Reformation in Sweden events. Book: Andrey Dzholiardovich Shcheglov “The Reformation in Sweden. Events, figures, documents. Assessment of Hans Brask as a historical figure: Monograph by P. Stobeus and my review of it

Introduction

Chapter I Sweden on the eve of the Västerås Riksdag . 24

1.1. Swedish society before the Reformation 24

1.2. The first steps of the Reformation. 40

1.3. Hans Brask and the struggle against the Reformation doctrine. 57

1.4. Evaluation of Hans Brask as a historical figure: P. Stobeus' monograph and my review of it. 77

1.5. Political crisis in the mid-1520s. Background and prototypes of the Westeros Riksdag. 83

Chapter II Westeros Riksdag: preparation, move, final resolution . 93

2.1. Preparations for the Westeros Riksdag. King's Propaganda. 94

2.2. Composition of the Riksdag and its course according to documentary and narrative sources. 101

2.3. The Westeros recession is the final decision of the Riksdag. 118

2.4. "Introduction of the Reformation"? Modern controversy about the Westeros Riksdag. 122

Chapter III. Westeros ordinances. 130

3.1. The text of the Westeros ordinances according to the "Registry" Gustav 1. 131

3.2. Socio-legal and cultural environment of the Westeros ordinances. 141

3.3. Revisions of the Westeros ordinances: a history of the document. 150

Chapter IV. Documents explaining the decisions of the Riksdag of Västerås . 202

4.1. Rixrod's letter to the inhabitants of Sweden. 203

4.2. Commentary by Lavrentius Petri. 250

Chapter V Implementation of the decisions of the Riksdag . 258

5.1. Cathedral in Örebro and the beginning of church reforms 259

5.2. Economic and administrative consequences of the Riksdag. 266

Chapter VI. Rise of the vestitary masters . 282

6.1. Coverage of the uprising in the chronicle of Peder Swart. 282

6.2. The course of the uprising, the demands of the rebels and the actions of the king according to documentary sources. 287

6.3. Historiographical discussion 554

about the "Rebellion of the Vestet Masters". 309

Chapter VII Olaus Petri: preacher and polemicist . 325

7.1. Controversy on the eve of the Westeros Riksdag:

Debate between Olaus Petri and Peder Galle. 325

7.2. Olaus Petri and "Preaching the Word of God" 328

7.3. Olaus Petri as a follower of Luther. Controversy with Paulus Elie. "Small postilla".

Chapter VIII Reformer as Historian: The Swedish Chronicle by Olaus Petri. 347

8.1. The role of historical works in the life and work of Olaus Petri. 347

8.2. Chronicle research. Scientific assessment"Swedish Chronicle" as a historical work. 368

8.3. Publications and source studies. 376

8.4. Manuscripts of the Swedish Chronicle. 383

8.5. ancient history Sweden and the introduction of Christianity in this country according to the chronicle of Olaus Petri. 406

8.6. Olaus Petri on Sweden in the Mature and Late Middle Ages 432

8.7. The ideas of the Swedish Chronicle. 463

Conclusion 493

Used sources and literature 522

List of abbreviations

Introduction to work

The relevance of research

In the history of Europe in the Middle Ages and early modern times, the changes that took place in the 16th century played a fundamentally important role. One of the phenomena that caused fateful changes in history Europe XVI century, was the Reformation. Because of this, the constant interest of historians in the problems of the Reformation, its stages, events, figures and prerequisites is natural.

For a long time, experts in Russia and a number of other countries based their ideas about the Reformation mainly on the material of more “classical” regions - Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and England. The history of the Reformation in Sweden has not been sufficiently studied in Russian and international historiography. Meanwhile, it is of considerable interest. In Sweden, as in some other European countries, there was a so-called. The reformation "from above" is a peculiar and interesting phenomenon. The reform of the church there was closely connected with political transformations and played an important role in the formation of national absolutist monarchies.

For a researcher of the Swedish Reformation (and the Reformation in Europe as a whole), the Westeros Riksdag of 1527 is of considerable interest - an all-class assembly, the decisions of which changed the relationship between church and secular society and strengthened royal power.

This Riksdag is interesting for many reasons. It reflected the features of Swedish history of the late Middle Ages and early modern times, the mentality and psychology of the estates, social traditions and changes. It's well documented. Using his example, one can trace how society interacted with the king, how the elements of democracy were implemented. At the same time, there are unclear, controversial moments in the history of the Riksdag and its decisions.

In the history of the Swedish Reformation, the socio-historical aspect is also important. How did society react to the changes? How did certain sections of society behave - nobles, burghers, bonds? In what cases did the people of Sweden support the change, and in what cases did they oppose it? These questions are also considered in this dissertation.

The Reformation is also interesting as a phenomenon in which the role of the individual is relevant. Modern historical science pays attention not only to the history of society as a whole, but also to the history of man in society. In this regard, the history of the participants in the events related to

ngkh with the Reformation - the spiritual leader of the Swedish reformers Olaus Petri, the reformer king Gustav Vasa, the leader of the opponents of the Reformation - Bishop Hans Brask.

Subject of study is an early stage of reforms: 1520s - 1530s. - the time of preparation of the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527 and the implementation of its resolutions; this Riksdag itself, its preparation, course and consequences, as well as the activities and views of the participants in the events associated with the Reformation - in particular, Olaus Petri, the spiritual and ideological leader of the Swedish Reformation.

Purpose and objectives of the study The topic is revealed through several problems: 1) the prerequisites for the Reformation in Sweden and the beginning of the spread of reform ideas; 2) the political actions of Gustav I, connected with the strengthening of the central power, in many respects, through the acts of the Reformation; 3) the social support of the policy of Gustav Vasa at this stage of his reign; 4) reflecting the history of the Swedish Reformation in its documents; 5) ideas and views of the leaders of the Reformation and their opponents.

The dissertation highlights scientific discussions on issues related to the Swedish Reformation, presents the author's own opinions and his polemics with foreign experts. A special reason for controversy was the thesis of the Swedish historian M. Nyman 1 that the stage identified in this dissertation as early period The Reformation was not really Reformation: The Reformation, according to Nymann, was carried out in Sweden from above in the 1540s; before that, the reforms were of a Catholic nature, did not include changes in doctrine. Assessing the content of these reforms, the author of this dissertation had in mind the concept of Nyuman and the need to criticize it.

Favorable opportunities for discussion are created by the situation around the documents of the Riksdag of Västerås in 1527, the main event of the early Reformation in Sweden. This dissertation presents the results of the author's research on the mentioned documents. These studies are innovative and draw on material from Swedish manuscript collections.

Modern historians, striving to develop classical research topics in a new way, sometimes combine traditional and new approaches, and even within the same work sometimes come to conclusions that complement each other, highlighting different facets of historical reality. This dissertation examines, among other things, the question of how the leader of the Swedish Reformed

lNyman M. Forlorarnas historia. Katolskt liv and Sverige fran Gustav Vasa till drottning Kristina. Uppsala, 1997.

ditch - Olaus Petri showed himself in a different capacity - in the role of a historian. The results of the study made it possible to enrich and clarify scientific ideas about the leader of the Swedish reformers.

Chronological framework In the history of the Swedish Reformation, an early stage of reforms stands out: the 1520s - 1530s - the time of the preparation of the Vesteros Riksdag and the implementation of its resolutions. At this stage, the victory of secular power over the Catholic clergy was achieved. The church lost its privileges, was taxed, its lands were alienated in favor of the crown and nobility. Reformation (in the terminology of the reformers - "evangelical") dogma received official recognition, at the councils of the Swedish clergy (late 1520s - 1530s) decrees were adopted on the reforms of worship, which were based on evangelical doctrines. Through the efforts of the leaders of the Swedish Reformation, Olaus Petri and Lavrentius Andree, theological, liturgical and religious-educational literature in Swedish was created and published.

From about 1540, a new stage of the "royal reformation" began: the policy of Gustav Vasa, aimed at the complete reformation of the church and the subordination of the new, national Protestant church to the king. This policy coincided with the course of Gustav Vasa to strengthen the economic, political and military power of the royal power and create a hereditary monarchy (officially approved in 1544). For the church, the period from 1540 is the time of the disgrace of the old leaders of the Reformation and the promotion of new ones (Lavrentius Petri, Georg Norman). The new, emerging church at this stage faces a number of important tasks: the rooting of the evangelical dogma, the reform of parochial education. It is also a time of struggle against the Counter-Reformation and against competing Protestant creeds, especially Calvinism.

For Sweden, the period from the second half of the reign of Gustav Vasa, which lasted almost a century, is qualitatively different. This is the time of the struggle of royal power to consolidate achievements in the political, economic and military fields, to overcome separatist tendencies, to formalize relations with the church and with the secular aristocracy. The result of the stage, which can be defined as a mature and late Reformation, was the final formation of Sweden as a Protestant power, the acquisition of an official religion and church legislation. During this period, Sweden took a place in new system international relations, determined the main directions foreign policy almost two centuries ahead.

All of these factors prove the validity and expediency of singling out the 1520s - 1530s as a separate period of the Reformation in Sweden ("early Reformation") and special consideration of this period in fundamental scientific research.

