Plan
Introduction
1. History
1.1 Diplomatic recognition
2 Politics
3 Concord Society
4 Armed forces
5 Demographics
6 Currency
Bibliography
Introduction
Manchu-guo, Manchuria (Chinese 滿洲國 - State of Manchuria, whale. 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration on the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945.
The capital is Xinjing (now Changchun); the last Chinese emperor (from the Manchu Qing dynasty) Pu Yi (Supreme ruler in 1932-1934, emperor from 1934 to 1945) was placed at the head of the state.
In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In 1939, the armed forces of Manchukuo took part in the battles on the Khalkhin Gol River (in Japanese historiography - the "Incident at Nomonhan"). During Soviet-Japanese War Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. In 1949, the territory of Manchukuo became part of the PRC.
1. History
After the conquest of China by the Manchu tribes, the Ming dynasty was overthrown. The conquerors proclaimed the power of their Qing dynasty in China, but their historical homeland, Manchuria, was not fully integrated with China, which became part of the Qing empire, retaining legal and ethnic differences.
The progressive weakening of the Qing Empire in the 19th century caused the separation of part of the border regions and the strengthening of the great powers competing with each other. Russia expressed significant interest in the northern territories of the Qing Empire and in 1858, under the Beijing Treaty, gained control over the territories called Outer Manchuria in China (modern Primorsky Krai, Amur Region, southern Khabarovsk Territory and the Jewish Autonomous Region). However, the further weakening of the Qing government led to the strengthening of Russia also in Inner Manchuria, where the CER was built, running along the route Harbin - Vladivostok. The Russian government considered the Zheltorossiya project, the basis of which was to be the exclusion zone of the CER, the formation of a new Cossack army and Russian colonists.
The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. In the period between 1905 and 1925, Japan significantly increases its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.
During the Russian civil war In 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of the weakening of Russia and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.
A buffer Far Eastern Republic was formed between Soviet Russia and Japan, but further strengthening of the Bolsheviks and pressure from the Western powers on Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying forces in 1925.
Beginning in 1925, China began to counteract the growing Japanese influence on the continent. During the civil war in the former Qing Empire, General Zhang Zuolin captured Inner Manchuria with the help of the Japanese, but was liquidated in 1928. In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria and invited the last Qing emperor, Pu Yi, to restore the Manchu state. On March 1, 1932, by decision of the All-Manchurian Assembly, the State of Manchuria was formed, then recognized by Japan. The new state immediately became the scene of a battle between the Japanese and Chinese armed groups, which continued for several years.
Pu Yi, originally appointed Head of State - Supreme Ruler (he took office on March 9, 1932), was declared emperor two years later. The motto of his reign was "Kangde" (康德), or "Tranquility and Virtue". On March 1, 1934, Manchukuo was declared the Great Manchurian Empire (Manchukuo-di-go). Thanks to Japanese investment and wealthy natural resources, the industrialization of Manchuria took place.
Manchukuo was used by Japan as a springboard for an attack on China. In the summer of 1939, the territorial disputes between Manchuria and the Mongolian People's Republic led to clashes at Khalkhin Gol between the Soviet-Mongolian and Japanese-Manchurian troops.
On August 8, 1945, the USSR, pursuant to the decisions of the Yalta Conference, declared war on Japan and attacked Manchukuo from the territory of Outer Mongolia and the former Outer Manchuria. Emperor Pu Yi tried to break through to the Japanese in order to subsequently surrender american army but was arrested Soviet troops and issued to the Chinese Communist government.
In the period 1945-1948, the territory of Inner Manchuria, thanks to I. V. Stalin, became the base for the People's Liberation Army of China.
1.1. Diplomatic recognition
The League of Nations refused to recognize Manchukuo, which led Japan to withdraw from the organization in 1934. At the same time, Manchukuo was recognized by 23 of the 80 states of the world that existed at that time. Diplomatic relations were established with the USSR (de facto March 23, 1935; de jure April 13, 1941), Germany, Italy, Spain, and later the Vichy regime in France. The state was also recognized by El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. In particular, the state was recognized:
2. Politics
Historians often view Manchukuo as a puppet state. In China, this state is usually referred to as "Wei Manchukuo" (false state of Manchuria), although it had a succession from the state of the Manchus, which gave rise to the Qing Empire.
