics of different brands, styles of expressing the thoughts of writers.
Synthesis
In contrast to the previous method, synthesis is designed to combine individual elements(properties, signs) into a single whole for a more detailed study.
This method of research is quite closely related to the method of analysis, since it is always present as the main element that unites the individual results of the analysis.
Modeling
With the modeling method, the object of study that exists in reality is transferred to an artificially created model. This is done in order to more successfully model situations and obtain results that would be difficult to achieve in reality.
Analogy
With analogy, a search is made for the similarity of objects and phenomena according to certain characteristics.
Deduction
The deduction method allows you to draw conclusions about certain phenomena and objects, based on data on a large number of small (private) features.
Induction
In contrast to the previous method, the inductive method encourages reasoning from the big picture to particular points.
Generalization
The method of generalization is somewhat similar to deduction. It also makes a general conclusion about objects or phenomena based on many small features.
Experts distinguish:
- inductive generalization (empirical) - the transition from more specific properties / characteristics of an object / phenomenon to more general ones;
- analytical generalization - the transition from one opinion to another in the course of the thought process, without applying empirical reality.
Classification
The classification method involves the division of an object or phenomenon into groups according to certain characteristics.
The main task of this method is to structure, make information more clear and understandable for assimilation.
You can classify based on different characteristics. For example, by:
- physical properties (weight, size, volume);
- material (plastic, wood, metal, porcelain);
- genres (sculpture, painting, literature);
- architectural styles.
You can also classify according to geopolitical factors, chronological and other others.
abstraction
This method is based on the concretization of some particular property of a phenomenon or object that needs to be studied in the framework of the study.
The essence of abstraction is to study some specific property of the object or phenomenon being studied, without taking into account all its other characteristics.
The abstraction method is one of the most important and basic research methods in the thesis of the humanities. With its help, the most important regularities in such sciences as pedagogy, psychology, and philosophy, imperceptible at first glance, were noted. A good example of abstraction is the division of literature into a huge variety of styles, genres.
Formalization
The essence of the formalization method is to transfer the structure or essence of a phenomenon or object to a symbolic model by using mathematical schemes, formulas, symbols.
Specification
Concretization is understood as a detailed study of an object or phenomenon in real conditions.
Analogy
The essence of the analogy method is that, knowing certain properties and characteristics of an object or phenomenon, one can draw a certain line to another object or phenomenon similar to our object of study. As a result, certain conclusions can be drawn.
This method is not 100% correct and does not always give reliable results. However, in general, its effectiveness is quite high. It is most often used in cases where certain items or phenomena cannot be studied directly (for example, in the study of planets terrestrial group, when determining their properties, conditions for potential settlement by the population of the Earth).
Different sciences use completely different research methods. But in any specialty and field of science in the thesis work, at least 2 will always be used: synthesis and analytical research method
Practical (private) methods
In the thesis, along with theoretical methods, practical methods are applied equally, depending on the object or phenomenon. Their peculiarity lies in a special way of studying information, collecting and processing it, and conducting experiments.
Private research methods in the thesis are used directly to collect specific data about a phenomenon or object. These methods often help to describe and identify new phenomena and objects, find patterns or prove hypotheses.
And now let's get acquainted with the most popular practical methods when writing a thesis project.
Observation
The method of observation in the thesis is based on an objective perception of reality to collect data on the properties and relationships of the objects of study.
Comparison
The comparison method is considered one of the most popular. It is used to compare two or more objects of study on one basis.
Measurement
The measurement method is quite accurate. It is based on the determination of the numerical values of certain indicators.
Experiment
The method of experiment is interpreted as the reproduction of an observation or phenomenon under certain conditions.
An experiment can also serve as an experiment, the purpose of which will be to verify (deny or confirm) the existing provisions. The main thing is that during the study there are two points: evidence and repeatability. The fact is that the task of the experiment is not only a visual demonstration or discovery of some property, but also the ability to reproduce.