Sources These issues determine the choice of sources. The sources of paramount importance include the so-called. Registry of Gustav I. Approximately from the beginning of the 15th century. in Sweden, copies were made of state acts, from which archival files or books were formed - the so-called. "registers" 2 . From the end of the XV century. the practice of creating registers becomes systematic, large collections of copies appear - "registries". Under Gustav Vasa, such a "registry" was maintained throughout the reign of this king. It included copies of state decrees, as well as lists of messages from the king and the State Council. IN late XIX- early XX century. these materials have been published.

The choice of the Gustav I Registry as one of the main sources is due to the versatility and information content of this collection of documents. The "Registry" presents the political history of Sweden, reflected in decrees, resolutions, letters, protocols. "Registry" contains monuments economic history: deeds of deeds, treaties, instructions to fogdam. There is information about the religious life, culture, mentality of the Swedes. And, of course, the "Registry" is a monument to the history of King Gustav I.

Another collection of sources - political acts - presents the minutes of the riksdags, meetings of the riksrod, as well as a number of resolutions, letters, decisions from city, church and other archives and libraries 3 . Documents are systematized and provided with comments. "Documents on the History of the Reformation and the Church" supplements the material on the history of the Church Reform, contains documents that are not found in other collections of published monuments 4 . An interesting source is the correspondence of the Linköping Bishop Hans Brask 5 . In the early 20s. 16th century

2 See: Schuck H. Rikets brev och register. Stockholm, 1976.

3 Svenska riksdagsakter jamte andra handlingar som hora till statsforfattningens
history. Ser. I.B.I-II. Stockholm, 1887-1938.

4 Handlingar till Sverges reformations- och kyrkohistoria under Konung Gustaf
I.I-II. Stockholm, 1841-1842.

5 BraskH. Latinsk korrespondens 1523. Stockholm, 1973; Samling afBiskopen Hans Brasks Bref, giord af framledne Arke-biskopen Doct. Eric Benzelius den yngre, sadan som den befmnes pa Linkopings bibliothek. Linkoping, 1793.

the linkoping bishop actually turned out to be the leader of the swedish church. His correspondence is varied; this dissertation uses letters that reflect the struggle around the reformation of other ideas that spread in Sweden in the 1520s.

Of the city books that were kept during the reign of Gustav Vasa, the books of Stockholm, Jönköping, Arbuga and Enköping 6 have been preserved. These are the protocols of the magistrates - the so-called. tankebocker, "commemorative books". They (first of all, the books of Stockholm - the most detailed of all) contain documents related to the Reformation - records relating to the reduction of church property, documents on the participation of Stockholm burghers in the Reformation.

The writings of Olaus Petri 7 give an idea of ​​the worldview of the Swedish humanist-reformer, of his religious views. In the context this study of interest were the theological and polemical works of Olaus Petri, as well as works of practical purpose: sermons, instructions. And, of course, the works of the reformer are important, in which his social and ethical views are revealed: The Swedish Chronicle, a sermon at the coronation of Gustav Vasa.

The Chronicle of King Gustav I by Peder Swart is a work dedicated to the reign of Gustav Vasa 8. Like any narrative monument, it is not flawless. Historians of the 20th century questioned Swart's reports, noting that his chronicle is, in fact, an apology for Gustav Vasa. Yet it is one of the main sources for the history of Sweden of this period.

We used Additional materials- monuments on the medieval ecclesiastical, political and legal history of Sweden, in particular the laws 9 that were in force in the

6 Arboga stads tankebok III, 1493-1533 I Utg. av Erik Noreen och Torsten Wenningstrom. Uppsala, 1939-1940; Arboga stads tankebok IV, 1534-1569 / Utg. ar Erik Noreen. Uppsala, 1941-1950; Enkopings stads tankebocker 1540-1595 I Utg. av Sven Liung. Stockholm, 1960-1966; Jonkopings stads tankebok 1456-1548 / Utg. af Carl M.Kjellberg. Jonkoping 1915-1919; Stockholms stads tankebocker 1544-1548. utg I genome Joh. Ax. Almquist. Stockholm, 1936. Stockholms stads tankebok 1524-29 mm. av m:r Olauus Petri Phase I Utg. Ludvig Larson. Lund, 1929-1940.

7 Olavus Petri Samlade Skrifter. Uppsala, 1914-1917. bd. I-IV. 8 Peder Swart Konung Gustav Lskronika. Stockholm. 1912. 9 Konung Christoffers landslag / Samling af Sveriges gamla lagar utg. af D.C.F. Schlyter. Lund, 1869. Vol. XII; Konung Magnus Erikssons Landslag I Samling af Sveriges gamla lagar utg. af D.C.F. Schlyter. Lund, 1862. Vol. x; Magnus Erikssons Stadslag and nusvensk talk av Ake Holmback och Elias Wessen. Lund, 1966. Svenska landskapslagar. Tolkade och forklarade for

epoch, as well as collections of sermons - postillas. The combination of these sources gives a meaningful picture of how political history Sweden, and the history of ideas in this country. A number of monuments (privileges to cities, letters of acknowledgment, letters of protection, protocols of the riksrod, protocols of the riksdags, decrees of the king) contain information about the balance of power in society, about the role of various social groups. Some documents - prescriptions to fogs, obligations, decrees on awards - give an idea of ​​the economic policy of the king, which at this stage was associated with the Reformation.

In several chapters of the dissertation, unpublished lists of documents adopted as a result of the Westeros Riksdag of 1527 were studied. These lists were mainly made in the XVT-XVTI centuries. and, for the most part, are included in the manuscript books of the same time. Most of the documents are written in Middle Swedish or Early Modern Swedish. According to the content, the codes are divided into two groups. The first is made up of collections of copies of Swedish documents from the Middle Ages and early modern times. The collections were compiled by aristocrats, primarily political and cultural figures of Sweden at the end of the 16th century. -Eric Sparre 11 and Hohenschild Bjelke 12 .

The second group consists of other manuscripts of the XVT-XVTI c. - codes or scattered sheets in the Uppsala University Library and in State Archive Sweden. The library of Uppsala University has collected handwritten books compiled from documents of legal content (series "B" 13), historical sources(series "E"), monuments on the history of the Swedish church (series "K"). Of the documents stored in the State Archives, of particular interest are scattered sheets - copies of the resolutions of the Riksdag. The lists presented there from the resolutions of the Riksdag of 1527 are slightly behind

nytidens svenskar av Ake Holmback och Elias Wessen. Ostgotalagen och Upplandslagen. Stockholm, 1933.

10 Svenska medeltidspostillor utg. af Svenska fornskrift-sallskapet. Stockholm, 1905-1906, 1909-1910. bd. IV-V. "Riksarkivet (abbr.: RA), cod. B7, B8.

12 Uppsala universitetsbibliotek (abbreviated: UUB). Cod. E 131 (in two volumes). Due to the dark green binding made in the 19th century. The code was called the Bjelke Green Book.

13 These codes include lists of regional and national laws, as well as statutes emanating from the rulers and state councils of Sweden. In addition, there are extracts from the monuments of Swedish, canonical and Roman law, comments, legal incidents.

time from the event itself and are valuable for clarifying the source characteristics of documents, reconstructing the history of their creation and clarifying the text 1 .

On the whole, the handwritten material used made it possible to enrich the understanding of the sources important for Swedish history, put into circulation a number of handwritten copies, make finds and draw independent conclusions.

Research methods. In this dissertation, the author sought to apply the achievements, traditions and methods of both "old" and "new" schools. In the works of historians of past years, the dissertation student considers solidity, strict scientific logic, high professional culture, and interest in major problems to be valuable qualities. Out of priorities modern science for the author, interest in language and texts, criticism of stereotypes, attention to the individual and to the subjective principle are relevant.

The dissertation uses an integrated approach. Factors analyzed historical process and the interaction between them, the events are considered from different angles. Such an approach is appropriate in relation to many historical problems, but in this case it is also due to the specifics of the Reformation, which was a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. The dissertation also uses a microhistorical approach: this was reflected in the deliberate relative narrowing of the chronological framework (to about two decades), which made it possible to deepen the analysis, make it versatile, and avoid superficial judgments.

With all the variety of research angles of the dissertation, some aspects of the study - socio-political, ideological and legal - are a priority. Politics, ideology and law are the foundations of any state and society, including the state and society of the 16th century. Therefore, they are especially important for this study.

Largely in connection with the indicated interest in political and legal topics, in a number of sections of the work an interdisciplinary historical and source study approach was applied, which made it possible to better understand and in some places clarify the text and history of the creation of documents (especially the resolutions created following the results of the Vestero Riksdag) and in as a whole to enrich and strengthen the work.

Historians of the XX-XXI centuries have repeatedly emphasized that historical research should be organic, natural. In this paper, the facts are considered in a natural historical-event context, which makes the presentation consistent and complete. Know-

Considerable attention is paid to the prerequisites for events and the origins of phenomena; events are considered in a historical perspective.

Historiography The early reign of Gustav Vasa and the Swedish Reformation is extensive. It is appropriate to mention works, trends and trends directly related to the topic of the dissertation.

The foundations of the scientific study of the history of Sweden were laid in the middle - second half of the 19th century, when fundamental research on the history of the church, law, political institutions, many historical sources were published.