On March 1, 1934, Manchuria was declared a monarchy. The emperor ruled based on the Privy Council and the Council of State. It was the State Council that was the center of political power. It consisted of several ministers, with each of them a Japanese deputy minister.
Manchukuo had state symbols: a flag, a coat of arms, and an anthem.
The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo, and had the right to veto the decisions of the emperor.
There was a Legislative Assembly in the state, whose role was reduced to stamping the decisions of the State Council. The only political party allowed was the government-funded Concord Society (see below). en:Concordia Association); in addition to him, several emigrant groups, in particular, Russian emigrants, were allowed to organize their own political movements (see, for example, the Russian Fascist Party, Bureau of Russian Emigrants in the Manchurian Empire).
3. Society of Concord
The Accord Society played a key role in Manchukuo. Its name is explained by the pan-Asian concept of “the consent of peoples” put forward by the Japanese, which assumed the self-determination of various Asian peoples along the lines of the Soviet model of the “union of peoples”. At the same time, the coexistence of various nationalities was assumed strictly within the framework of a single centralized state, which could help to avoid possible weakening. The Concord Society assumed self-organization within separate communities for different nationalities; it included Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Muslims, Russian emigrants, and also a Chinese majority. At the same time, the organization was characterized by reliance on traditional religious leaders for each community.
The society was conceived as the main political force of Manchukuo, designed to replace the Kwantung Army in this capacity. However, in reality, the Concord Society has become an ideological tool in the hands of the Japanese military. In the mid 1930s the leadership Kwantung Army ordered the society to purge its leaders accused of leftist sympathies. After the purge, the organization became, in fact, no different from its progenitors - the fascist parties of Europe of that time, standing on the positions of anti-communism and corporatism, and was transformed for mobilization purposes.
The model for the Concord Society was the Japanese organization Taisei Yokusenkai (Association for the Relief of the Throne). All civil servants, up to teachers, and all important figures of society were included in the society. Young people aged 16 to 19, starting in 1937, were automatically enrolled in the organization. By 1943, up to 10% of the population of Manchuria was in society.
Although a one-party system was not formally established in Manchukuo, in fact the only political party allowed was the Concorde Society. An exception to this rule were various political movements of immigrants living in Manchuria.
4. Armed Forces
The key role in the creation and further life of Manchukuo was played by the Kwantung Army - the Japanese army group on Far East. The decision to seize Manchuria in 1932 was made by the command of the Kwantung Army arbitrarily, without the consent of the Japanese Parliament.
In the future, the commander of the Kwantung Army simultaneously served as the ambassador of Japan, and had the right to veto the decisions of Emperor Pu Yi. Thus, the status of Manchukuo did not actually differ from the status of a protectorate of any of the European colonial empires.
The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchu Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.
In March 1931, the leadership of the Kwantung Army, represented by S. Itagaki, the Japanese ambassador to Manchuria and commander-in-chief of the Japanese army, decided that the Manchu-Mongolian problem would be solved only if these territories were subordinated to Japan. Based on this decision, a document was developed and approved, which was called the "Report on the Management of Occupied Manchuria." Bogaturov A.D. Great powers on pacific ocean. History and theory of international relations in East Asia after the Second World War 1945-1995, M., 1997. 353p. The plans of this document included the decision to create from Manchuria a state under the control of Japan, as a military government in which officials are in power. local government. It was also decided in advance that the puppet emperor Pu Yi, who was the last Chinese emperor, would become the head of the administration.
On February 18, 1932, a new republic was created by the Japanese and at the same time the "Declaration of Independence of Manchuria and Mongolia" was published, which finally gave sovereignty to the Northeastern provinces. The plans of the new government were to create a single powerful sovereign state of Manchukuo. The declaration said: "" Manchuria and Mongolia begin new life. In ancient times, Manchuria and Mongolia were annexed and separated more than once, but now the natural connection has been restored.” Shirokorad A. Japan. Unfinished rivalry, M., 2008. 464s.
In 1931, Pu Yi received an offer to head the new state of Manchukuo. Pu Yi had long dreamed of the imperial crown, yes, he had no choice. There.