An excellent example of an experiment is Galileo's experiment with a cannonball and a lead ball to establish the speed of the fall. Observation
This method opens up any scientific knowledge, which is why it is key to any research.
The essence of the observation method is to observe the object of study and record any important changes or positions (reactions, properties).
Measurement
The measurement method is one of the most efficient. We are talking about fixing any physical parameters of the object of study (volume, height, weight, length, etc.) through units of measurement.
The result obtained during the application of this method will be recorded in a numerical value.
Modeling
In a general sense, a model is a structured reduced image of something, an imitation of one or more objects.
Modeling can be:
- subject (when reproducing a separate part of an object);
- sign (when using formulas, drawings, diagrams, etc.);
- mental (during operations in the virtual world or mentally).
Modeling is indispensable in the development of new technologies, the design of vehicles, structures, etc.
Conversation and interview
The essence of both methods is to find a person who has some valuable information about the subject of research being studied.
Many may not see the difference between a conversation and an interview. The latter is distinguished by a more structured and regulated order: during the interview, the interlocutor answers clearly posed questions that were prepared in advance. In addition, the person asking questions does not demonstrate his opinion in any way.
The conversation is casual. Here, both participants in the conversation can freely express their opinions, ask questions, even spontaneously. Survey and questioning
These methods also have much in common with each other. The essence of both lies in the preliminary preparation of questions that should be answered. As a rule, respondents are given several answers to choose from.
The main difference between a survey and a questionnaire is the form of conducting. The survey, as a rule, can be oral or written. But the survey is possible only in writing or on a computer medium. Often during the survey, the answer can be given in graphical form.
The advantage of these practical methods in the diploma is considered to be a large audience coverage. And if a lot of people are interviewed, then the chances of getting more accurate data are much higher.
Description
Experts note the similarity of the description method with the observation method. When conducting a study by the method of description, not only behavior and phenomena are recorded, but appearance and signs of the object of study.
Other private methods
Depending on the direction of the student's specialization, the following private highly specialized research methods can be used:
- Economy . Analysis: positive, normative, functional, static, dynamic. Economic and mathematical modeling. The method of financial ratios. Scenario method of forecasting economic phenomena. The method of unity of historical and logical. Construction of economic hypotheses. Method "ceteris paribus".
- Pedagogy/Psychology . The study of the products of student creativity. Interview. Conversation. Study of group differentiation. Enabled surveillance. Pedagogical control tests (testing). Questioning (survey). Ranging. Scaling. Registration.
- Philology . Analysis: compositional, discursive, motivational, intertextual, distributive, contextual, semantic. linguistic experiment. biographical method. Content analysis. Lexicographic statistics. Differential analysis of oppositions. narrative method. Dichotomy. Transformational synthesis and analysis. "Concrete Literature". semiotic method.
Other methodology
Academician A.Ya. Flier singled out a slightly different system of methods used in writing theses. In his opinion, all methods are divided into humanitarian and social-scientific.
Humanitarian methodologies
- historical- describes the history of culture in accordance with the principle of building a linear chronological sequence of its events and phenomena.
- hermeneutical- explores culture by revealing (deciphering) the original meanings of cultural phenomena, embedded in them during creation.
- Phenomenological- interprets historical facts cultures in terms of their visibility to the observer and looking for meanings in them that are relevant outside the historical context.
- Historical and psychological- studies the historical dynamics of culture from the point of view of identifying in it stable stadial (civilizational) types of socially conditioned consciousness and the state of the psyche.
- Cultural symbolism and post-structuralism- an eclectic methodology that interprets the material within the contextual framework established for various reasons by the authors of the studies themselves, and interprets it as inevitably incomplete in its symbolic and semantic cognizability.
Social science methodologies
- Evolutionism is the study of the history of culture from the standpoint of recognizing its progressive development through the gradual complication of its structures (offshoots of evolutionism; formational theory, diffusionism, neo-evolutionism, cultural materialism).