A milestone in national historiography was the study of X. Forsell, which marked the beginning of a deep study of the formation of the state economy - first of all, state finances as the basis of the monarchy - and, in connection with this, the concentration and expansion of land holdings of the crown 15 . Partly based on Forsell's data, the historian E. Heckscher comprehended the typology of Swedish society under Gustav I and concluded that in Sweden under Gustav Vasa, a model of mercantilism was implemented in conditions of subsistence farming 16 .

Largely due to the research of I. Hammarström 17 adjustments were made to the assessment of the economic policy of Gustav Vasa. I. Hammarström showed that Sweden was drawn into the trade of the Baltic region, internal trade was developed in it, in which the whole society participated. Hammarström's conclusions made it possible to take a different look at the role of the burghers, especially their merchant elite, as well as the relationship between the king and the burghers in the light of the income that the crown received from the cities.

The role of trade as a driving factor in social development is also emphasized in other works on the history of Sweden 18 . In general, modern historiography states both the activity of the crown and the significance of objective trends, which were sometimes stronger than the effect of transformations “from above” 1 .

l5ForsellH. Sveriges inre historia fran Gustaf I. Stockholm, 1877-1881, d.I; Idem Sverige 1571. Forsok till en administrativ-statistisk beskrivning. Stockholm, 1872.

l6Heckscher E.-F. Sveriges ekonomiska historia fran Gustav Vasa. Stockholm, 1935-1936. D. 1,B. 1-2.

11 Hammarstrom I. Finansforvaltning och varuhandel 1504-1540. Uppsala, 1956. 18 See for example classic studies that remain relevant: Svanidze A.A. Medieval city and market in Sweden, M., 1980. XII-XV centuries. I.M. Munktell. Gods, godsagare och landbor 1450-1520, Goteborg, 1982. 19 Norborg L.-A. Krona och stad and Sverige under aldre Vasatid II"Historisk Tidskrift", 83, 1963.

In Russia, the Swedish Reformation is devoted to a small but good book by G.A. Dementieva 20 . The author's attention was drawn to both the most important aspects of the Reformation: religious and political, as well as the prehistory of the reforms. However, the historiography of the Swedish Reformation has advanced significantly since the book was written, and some of Dementiev's assessments need to be clarified.

Many foreign studies of the Swedish Reformation are devoted to its leader Olaus Petri, a versatile figure, theologian and historian. The scientific study of his work began on turn of XIX and XX centuries. In the first studies, he appears as a Renaissance man who broke with medieval dogmatism, preaching religion "without mediation" - in contrast to the Catholic prelates - "people of the Middle Ages." Subsequent historiography - both of the European Renaissance and the Reformation in general, and of the Swedish Reformation - shook such constructions.

At first, scientists believed, and in many respects rightly, that Olaus was a faithful follower and student of Luther 21 . However, since the 1920s several researchers, primarily K. Bergendoff and I. Holmqvist, have shown that Olaus Petri drew ideas not only from Luther, but also from other theologians 22 . Thus began a discussion about the differences between Olaus Petri and Luther. In the work of S. von Engeström (1941), the question was raised about Olaus' attitude to the medieval church: Olaus, in comparison with Luther, is more tolerant of Catholicism, more inclined to emphasize his continuity in relation to medieval Christianity 23 .

The study of the reformist position of Olaus Petri was stimulated by innovations in the study of the European (in particular, German and Danish) Reformation. The consequence of these innovations was the fundamental work of S. Ingebrand, dedicated to the theological views of Olaus Petri. Ingebrand saw the difference between Olaus' theology and Luther's theology in that the Swedish theologian

Dementiev GL. Introduction of the Reformation in Sweden, St. Petersburg, 1892. 2lWestman, K.-W. Reformationens genombrattsar and Sverige. Stockholm 1923; Idem. Reformation och revolution. En Olavus Petristudie. Uppsala Universitetets Arsskrift, 1941.

22 Bergendoff C. Olavus Petri and the ecclesiastical transformation in Sweden 1521-1552.2-d ed., Philadelphia, 1965 .Holmquist Hj. Fran reformationen till romantiken. I Handbok and svensk kyrkohistoria. Stockholm, 1940 B. 2. 23 Engestrom S., von Olavus Petri och den medeltida kristendomen II"Uppsala Universitetets Arsskrift", 1941.

was close to the "humanist reformers" who called for reforming the church in accordance with the texts Holy Scripture 24 .

The next major work devoted to the theology of Olaus Petri appeared in 1989. Its author K. Gardemeister examines Olaus Petri's attitude to the problem of divine will and predestination 25 . The various aspects of Olaus's work are dedicated to teamwork"Olaus Petri - a versatile Swedish reformer", published in 1994. 6

Rethinking in the XX century. key problems of Swedish history, and, in particular, the reign of Gustav Vasa, is largely associated with the research of the founder of the so-called. "hypercritical direction" L. Weibull. He was convinced of the unreliability of the traditionally used narrative sources and the concepts based on them. Among other things, Weibull criticized the chronicler Peder Swart's account of the Westeros Riksdag of 1527 with source criticism.

Modern Scandinavian studies, having inherited the traditions laid down by L. Weibull, in some cases tend to rehabilitate sources rejected by this scientist. Modern approach is that the researcher, taking into account the difficulties of the sources, can still partially reconstruct objective reality from them, as well as identify the position of the author or his main ideas. And, of course, narrative monuments continue to attract authors of source studies.

Relationship between the Reformation and political development Sweden has repeatedly aroused the interest of Scandinavian historians. The question of the preparation, circumstances and results of the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527, the main result of which was the decree on the secularization of church lands, is one of the key issues for understanding this problem.

Medieval Swedish riksdags - riksdag, riksmote, allmantmote arose in the 15th century. 27

Ingebrand S. Olavus Petris reformatoriska askadning. Uppsala, 1964. Ingebrand's predecessor in this regard was K. Bergendoff, who showed Olaus Petri's closeness to the humanist reformers on concrete material. Ingebrand's observation was further developed and theoretically generalized.

25 Gardemeister WITH. Den Suverane Guden. En studie om Olavus Petriteologi. Lund, 1989.

26 Olaus Petriden mangsidige svenske reformatorn. Uppsala, 1994.

27 And their immediate predecessors, meetings with the participation
rankers of the unprivileged class - even earlier, approximately from
beginning of the 14th century

bodies of estate groups - nobility, clergy, burghers, free miners and bonds. As a rule, the patriciate-burgomasters and members of the magistrates-rodmans were represented on the riksdags from the side of the trading cities - chep-stads. On the part of the bonds, that is, the free peasant proprietors, the prosperous, "best" bonds participated in the riksdags. Thus, at the riksdags, the king communicated with various strata of society, including through the "tops" of the estates. The value of riksdags in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. more and more increased. In light of this, the attention of researchers was repeatedly attracted by the Vesteros Riksdag of 1527 - due to the exclusivity of the content and volume of the issues discussed there, and also because of the interest that the surviving documentary sources represent.

Researchers of the Vesteros Riksdag - X. Jerne, E. Hildebrand, L. Schödin, S. Thunberg, L. Weibull, X. Irving, S. Chöllerström analyzed the composition of the participants, showed the role of the requirements and interests of the nobility, revealed the sequence of Gustav Vasa: seeking strengthening his power, the king used the moods and demands of the estates 28 . These studies are, in one way or another, connected with the source study of the protocols of the Riksdag and related documents.

Related to the issue of the Westeros Riksdag is the role of estates and social groups in the policy of the king 29 . Scientists state that in Sweden of the late Middle Ages - early modern times, there was both cooperation between the crown and the free peasantry, and their confrontation, a clash of interests; Peasant uprisings were also not uncommon. The question of Gustav Vasa's relations with the nobility, first of all, with his top group- tycoons. The works of E. Hildebrand, G. Karlsson, M. Roberts and other researchers show that Gustav Vasa sought to cooperate with the nobility, to rely on

Hjarne H. Reformationsriksdagen and Vasteras. Stockholm, 1912; Hildebrand E. Gustav Vasa. 1521-1560 II Sveriges historia intill tjugonde seklet. Stockholm, 1903. Bd. Ill; Sjodin L. Vasteras mote 1527 II"Historik tidskrift", 1927-1928; Weibull L. Vasteras riksdag 1527; Yrving H. Gustav Vasa, kroningfragan och Vasteras riksdag 1527. Lund, 1956; Kjollerstrom S. Vasteras Ordinantia. "Scandia", 1960; Idem Vasteras riksdag och "goda, gamla, kristliga sedvanjor" II"Historiskt Tidskrift", 1960.

29 Compare: SmirinMM. Gesta Johanesson, Church Reformation in the Nordic Countries [About the Report of the Swedish Scientist at the XI International Congress of Historians in Stockholm] // "Middle Ages", 1961, no. XX.S. 309-313 30 Behre G., Osterberg E., Larsson L.O. Sveriges historia 1521-1809, s. 35^41.

him, and at the same time weakened the power of the magnates. An important role for the crown was played by relations with the burghers (which were also not without controversy). In general, the Swedish burghers in this period were the support of the king 32 .