Having placed the Chinese emperor at the head of Manchukuo, the Japanese planned to involve the local Chinese bourgeoisie in the management of the new state, and it was also planned to create institutions under the emperor that would allow the state system of Manchukuo to be adapted to the Japanese system of bourgeois-monarchical power. Zakharova G.F. Japanese policy in Manchuria. 1932-1945, M., 1990. 266s.
On March 8, 1932, Pu Yi and his wife Wan Zhen arrived in Changchun (?¬K). The Japanese greeted them magnificently, giving them a performance with a military band. Such a beginning gave Pu Yi the hope that if he worked with the Japanese, then from the position of Supreme Ruler he would be able to restore his imperial title. The day after his arrival, Pu Yi's inauguration ceremony was held. Pu Yi was crowned as Kang Te. The capital of the new state was the city of Xinjing (ђV‹ћ). Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s. Along with the change in the name of the capital, the administrative-territorial division of Manchuria also changed: instead of three provinces (Heilongjiang, Fengtian and Jilin), they formed two special cities (Xinjing and Harbin) and 12 dwarf provinces (Andong, Fengtian, Jinzhou, Jilin, Rehe, Jiandao, Heihe, Sanjiang, Longjiang, Bingjiang, Guanandong, Guananxi, Guannannan and Guananbei). Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations of Manchukuo .pdf (accessed 05/19/2016)
The basic principles of the state organization of Manchukuo were spelled out in the "Declaration on the Formation of the New State of Manchukuo". So, the form of government of Manchukuo was a limited monarchy. The main institutions of the system of higher state bodies were: the Emperor, the Supreme Council, the Legislative Chamber, the Sehehui organization, the State Council, the Supreme Court. According to the law, the emperor had broad powers; under him, bodies were established that were completely subordinate to him, such as: the Military Council or the Ministry of the Imperial Court. There.
Despite the fact that, according to the law, Pu Yi had broad powers, in fact, all power was entirely in the hands of the Japanese, Seishiro Itagaki was a particularly significant person. As Pu Yi wrote in his memoirs: "I did not even have the right to go outside my residence." Pu Yi. The Last Emperor, M., 2006. 576 p. “Each decision of the Pu Yi government was negotiated by the headquarters of the Kwantung Army…”. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…
By 1933, there were at least 3,000 Japanese advisers to the state administration in the state apparatus of Manchukuo. Everyone, from the department to the ordinary employee, did their job under supervision. Usov V. The Last Emperor of China…
In order to raise the international status of the new state, the Japanese tried in every possible way to achieve its recognition by other countries. Thus, on November 1, 1937, Manchukuo with its puppet regime was recognized by Italy, and on December 2 of the same year by Spain. In 1938, Germany and Poland also recognized the new state. Karaeva K. A. Manchukuo and international relationships in the Far East. 1931-1945, EKB., 2005. 89s.
To continue their aggressive policy, the Japanese needed to strengthen the Manchurian foothold. For this, the 150,000th Kwantung Army was deployed in Manchukuo, which consisted of trained and well-armed soldiers who implicitly obeyed their commanders. The army was intended to "defend the people of Manchuria from the Chinese Bolsheviks, the Kuomintang and other bandits." Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s.
The Japanese paid special attention to the construction of prisons and labor camps, as they were overcrowded and there were not enough places for all the "criminals". In 1935, an order was issued on " rational use» 22 places of detention due to the great need for labor force to build a new state, the prisoners also had to carry out labor duties. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…
Reforms were carried out in education. Since Manchukuo needed new personnel, special attention was paid to the education and training of young people. All subjects in schools were taught in Japanese. curriculum there was such a thing as "Great Japan". In all educational institutions a pro-fascist way of thinking and the ideology of militarism were imposed on students. Successful students whose ideological sentiments were in line with the Japanese government were sent to study in Japan. There.