- Cyclic and wave models of cultural dynamics - a description of cultures as separate "self-sufficient organisms" (civilizations) and the processes occurring in them as closed cycles or repetitive wave movements.
- Structural functionalism is the interpretation of cultural and historical processes as functional, solving some immanent social tasks to meet the interests and needs of people.
- Structuralism is a description of cultural and historical objects from the point of view of searching for the correlation of material and conceptual aspects in them, analysis of the structure of culture as a system of signs.
- Border methodologies that define new problem areas of cultural and historical science, postmodernism.
How to write methods in a thesis
Great! Now we know what methods exist. If we are lucky, we even understand what methods we can use in our work.
Standard speech constructions in the formulation of methodology and research methods:
- This work is based on the provisions of ... methodology,
- work is based on the provisions of ... methodology,
- the methodological basis / base of the study was the provisions of ... methodology,
- the following methods are used in the research/work…, research methods are… etc.
Next, it is worth indicating which figures were involved in the study of this problem. And in the history of the study, you can mention the historical context, tell what the latest authors managed to add to the available data. Don't forget to mention scientists in chronological order!
There are also standard constructions used in describing research methods:
- studying ... goes back to ...,
- in the ... century ... were studied and described in detail ...,
- problems ... dealt with ...,
- a huge contribution to the development of the problem ... made ... / made work / research / work ...,
- work matters a lot...
- work recent years let's talk about...
- the experience of history... shows that...,
- currently the dominant point of view is ...,
- This approach is typical for...
- the beginning of the study of this issue was laid by the works ..., in the works ...,
- a prominent place in the works of ... occupies the position of ...,
- Among the problems being developed in this vein are ...,
- ……. covered in detail in the works ...,
- connection ... is shown in ... etc.
When writing a conclusion, it is worth emphasizing the description of the structure of work with the following standard constructions:
- all of the above determined the structure of the work, which consists of an introduction, ... chapters, conclusion, list of references, applications (the latter is indicated if the work has an application);
- the logic, goals and objectives of the study determined the structures of the work, which consists of ...;
- the introduction gives a general description of the work, substantiates the relevance of the topic and its social significance, defines the goal, objectives, methodological basis of the study and research methods, and also gives a brief overview of the development of the problem;
- The first chapter is dedicated to...
- the second chapter discusses / talks about ..., the first chapter dealt with ..., the second chapter begins with ..., then ...;
- the conclusion is the conclusions on the work / in the conclusion the main conclusions are given, etc.
An example of a description of methods in a thesis
Topic: prevention of dysgraphia in children with general underdevelopment speeches
The purpose of the study: to identify the prerequisites for the occurrence of dysgraphia in children of older preschool age with ONR and children without speech pathology.
In accordance with the goal and the formed hypothesis, the following research objectives were identified:
- The study of the theoretical and methodological aspect of the research problem according to the data of special literature.
- Theoretical substantiation and development of experimental research methodology.
- Experimental study of the state of different sides oral speech and mental processes and functions that ensure the formation writing, determination of the typology of identified deficiencies in preschoolers with ONR.
- Processing of the obtained experimental data
- Development of a set of methodological techniques for differentiated correctional and speech therapy work aimed at developing the prerequisites for writing in children with ONR.
In accordance with the intended purpose and objectives of the study, we have identified the following methods:
- Theoretical analysis of pedagogical, psychological and methodical literature on the research topic.
- observation.
- Interview, survey.
- Analysis of children's activity products.
- The study of medical and pedagogical documentation.
- Experimental method, including conducting a stating experiment, analysis and generalization of the data obtained.
Conclusion
These are not all the methods that can be used when writing scientific papers. But we tried to acquaint you with the most popular and important ones.
When choosing methods, remember: they must be scientifically sound and modern. Deprecated methods are not allowed. In addition, the methods must be consistent with the objectives of the study, because a specific method is required to solve each individual problem.
And it's perfectly normal that you don't know them all. And why, when there is a special one? To know such things is the work of specialists. And your task is to get everything you can from life and youth!