IN historical science convincingly summarized the experience of studying the Reformation in Sweden 33 , which is defined as the process of creating a national church that met the needs of state centralization. At the same time, debatable (especially due to the latest trends in historiography) 34 remain questions about the dynamics of reforms (i.e., did the Reformation begin in the 1520s or only in the 1540s), about their social base (reforms from above, or also movement "from below"), about the reasons for the tolerance of the reformers.

All of the above defines the main directions of this work. First, it analyzes the features of the early Reformation as a socio-political process. Secondly, the Reformation is considered in this dissertation as a proper church reform.

As you know, in the XVI century. the word "Reformation" meant reform in general and was used to designate the transformations of the church. Historiography sometimes invests in the concept of "Reformation" a different meaning. In this dissertation, based on the research experience of the author and the opinions existing in historiography, the following definition is formulated: The Reformation is a special reform of the church (as well as the preparation of such a reform, attempts at such a reform and the movement for such a reform), which was basically completed in a number of European countries by the end of the 16th century. and which, as a rule, is characterized by a combination of the following signs: 1) the exit of the national (or regional) church from under

HildebrandE. Svenska statsforfattningens utveckling. Stockholm, 1898;/nfe?w Gustav Vasa 1521-1560. Stockholm, 1902; RobertsM. On aristocratic constitutionalism in Swedish history, 1520-1720, London, 1966. 32 Petersen I. Studier rorande Stockholms historia fore Gustav Vasa. Stockholm, 1945. Ahnlund N. Stockholms historia fore Gustav Vasa. Stockholm, 1952 Norborg L.-A. Krona och stad and Sverige under aldre Vasatid. II"Historisk Tidskrift", 1963; Svanidze A.A. Medieval town and market in Sweden XIII-XV centuries. Moscow, 1980; Her own: Social characteristics of the Swedish burghers in the XIV-XV centuries. // "Medieval city", No. 6. Saratov, 1981 .; Merchant environment and the medieval Baltic community // Civilization of Northern Europe ". St. Petersburg, 1992. Westman K.V. Reformation och revolution. En Olavus Petristudie. Uppsala, 1941.

33 Kjdllerstrom S. Kyrka och samhalle and Sverige efter reformationen. Promotions forelasning and Lundsdomkyrka. Lund, 1967.

34 First of all, we are talking about the monograph by M. Nyman mentioned at the beginning of this review.

the authorities of Rome; 2) serious changes in the socio-economic, political and legal status of the church and the clergy and, accordingly, the relationship of the church with secular power and with society in general; 3) significant transformations in the field of church dogma and worship, based on the theological ideas of Luther and a number of other theologians, who are usually called Protestant theologians.

This is the "proper Reformation" and is limited; however, considering it as a historical phenomenon, the specialist must represent it in conjunction with a variety of political, socio-economic, psychological, spiritual and cultural prerequisites, causes, consequences and processes interconnected with it, characteristic of the early modern period.

This dissertation considers the period from the beginning of the 1520s. (penetration of reform ideas into Sweden and the beginning of cooperation between Gustav Vasa and the reformers) to the beginning of the 1540s. - the time of completion of the first stage of reformation, and, at the same time, a certain, pronounced stage of Gustav Vasa's policy aimed at strengthening royal power. In the field of ideological and spiritual leadership of the reformation, this is also a special period - the time of Olaus Petri and Lavrentius Andree. This stage is generally dramatic, fateful. In a matter of years, and even in a matter of days, decisions were made that determined the fate of the country for a century ahead. There was a struggle for the implementation and continuation of reforms, but the foundations were laid in the 1520s - 1530s. In this regard, this period is interesting as a transitional one. Corresponding to the New Age in essence and spirit, it at the same time retained a connection with medieval traditions, culture, and mentality.

Scientific novelty. IN Russian science this comprehensive study of the early Swedish Reformation is unparalleled. At the same time, and in comparison with foreign (first of all, of course, Swedish) research, a lot of new things have been done. In a number of cases, it was possible to clarify or deepen the conclusions of predecessors, to express polemical considerations, and to make discoveries.

So, in the dissertation on specific material, it was possible to challenge the thesis of the historian M. Nyuman, who argued that the events of the 1520s-1530s. in Sweden were not reformed. Sources testify that the struggle around Luther's ideas in Sweden at that time was actually the beginning of the Reformation. The work carried out during the creation of the same chapter with the correspondence of Bishop Hans Brask made it possible to create a meaningful research

review of the latest scientific monograph dedicated to this historical figure.

The dissertation analyzes in detail the sources and historiographic concepts related to the history of the Vesteros Riksdag, formulates and argues the author's hypothesis of the creation and fate of one of the most interesting and debatable sources in Swedish history - the Vesteros ordinances. With regard to another monument - Riksrod's Letters on the results of the Vesteros Riksdag - a source analysis of the manuscripts was carried out - much more voluminous and deep than the studies of this document carried out by Swedish historians. In connection with these studies, a controversy, clarifications and objections to the concepts of predecessors are given. Some handwritten monuments were first introduced in scientific circulation. An analysis of major works is given - for example, an analysis of Olaus Petri's "Small Postilla", which showed how traditions and innovations correlate in the work of the Swedish reformer. Polemic considerations were expressed regarding the resolution of the congress of the clergy in Örebro (1529). The section on the socio-economic and administrative consequences of the Västerås Riksdag contains original research by the author (especially on the reduction of church estates in Swedish cities). The chapter on the so-called Vestiöt Rebellion is the author's original work of the dissertation, based on careful work with sources and contains a polemic with his predecessor, the Swedish historian L.A. Nurborg and some other authors.

The final sections of the dissertation are based on experience research work the author with the "Swedish Chronicle" Olaus Petri and the preparation of a commented translation of the said chronicle (which is also the first translation of the said chronicle into any modern language). The original version of the biography of Olaus Petri is given, where the emphasis is on the work of Olaus as a historian. The review of historiographic concepts regarding the Swedish Chronicle is given; this review surpasses the reviews of the Swedish predecessors, being more detailed and complete. The results of the source studies of the predecessors are summarized and the results of their own work with the manuscripts of the Swedish Chronicle are presented. The source analysis of the lists of the Swedish Chronicle stored in the Department of Manuscripts of the Russian National Library (St. Petersburg) is given. The content and ideas of the "Swedish Chronicle" are analyzed; a debate with Swedish scientists on specific issues is given.

In the dissertation, among other things, the transcription of a number of documents has been clarified in comparison with the publications of the predecessors. Some monuments are published by the author for the first time, which in itself is an important contribution to the study of the chosen problem.

The practical significance of the work. The research presented in the dissertation is of significant practical importance. The author's monograph "The Vesteros Riksdag of 1527" and other studies presented in the dissertation are in demand in Russia and abroad, are actively used in teaching (at Moscow State University, Russian State humanitarian university, Latvian State University and many others educational institutions). The author's research is of interest to scientists, teachers and students of various specialties - historians, philologists, lawyers, political scientists. The experience of working on a dissertation was used in teaching the history of the Middle Ages and early modern times (University Russian Academy education, Natalia Nesterova University) and the history of Sweden (Russian-Swedish Research and Education Center). The author's research presented in this dissertation aroused interest in many regions of Russia, in other countries (Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, France, USA), adequately presented on the Internet.

Approbation of work. The dissertation was discussed at a meeting of the Department of the Western European Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, IVI RAS. The main provisions and results of the work are presented in monographs and articles by the author. On the topic of the dissertation, a number of reports were made at conferences and seminars in Russia and abroad, including at the leading universities of the country under study - Sweden.

Work structure. The thesis consists of an introduction, eight chapters and an appendix. The chapters are divided into paragraphs. There is a thematic relationship between the chapters.

Assessment of Hans Brask as a historical figure: Monograph by P. Stobeus and my review of it

The alliance with Hans Brask was sealed by a special agreement: Gustav Vasa undertook not to give any fief awards in Österjötland without the consent of Brask, and also not to enter into foreign policy alliances and negotiate with foreign rulers without his sanction81. The regent also gave Brascus the obligation to observe all the ancient privileges of the church, the inviolability of its ministers and possessions; moreover, not to enter into an alliance with any of his subjects against other subjects, but to patronize all equally82.

In addition to spiritual and secular freedom, cities and their burghers played a significant role in the politics of Gustav Vasa. One of the first decrees of the regent was given by him in the midst of liberation war confirmation of all the privileges of Ienkoping. This was followed by similar confirmations (stadfastelse) of the privileges of other cities: Söderköping, Skara, Linköping, Kalmar, Uppsala, Enkoping, Vyborg, Abo, Vasteros, Sigtuna (Stockholm was still in the hands of

The privileges that Gustav Vasa gave to cities during the 20s and 30s. sometimes more than once confirmed by regular royal decrees. Gustav I took into account the interests of cities and townspeople (especially when they coincided with the interests of the crown), considered their requirements, and gave explanations about his policy. This primarily concerned issues related to finance and illegal trade bypassing the established markets83. In general, Swedish cities (especially Stockholm - The largest city Sweden and a traditional ally of the Swedish rulers) supported Gustav Vasa, and for the most part remained loyal to the king during the uprisings against him.

In the mid 20s. 16th century Gustav Vasa took measures to restore the main city of the country, which was badly damaged by the siege and mass executions perpetrated by Christian P. Already in 1523, shortly after the capture of Stockholm, the king turned to the burghers of all the trading cities of Sweden with an appeal to "worthy burghers - kind and loyal Swedes" to move to the capital84, where every second house is empty, and to occupy the empty houses85. A decree (October of the same 1523) has also been preserved, which ordered bonds living in Österjötland to replace the townspeople of Linköping who had departed for Stockholm; migrant bonds. granted the status of burghers. And already at the very beginning of his reign, Gustav I established ties with a patriciate of Swedish origin. One of the first decrees of Gustav Vasa, while still regent, was the confirmation of the rights of burgomaster Anders Simonsson to two estates in the parish of Wong in Österjötland87. Already these measures of Gustav Vasa led to the strengthening of the Swedish national burghers in the capital - a potential support for the king.

At the same time, in relation to Stockholm, the king, which is quite natural, took an ambivalent position. He wanted to lean on Stockholm, and to subjugate it, to dictate his terms to it. In violation of an old tradition, he did not confirm the privileges of Stockholm immediately after the surrender, but only promised to do so in the future. Thus, he made it clear: everything depends on how the burghers behave. The burghers showed loyalty. When some time later, in 1524, the monarch asked the townspeople who they would like to see as part of the city council, they replied: whoever the king wants. Taking advantage of this, Gustav Vasa made members of the magistrate and burgomasters of his allies and generally pleasing people. In addition, he appointed Olaus Petri as city secretary, directing that the secretary should have a vote in the magistrate. Almost all (with one exception) the newly appointed members of the city council were Swedes, and all those who left were Germans. However, the king

Gustav Vasa, many of them, including two newly-made burgomasters, were provincials - immigrants from other cities, newcomers not only in the Stockholm magistrate, but in general in Stockholm91.

In the future, in the 20s - 30s. the election of burgomasters was carried out on the basis of a compromise between the magistrate and the king. The rulers of Sweden had previously sought to dictate their will to the burghers in the election of city officials. This is what Sten Sture Jr. did, and especially Christian P. But it was Gustav Vasa who gave this intervention a particularly large scale93.

Soon after the election of Gustav Vasa as king, acute problems emerged that needed to be addressed: 1) the appointment of new bishops; 2) the coronation of the monarch; 3) payment of a debt to Lübeck; 4) Covering Others By 1523, the Swedish church was effectively without leadership. Archbishop Gustav Trolle fled the country and, in connection with the June election of the king, was deposed by the Riksrod: a kind of re-deposition of the archbishop by secular authorities94. Among the members of the Uppsala Cathedral Chapter there were supporters of Trolle. However, as early as March 1523, in a letter to the chapter, members of the Riksrod categorically stated: the archiepiscopal see is vacant. And since the Uppsala clergy did not contribute to the fight against King Christian, then, in compensation, until a new head of the Swedish church is elected, the income from the archiepiscopal possessions should go to the regent95.

The members of the Uppsala cathedral chapter in the spring (?) of 1523 elected a new rector, Johannes (Jens) Lawrence. Gustav Vasa approved the choice, but demanded that, according to ancient custom, the regent personally introduce Jens Lawrence to the chapter - otherwise, a precedent would be created that would be undesirable for subsequent rulers. The king also requested that his chaplain, Johan Sasse, be brought to the chapter, as a reward for the service that Sasse had served the regent and the kingdom. At the same time, it was necessary

Composition of the Riksdag and its course according to documentary and narrative sources.

Close to my opinion about the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527 were the views of P. Stobeus292. In his monograph, Stobeus emphasizes that the demand for "pure preaching of the Word of God", reflected in the resolution of the Westeros Riksdag, was repeatedly heard in the writings of Luther and his associates, who put a reformative content into this formula. Obviously, Stobeus concludes, similar content was put into this formula by the Swedish reformers at the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527. The interests of the Reformation were also served by the theological debate held at the Riksdag, the theses of which were of a pronounced reformation character. The implacable position of Hans Brask in the Riksdag is explained by the foresight of this bishop: he understood what fate would be in store for the church if the king and his reformist supporters prevailed. Stobeus concludes: “It is not true that the resolution of the Riksdag of Västerås regarding the church mainly affected the economy and political powers of the bishops. The researchers interpreted the arguments of the king too literally, who made every effort to deflect accusations that he patronized the new religion. In this way, the king achieved that the members of the Riksdag recognized preachers who, according to Brask, proclaimed a heretical doctrine ... The confession of the pure Word of God contained a formula that, in my opinion, was borrowed from the evangelical camp, perhaps drawn from the writings of Luther ... Of course, this was not clear to all the participants in the Riksdag, but the king and his advisers hoped that the indicated formula would facilitate the transition to changes in dogma” 294.

In my review of Stobeus's book, I did not raise the question of the coincidence of opinions and my contribution to the study of the problem. I limited myself to expressing my agreement with the author of the monograph and noting his discussion of the Riksdag of Westeros as one of the merits of the work.295

So, thanks to the latest work - including the work of the author of this dissertation - the concept of M. Nyman was corrected. It was pointed out that the relatively moderate resolution on the "Preaching the Word of God" on the part of the king and his entourage was tactical in nature, having obtained from the estates a formal consent to the reduction of church property and church income, changing the social and legal status of the church (in addition to everything, unilaterally , without the sanction of the clergy), the king simultaneously achieved a resolution on faith, which created the conditions for the spread of Lutheran ideas in Sweden and for the reform of the church in this country. The Westeros Riksdag of 1527 actually marked the beginning of the Reformation.

The study of sources - both documentary and narrative - allowed me in this dissertation to highlight the composition, preparation and course of the Westeros Riksdag of 1527, to reflect the content of its final resolution and other documents. With regard to the historical content of the events considered, it seems obvious that King Gustav Vasa at this stage of the Reformation was primarily interested in the alienation of church property and church income, as well as in abolishing the privileges of the clergy.

At the same time, in the address of Gustav Vasa to the delegates of the Riksdag, in the discussions at the Riksdag and in the final resolution, much was undoubtedly connected with the Reformation. The very fact that the king and his allies, the reformers, raised in connection with the Riksdag the question of the uselessness and harm of the privileges of the clergy, the uselessness of divine services in the form in which they were performed by the Catholic Church and the danger of many church customs, suggests that not only from the point of view of the clergy - followers of Luther, but also from the position of the king, the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527 was reformatory. This conclusion is also supported by the fact that a theological dispute was held at the Riksdag (the topic of which, in fact, was the reformation doctrine), and the fact that the documents of the Riksdag refer to this dispute - the answers of the estates and the final decision. The fact that the Westeros Riksdag of 1527 is reformative is also evidenced by the close cooperation of King Gustav Vasa with the reformers Olaus Petri and Lavrentius Andree on the eve of the Riksdag and during it. Particularly indicative is the fact that the reformer Lavrentius Andree spoke at the Riksdag as a plenipotentiary representative of the king (announcing the appeal of Gustav Vasa to the estates) and as an intermediary between the estates and the king, and in addition, led the meetings of the Riksdag. Largely due to this, the supporters of the Reformation controlled the Riksdag, directed it in the right direction. And, of course, the supporters of the Reformation regarded this Riksdag precisely as a reformation one, and its final resolution on “preaching the Word of God” was considered as allowing the Lutheran doctrine to be freely preached.

At the same time, it follows from the documents: innovations in this case were considered by the participants of the Riksdag in connection with the traditions and ancient law of Sweden, with the history of this country. In the documents of the Riksdag, the king and other participants in the Vesteros Riksdag in 1527 actually relied on an old 14th century decree on limiting the armed retinues of bishops, and also referred to the lessons of armed conflicts between medieval Swedish rulers and leaders of the Swedish clergy. Such a "binding" of political views and decisions to ancient traditions, ancient law and historical realities has taken place more than once in the history of Sweden and has occurred in the history of other countries - for example, France, England, Russia.

Socio-legal and cultural environment of the Westeros ordinances

From the above-mentioned historiographic concepts created in the first half of the 20th century (X. Jerne, S. Thunberg, L. Weibull, L. Schödin), it can be seen that the main subject of controversy in this period was the question: how correctly are the events of the Riksdag covered in the sources? Relying primarily on documentary material, historians sought to reconstruct the picture of the Riksdag, correct ideas about it, and free themselves from stereotypes based on excessive trust in narrative monuments.

Regarding the historical content of the Westeros Riksdag, most experts of the 20th century were convinced that the Riksdag of 1527 was, according to a common expression, a "reformation Riksdag" (Swedish, reformationsriksdagen); its final resolution was that of the introduction of the Reformation. This view prevailed in Swedish historiography for almost the entire 20th century. Indicative, for example, is the statement of I. Montgomery, one of the leading researchers of the Swedish Reformation, in a work published in 1982: “Officially, the Reformation was introduced at the Vesteros Riksdag in 1527”283.

But this point of view was not the only one. Already in 1956, the historian X. Irving expressed a different opinion: “The Decree on the Church Reformation was not adopted at the Vesteros Riksdag of 1527” “Formellt blev reformationen genomford vid riksdagen і Vasteras 1527” -Montgomery I. Gustav Adolf och religionen. Stockholm, 1982, S. 62. ("Nagon reformation av kyrkan beslots inte av riksdagen and Vasteras 1527")284. In Irving's opinion, the Riksrod's resolution on faith was, on the contrary, conservative: the participants swore to adhere to "good old Christian customs." On the part of the king, according to Irving, the resolution was political in nature: Gustav Vasa sought to put an end to the power of the bishops and carried out this intention at the Riksdag of 1527.

Objections to Irving's concept were raised in the works of S. Chöllerström published in the 1960s286. Chöllerström believed that Gustav Vasa planned a break with Rome before the Westeros Riksdag, which, although not formally enshrined in the Riksdag resolution, was nevertheless carried out de facto. According to Chöllerström, the Riksdag's resolution on "preaching the Word of God" and on "the good old Christian customs" contained a new, reformatory content. The Vesteros Riksdag of 1527, according to Chöllerström, marked the beginning of the Reformation.

In the second half of the 1990s, the question of whether the Westeros Riksdag was a "reformation Riksdag" was - at a new stage - raised by M. Nyman, whose opinion became known among specialists. Nyman believed that the Vesteros Riksdag could not be regarded as the beginning of the Reformation in Sweden: the break with the Roman curia was not officially proclaimed; the importance of loyalty to the pope was not questioned either in the documents of the Riksdag or in the documents created in connection with the Riksdag. The Riksdag's resolution that "God's Word must be preached purely" reflected, according to Neumann, a general Christian demand that any priest could agree to.287

Thus, Newman's opinion actually coincided with Irving's point of view, expressed back in the middle of the 20th century. The new moment lay in the social and cultural context of Nyman's work: he expressed his point of view in the 1990s - in an era when, on the one hand, the position of the Catholic Church in Sweden was strengthened, and on the other hand, an active revision was underway in the historiography of many countries. views on the history of those social groups whose interests and rights were infringed in the past. Catholics in Sweden also belonged to such groups in the early modern period.

The opinions of scientists about the concept of Newman were divided. So, L.-U. Larsson, a well-known specialist in the Swedish Middle Ages and early modern times, agreed with Nyman's position: the decisions of the Vesteros Riksdag were of an economic and political nature; no resolution on innovations in the field of religion was adopted - therefore, the Vesteros Riksdag, according to Larsson, cannot be called a "reformation Riksdag"288. Another historian, O. Andrei, did not accept Nyman's point of view. Nyman's work, according to Andren See: NymanM. Forlorarnas historia, S. 73 - 74. "Catholic book": it covers history from confessional positions, and therefore is not objective289.

In connection with the current discussion about the assessment of the Riksdag of Västerås, the question of the actual role of this Riksdag in the fate of Sweden has again become topical. This question was almost simultaneously raised in their works by three historians - K. Palmblad, P. Stobeus and the author of this dissertation.

Palmblad's opinion is as follows: The Westeros Riksdag was a reformation Riksdag de facto, since the subsequent changes associated with the decisions of the Riksdag were reformatory in nature. Here is how the author himself formulates his conclusion: , the election and consecration of a new archbishop, while the former archbishop, who had left Sweden, was still alive - all this meant a break with canon law and, consequently, a break with Rome and papal authority.

In my monograph, published in 2008, I assessed the Vesteros Riksdag of 1527 as reformatory. I based my conclusion on the fact that the said Riksdag was closely connected with the struggle over reform ideas, that the king and his supporters-reformers immediately before the Riksdag did not hide their sympathy for the teachings of Luther and intentions to carry out reforms, guided by

Other books on similar topics:

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Reformation Reformation 95 theses Formula of agreement Counter-reformation Movements and denominations Protestantism Reformation in Germany Lutheranism Anabaptism ... Wikipedia

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Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), state in the Center. Europe. Germany (Germania) as a territory inhabited by germs, tribes, was first mentioned by Pytheas from Massalia in the 4th century. BC e. Later, the name Germania was used to refer to Rome. ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia- [offic. title Societas Jesu (SJ), About in Jesus], catholic. the order of monastic regular (statutory) clerics, founded in 1534 by the Catholic. St. Ignatius Loyola and approved on 27 Sept. 1540 by Pope Paul III with the bull "Regimini ... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia

TOPIC: "The Reformation in Sweden".

Sweden carrying out the Reformation refers to 1527-1544. In contrast to Norway and Iceland, the higher Catholic clergy aspired here to union with Danish king, and supporters of the Reformation actively participated in the struggle for the independence of the country.

Sweden at the beginning of the 16th century was a country with backward agriculture and a small urban population. The only branches of Swedish industry that were also of international importance were mining and metallurgy. All the peasants were personally free, and the duties of most of them were rather moderate. Taxes and dues were mainly levied in the form of deliveries of grain, oil, livestock, iron, and timber. The weekly corvee was carried only by those holders who lived near the master's farms, but there were few such farms and they were small in size. Of vital importance for the Swedish, as well as for the Danish, peasants was the rural community, with its forced schedule of field work, the joint use of forests and pastures, and even sometimes with redistribution. In the XVI century. Sweden retained the remnants of subsistence farming. Some of the royal officials were paid in kind. Even in the 17th century internal trade often had the character of barter. However, already in the XVI-XVII centuries. Swedish merchants intensified their activities, mainly in Stockholm, the only significant city in the country. Large buyers increasingly penetrated into mining and metallurgy, economic subjugation of small producers. From the end of the 16th century foreign, especially Dutch, merchants began to buy oil, livestock, raw iron and other goods from Swedish peasants and nobles.

Even at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. the Swedes in bloody wars had to repel the stubborn attempts of the Danish kings to restore the Kalmar Union of Denmark with Sweden. The last time such an attempt was successful was in 1518-1520. to the Danish king Christian II, who brutally cracked down on his opponents from among the Swedish nobility and townspeople (the Stockholm bloodbath in 1520). However, the terror only briefly prolonged Danish dominance. The peasant uprising against foreign enslavers began already in 1521, nominated Gustav Eriksson as leader and quickly spread throughout the country. In August of the same year, in Vadstena, Gustav was elected ruler of Sweden. To speed up the achievement of victory, in 1522 he entered into negotiations with another opponent of Denmark - the largest Hanseatic city of Lübeck. The Lübeck government, interested in crushing Christian II, who claimed Baltic dominance, entered into an alliance with Sweden. The strong Lübeck fleet moved towards the Danish straits. Christian was forced to take up the defense of his own country and could not provide serious assistance to his troops and supporters in Sweden. By the end of 1522, almost all of Sweden was liberated from the Danes, who held only three main sea fortresses - Stockholm, Kalmar and Elvsborg. In the spring of 1523, the Danish king, weakened by failures in Sweden, was overthrown by large feudal lords in Denmark itself, and fled to Holland.

In June 1523, the Swedish Riksdag in Strengnes declared Christian II deposed and the hated union with Denmark terminated. Sweden regained its independence. On June 6, 1523, the Riksdag elected the head of state - the king - the leader national movement, the ruler of the country Gustav Eriksson under the name of Gustav I Vasa.

The first years of the existence of the young state took place in difficult conditions of ongoing internal struggle. There was an acute shortage of funds - Lübeck demanded more and more insistently the payment of the debt, the money was needed for the upkeep of the troops and other state needs. In this situation, Gustav Vasa found the only right way to solve urgent problems - the way that allowed him to get strong support from the main social forces countries. Gustav began the reform of the church and for this purpose in 1527 again convened the Riksdag in Västerås, which played an important role in strengthening the Swedish national state.

By this time, the universal Catholic Church had become a brake on the formation of centralized nation-states, particularly in Sweden. Catholic bishops and monasteries owned large land holdings that were not actually subject to the Swedish government; in the possessions of the "princes of the church" - rose powerful walls episcopal castles, had its own military force- Detachments of armed vassals and mercenaries. The Swedish prelates supported the Danish government for a long time, having entered into a sharp conflict with the main classes of Sweden, which greatly undermined the prestige of the Catholic Church in the country.

The importance of the Catholic Church in Swedish political life in the 15th - early 16th centuries. due to its economic power. Through donations, wills, purchases, many lands of the Swedish nobles passed into the hands of church feudal lords. By the time of the liquidation of the Kalmar Union, the church had become the largest landowner in the country, possessing the same amount of land as the entire Swedish nobility as a whole.

In churches and monasteries, large movable valuables gradually concentrated - gold and silver utensils, expensive icons, silver statues of saints, etc. Thus, large funds collected from the population were withdrawn from circulation, while the government constantly felt an acute shortage of them.

Covering churchmen in the XV - early XVI century. the desire for enrichment contributed to the fall of the authority of the Catholic Church among the general population. The service, which was performed entirely in Latin, was incomprehensible, so the ideological influence of the church service on the masses was small.

First of all, the nobility was interested in the reform of the church in Sweden. It wanted to get the lands that had accumulated in the hands of the church, especially those that had passed over the past decades into the possession of monasteries. The urban class was interested in creating a "cheap" church, not striving for enrichment and not burdening the population with extortions. And even the advanced part of the clergy, who saw the decline of the Catholic Church, wanted to "purify" the church of its vices, to abandon the accumulation of property, to concentrate all their activities on the fulfillment of a purely spiritual mission.

As you know, the struggle for the reform of the Catholic Church unfolded from the 1010s of the 16th century. in Germany, where in 1517 at the University of Wittenberg Martin Luther openly called for reformation. In the same place, in Wittenberg, the young Swede Olaus Petri (1493-1552) studied, who became an ardent follower of the new teaching. Returning to his homeland, he became the first preacher of Lutheranism in Sweden. He was followed by other priests in various places in Sweden.

The weakening of the position of the Catholic Church after 1523 facilitated the preaching of the Reformation. Olaus Petri, his brother Lavrenty Petri, Lavrenty Andree and their disciples vigorously preached Lutheranism. The king patronized their activities: Olaus Petri was transferred to Stockholm and appointed "city clerk" (secretary of city government), and he was given a preaching pulpit in the main metropolitan cathedral. Thanks to the activities of Olaus Petri and his followers, Lutheranism quickly spread in the circles of the metropolitan burghers. In accordance with the teachings of Luther, worship in Stockholm churches from 1525 began to be conducted in Swedish. The parishioners understood the entire course of the service and actively participated in it by reading prayers and singing psalms. In 1526 the translation into Swedish of the Gospel was completed; it was published in the same year.

In the meantime, the Swedish Catholic prelates continued their struggle against the progressive forces of the country that had won the victory. Prominent church leaders participated in organizing anti-government unrest in Dalecarlia in 1524-1525 and in 1527. In the current situation, the Catholic Church became the main reactionary force that prevented the further strengthening of the Swedish state.

In 1527, Gustav Vasa openly began to reform the church from above by means of state power. It was " royal reformation". At the Riksdag in 1527 in Westeros, the king managed to win the support of the country's upper class, the nobility, by raising the question of the secularization of church lands. The political line of the king was supported by the estates of townspeople and peasants. The Riksdag issued a resolution: to take away the castles that belonged to them from the bishops, to limit the number of their servants, to transfer to the king the “surplus” income of bishops, cathedral churches and monasteries, to give the nobles the right to return the lands that previously belonged to them, which over the previous three-quarters of a century passed into the possession of spiritual feudal lords.

The property of the church actually came under the control of the crown, and most of the church tithe began to flow into the treasury. After some time, the bishops, unable to collect the required amount of taxes to the treasury from the remnants of their possessions, were forced to voluntarily give up their lands in favor of the state. The monastic lands suffered the same fate. By the middle of the XVI century. Church feudal landownership was abolished. Without this source of income, the Swedish monasteries were gradually closed, the monks went into the “world”. The movable property of monasteries and bishops - money, gold and silver utensils - was taken to the treasury. With the implementation of these decrees, semi-autonomous church possessions were liquidated in Sweden and the basis for the independent role of the church in Sweden was finally destroyed.

The head of the Swedish church was declared the king. In all churches in Sweden, the Latin service was replaced by a service in the local language. The former Catholic cult, with its magnificent medieval theatricality, has been replaced by a strict Lutheran cult, in which the main attention is not directed to external forms, not on the mechanical performance of rituals, but on the inner ideological content of religious actions. In a simplified worship, the main place was occupied by a sermon, the joint reading of church books and the singing of psalms. The cult of saints was abolished, and with it the veneration of relics, icons and sacred statues, and numerous religious holidays. The internal structure and decoration of churches was greatly simplified, from which icons, statues and artistic carvings were almost completely removed. Fasting and most of the so-called sacraments were abolished.

Fundamental changes are also taking place in the composition of the clergy. With the abolition of monasticism, the complex church hierarchy typical of early feudalism disappeared, including the episcopate, replenished from the environment of monasticism. Catholic priests, ordained by bishops and allegedly possessing a special "grace" transmitted to them by the bishops from the pope himself, have now been replaced by pastors - preachers elected by the parishioners. After the liquidation of the episcopate, secular officials appointed by the king began to manage the church. The vow of celibacy for the clergy was also abolished. Lutheranism was declared the official religion of Sweden, it was forbidden to profess the Catholic religion; Lutheranism was just as intolerant of other creeds as was Catholicism.

The reformation was important and ambiguous for the development of Swedish culture. Replacement Latin in the church cult Swedish accelerated the development of national writing and literature. However, the impact of the reformation was not only positive. Many church and monastery schools were closed, medieval manuscripts were destroyed. This led to a decline in school education. The rejection of the cult of saints, the veneration of relics and icons led to the destruction of numerous monuments of medieval painting and applied art accumulated in churches.

The main political result of the Reformation was the strengthening of the state. By destroying the political independence and economic power of the church, Gustav Vasa turned the Swedish church from a rival to royal power into a strong support and reliable servant of this power. Along with strengthening the social support of the monarchy (the landed nobility and the top of the urban burghers), the Reformation contributed to the solution of the most acute problem that faced the Swedish government in the first years after the overthrow of the Danish government - replenishment of the treasury. The government paid off its debts and emerged from the financial crisis. Later, a significant part of the lands of church feudal lords became the property of the state, which greatly increased the wealth of the treasury; over time, the government also appropriated the right to collect a head tax in favor of the church - tithes, leaving itself two-thirds of it.

Gustav Vasa's successor Eric XIV strengthened the Swedish centralized monarchy. From the middle of the XVI century. Sweden joined in the struggle for dominance in the Baltic Sea. At this time, the cargo turnover in the Baltic grew from year to year. The economic predominance in this region of Europe then passed from the decrepit Hanseatic cities to the Dutch. Military dominance tenaciously held in its hands Denmark, which owned both banks of the Sound and the most important islands of the Baltic. Under these conditions, the eyes of the Swedish kings and nobility turned to the most accessible and at the same time rich booty - to the lands of the weak military-political Livonian Order in the Eastern Baltic. Possession of Levonia - one of the granaries of Europe - was valuable not only in itself. In Riga, Revelle and Narva, trade routes converged from the East, from Russia and Lithuania, from distant Asian countries. The traditions of predatory "Eastern campaigns" were alive among the descendants of the Swedish Vikings and Crusaders. Already Gustav Vaza, shortly before his death, tried (in 1554) to resume aggression against the Russian state in Karelia, but unsuccessfully. The successes of Ivan the Terrible in the Livonian War alarmed the Swedes as well as other Western neighbors of Russia. King Eric XIV was not slow to seize part of the lands of the Livonian Order. In 1561, the Swedes captured Revel (Tallinn) and the northern part of Estonia. Seven Years' War 1563-1570 was carried out between Denmark and Sweden largely because of the fact in whose hands the Baltic trade with the Russian state will be. The Swedish feudal lords did their best to prevent the strengthening of the Russian state on the shores of the Baltic. This found expression in three Russian-Swedish wars - from 1570 to 1535. In the 16th century, however, the Swedes had not yet succeeded in pushing back Russian state from the Gulf of Finland.

During the Livonian War, a military-political union of Sweden and the Commonwealth was created, directed with its tip against Russia. Under the Swedish king John III (1568-1592), the influence of Polish culture and Catholicism became noticeable in Sweden. Swedish worship began to acquire Catholic features. The rapprochement of both states was also manifested in the conclusion of dynastic marriages. From 1592, Sweden and Poland were united by a personal union: Sigismund III, a pupil of the Jesuits, was simultaneously the king of Sweden and Poland. For Sweden, there was a threat of a Catholic counter-reformation and subjugation by the Commonwealth.

The nationally colored anti-Catholic movement of the petty nobility, townspeople and the mass of tax-paying peasants was led by the youngest son of Gustav Vasa, Duke Charles. Sigismund was expelled in 1599, and the feudal aristocracy on which he relied was severely persecuted.

The involvement of the northern countries in international trade, accelerated from the end of the 16th century. pan-European increase in food prices Agriculture and mining, led in Sweden, as in several countries of Eastern and Central Europe to the strengthening of feudal oppression. The nobles, who became rich thanks to the Baltic trade, achieved for themselves in 1612 and 1644. broad class privileges (the right to duty-free trade, police power over their peasants, etc.). Under Gustav II Adolf (1611-1632) and especially under Queen Christina (1632-1654), the sale, mortgage and distribution to the nobility on various terms of crown and especially taxable lands were widely developed. Dependence on the crown has now been replaced for the mass of peasants by dependence on individual nobles. Swedish feudalism was losing its "original" features of incompleteness.

Not only the form, but also the degree of feudal dependence changed. The number and size of noble estates grew. The nobles sought to increase all types of rent, and most importantly, to transfer their new peasants to corvee and tried in every possible way to deprive the former tax-paying peasants of their ancient rights to land, drive them away from convenient land, and appropriate communal lands. The threat of serfdom hung over the peasants.

The growth of peasant uprisings in the 30-50s of the XVII century. was a response to feudal pressure, as well as recruitment kits and new taxes. A number of circumstances prevented the spread of serfdom in Sweden. There was no sufficient economic basis for the triumph of serfdom here, since large-scale agricultural production for sale was limited. The presence of the four estates of the Riksdag and the system of local courts with the participation of peasants also gave the latter the opportunity to repulse the feudal lords. In addition, the expansion of the nobility caused discontent among the Swedish townspeople. Fearing a popular uprising in the terrible years of the English revolution for European monarchs, taking into account the unanimous protest of the top of the tax-paying estates, represented in the Riksdag, the government of Queen Christina in 1650-1652. confirmed the inviolability of personal freedom and the rights of peasants to land, somewhat limited the further growth of duties. Despite this, the distribution of land to the nobility even intensified, and peasant unrest in the provinces of Småland and Nerke in 1652-1653. were brutally suppressed.

The entire first quarter of the 17th century. filled with the struggle of Sweden and Poland over the Eastern Baltic. The enmity was aggravated by Sigismund's dynastic claims to the Swedish throne.

During this struggle, under the guise of "help" to the Russian Tsar Vasily Shuisky, the Swedish intervention in Russia (1609) began. The aggressive plans for Russia were supported primarily by large feudal magnates, such as Jacob Delagardie, who dreamed of expanding their serf farms and multiplying incomes. The liberation struggle of the Russian masses forced the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf to leave captured Novgorod and renounce his claims to the Russian throne. However, taking advantage of the temporary weakening of Russia, the Swedes retained part of the Russian territory for a long time (according to the Peace of Stolbov in 1617). They delivered sensitive blows to the Commonwealth, capturing from it in the 20s of the 17th century. Riga, all of Livonia and the Prussian ports, especially Pillau - the seaport of Koenigsberg.

The desire of the Swedish nobles and merchants to dominate the Baltic Sea and its southern shores, along with the threat of a Catholic counter-reformation, led in 1630 to Sweden's entry into the Thirty Years' War.

Strengthening the international role of Sweden was secured Peace of Westphalia 1648, under the terms of which she received all of Western Pomerania, part of Eastern Pomerania, the city of Stettin (Szczecin) and some other territories. In Europe, a new great power was formed, encircling almost the entire Baltic with its possessions. Swedish dominance in the Baltics and Northern Germany from the very beginning placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the Baltic peoples, primarily the Latvian, Estonian, German and Russian peasants. Swedish nobles settled in the baronial castles of Livonia and Estonia. Swedish customs officials, who went through the bourgeois Dutch school, intercepted a significant share of the profits from the trade of Western Europe with Eastern Europe.

The “great power” of sparsely populated and in many respects still backward Sweden became possible due to the weakening in the first decades of the 17th century. such neighbors of Sweden as the Commonwealth and Russia, as well as thanks to the war in Germany. These circumstances, combined with the strategic vulnerability of the Swedish "Baltic Empire", with the complete absence of common interests among the peoples that were part of it, and the small number of the most dominant nation - the Swedes, predetermined its fragility.

Injection of the political factor (Scottish lords with a way of supporting English Protestantism hoped to follow the French influx) legitimized the Reformation. 2.5 Features of the Reformation in the Netherlands The main changes in the Reformation in the Netherlands were, like in other European lands, due to social, economic, political, cultural changes with dissatisfaction with the Catholic...

He continued to adhere to the doctrine of the presence of Christ in the sacrament of the Eucharist. As a result, elaborate rituals and formal attire are often seen in modern Lutheran churches. In many countries of Europe, the reformation was led by princes, dukes, kings, who carried it out in their own interests. Here the reformation, as a rule, was successful and contributed to the strengthening of the power of the rulers. Lutheran...

Dutch. It is not surprising that Italian artists and French architects, German theologians and Dutch scientists left an indelible mark on the spiritual life of the Scandinavian peoples of the 16th-17th centuries. CULTURE OF DENMARK Culturally, the primacy among the Scandinavian countries undoubtedly belonged to Denmark. Foundation of the University of Copenhagen in 1478 and the introduction of printing in Denmark in 1482...

Religion (Protestantism or Catholicism) for their princedoms to the ruling court, according to the principle: "Which power, that and faith" (lat. Cuius regio, eius religio). Until the beginning of the 17th century, the Catholic Church, rushing to the support of the Habsbug dynasty, doubled its influx and waged an active struggle against the Protestants. For the support of the Catholic onslaught, the Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire...

Reformation in Sweden

/94/ There was no reformation in Sweden popular movement. This was due to two reasons: the political ambitions of Gustav Vasa and the influence of various movements in Germany, usually united by the concept of "Reformation".

Sweden was dominated by the reformist ideas of Martin Luther (1483–1546) and Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560).

From the point of view of theology, the Lutheran-Melanchthonian reformation was an innovation that "purified" the ideas that were discussed during the Middle and Late Middle Ages. The reformers were reactionaries (i.e., they were directed backwards) in the sense of searching for the ideal of church life in the distant past (antiquitas). The Bible, "the pure word of God," became the most important standard.

The beginning of the changes that led to the Reformation in Sweden was laid by the decisions of the Riksdag in Västerås in 1527. On it, reformers such as Laurentius André and Olaus Petri (1493–1552) were allowed to freely preach their ideas, and Gustav Vasa could now begin to confiscate church property. This led to violent reactions, such as the Dalarna uprisings of 1524–33, the Småland uprising of 1529, and the uprising led by Nils Dakke of 1542–43.

Laurentius Petri (brother of Olaus. – Note. transl. listen)) (1499–1572) was elected archbishop in 1531. The consecration of him and other bishops meant that the places of the hierarchs of the church began to be occupied by supporters of reformist ideas. Despite the attempts of the king to completely control the activities of the church, it retained the medieval structure of the episcopate. This guaranteed the church a certain autonomy. With some changes, the Mass and the order of worship were also preserved. The Church of the Late Middle Ages was a fairly tolerant cult community. The situation gradually changed during the Reformation with its demand for "pure doctrine". Monasteries were abolished, brotherhoods, pilgrimages, as well as individual church rites of service were prohibited. Various forms of worship that existed earlier were gradually unified.

In accordance with the principle of referring to primary sources, which is characteristic of the Reformation, noted above, in 1526 New Testament, and in 1541, the entire Bible was completely translated into the vernacular. During the years of the Reformation, there was a growing demand for preaching to take center stage in parish life. Its fulfillment was now facilitated by the fact that the priests could preach on mother tongue. Through preaching, believers were to receive "the pure word of God." The point was to free the worship of everything that was contrary to the basic principle of the Reformation: "Salvation by the grace of God alone." /95/

The next period of the Reformation came with the coming to power in 1569 of Johan III (1537–92). His program of church policy combined the idea of ​​international church unity with the desire that the ancient church become a model of church life. The result was a printed church ordinance of 1571, issued under the title Nova Ordinantia in 1575. A year later, Johan issued a large liturgical ordinance, Liturgia suecanae ecclesiae, called the "Red Book". He also tried to restore the system destroyed during the Reformation higher education and improve relations with Rome. This met with opposition and served as the beginning of the so-called liturgical struggle (1576–93). At the head of the resistance was Johan's brother, Karl, Duke of Södermanland, who sympathized with the Calvinists, who later became King Charles IX.

Duke Karl used political situation to consolidate their power. A step towards this was the convening of a church council in Uppsala in 1593, the purpose of which was the abolition of Johan's church reforms. The Ordinance of 1571 and the Confessio Augustana (Augsburg Confession), the German Confession of 1530, were officially adopted as the norms of church life. Thus, the orthodox Lutheran doctrine was completely restored, the Swedish state church took the form that has survived to this day.

Sven-Erik Brodd

The book, based on an analysis of a set of unique (including handwritten) sources, for the first time in Russian historiography examines in detail the early stage of the Reformation in Sweden (1520s-1530s), shows the relationship between the transformations of the church and the policy of strengthening royal power, which conducted by Gustav Vasa (1523-1560). Particular attention is paid to the key event of the Swedish Reformation - the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527: its course and results are considered, the consequences are shown (reduction of church property, confessional reforms, changes in the field of law). The scientific discussion about the Westeros Riksdag is highlighted, as well as the documents created in connection with the Reformation are examined. The central place in the book is devoted to the study of the life and work of the spiritual leader of the Swedish reformers - Olaus Petri. A detailed analysis of his theological and historical views is presented, the results of his activity as an educator are considered, the range of sources, composition and main ideas of the fundamental...

The book, based on an analysis of a set of unique (including handwritten) sources, for the first time in Russian historiography examines in detail the early stage of the Reformation in Sweden (1520s-1530s), shows the relationship between the transformations of the church and the policy of strengthening royal power, which conducted by Gustav Vasa (1523-1560). Particular attention is paid to the key event of the Swedish Reformation - the Riksdag of Westeros in 1527: its course and results are considered, the consequences are shown (reduction of church property, confessional reforms, changes in the field of law). The scientific discussion about the Westeros Riksdag is highlighted, as well as the documents created in connection with the Reformation are examined. The central place in the book is devoted to the study of the life and work of the spiritual leader of the Swedish reformers - Olaus Petri. A detailed analysis of his theological and historical views is presented, the results of his activity as an educator are considered, the range of sources, composition and main ideas of the fundamental work of the thinker - "The Swedish Chronicle" are studied in detail.
The book is addressed to medievalist and Scandinavian historians, as well as to political scientists, religious scholars, and culturologists; the work will be of interest to a general reader who is trying to comprehend the phenomenon of the European Reformation.