Later, the Sehehui (?©M?) organization was established. It occupied a special place in the system of the highest bodies of the state. Her honorary adviser was the commander of the Kwantung Army, General Inoue. Anyone could join it: people living in Manchukuo, and those who lived outside of it. The main requirement for joining the organization was the sharing of the ideas of this organization. The main functions of the organization were: to instill in the people respect and loyalty to Japan and the belief that Japan is the savior of Asia from the national government of China. The organization also partially performed the duties of the Legislative Chamber and intelligence functions. Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations in Manchukuo URL: http://www.amursu.ru/attachments/article/9535/N48_8.pdf
Thus, the Sehehui Society became the main pillar of the Kwantung Army. pro-Japanese puppet Manchukuo
On April 28, 1932, the Daily Manchurian Newspaper began to be published in the capital. In one of her articles it was said: “1312 thousand square meters. km of territory, stretching from north to south for 1700 km and from east to west for 1400 km, represent the widest field of activity for the liberated 30 million Manchu population. Warmed by the rising sun of the Yamato Empire, it begins to turn over the pages of the history of its free development, and it is no longer threatened by either the colonial expansion of the West, or communist aggression from the USSR or agents of the Comintern from Beijing or Nanjing ”Usov V. The Last Emperor of China ...
The cinema showed various Japanese documentaries, demonstrating the invincibility of the Kwantung Army in various battles with China.
11. Supreme Ruler of Manchukuo
Having suffered a defeat in Shanghai, Japan began to strengthen its military-political apparatus in the occupied territory of the three northeastern provinces of China. Back in November 1931, the Council of the League of Nations became aware of the "abduction" by the Japanese of the dethroned former Chinese Emperor Pu Yi.
Pu Yi in his memoirs says that on the eve of September 18, 1931, he only thought that he would soon become emperor again. On September 30, 1931, in Tianjin, Pu Yi was invited to the Japanese barracks, where he was handed a large envelope containing a letter from his distant relative Xi Xia, who was the chief of staff of the deputy commander of the Northeastern Army, Zhang Zuolin, and at the same time the governor of Jilin province ( Jilin). Xi Xia, taking advantage of his superior's absence, surrendered Jirin to the Japanese troops without a fight. In a letter, Xi Xia asked Pu Yi to "waste no time immediately" to return to "the cradle of his ancestors"; with the help of the Japanese, he wrote, "we will first get Manchuria, and then Central China." Xi Xia reported that as soon as Pu Yi returned to Shenyang, Jilin would immediately announce the restoration of the Qing monarchy.
On the day they received the letter from Xi Xia, the Japanese offered Pu Yi to move to the Northeast.
On November 2, at night, Pu Yi was visited by the head of intelligence in Shenyang, Japanese Colonel Doihara, offering Pu Yi to go to Shenyang and stand at the head of the "new" state in Manchuria.
During a conversation between Pu Yi and Doihara, Pu Yi asked: "What will the new state be like?" Doihara replied: “I have already said that it will be an independent, sovereign state, in which Emperor Xuantong (that is, Pu Yi - V.U .)».
“I'm not asking about that. I want to know if it will be a republic or a monarchy?
– This issue can be resolved upon arrival in Shenyang.
- No! I resolutely objected. - If the restoration is carried out, then I will go; if not, then I stay here.
He smiled and, without changing his tone, said:
- Of course, the monarchy. There can be no doubt about this.
“If the monarchy, then I’ll go!” Pu Yi exclaimed.
Then I ask, Your Majesty, to leave as soon as possible and by all means arrive in Manchuria before the 16th. After arriving in Shenyang, we will discuss all plans in detail.
On November 10, 1931, Pu Yi fled Tianjin by hiding in the trunk of a racing car. The driver was not very experienced, and when the racing car was leaving the gates of the Quiet Garden, it crashed into a telegraph pole, Pu Yi hit his head hard on the trunk lid, then the car raced on, bouncing on potholes, it was accompanied by another, in which Yoshida was sitting. The car stopped at the agreed place near the restaurant, Yoshida got out of his car, approached and opened the trunk of the sports car, where Pu Yi was sitting, and helped him get out of there. They entered the restaurant, where a Japanese officer, Captain Magata, was already waiting for them. He provided Pu Yi with a Japanese military overcoat and cap, which the fugitive had to quickly change into.
Then they in two cars - a sports car and a Japanese military one - rushed along the embankment of the Baihe River straight to the port. There they were waiting for a small steamboat with extinguished lights, the Hijiyama Maru, which belonged to the transport department of the Japanese headquarters. In view of the transportation of "special" cargo, sandbags were piled on the deck and steel armor plates were installed. On board were about a dozen Japanese soldiers, who were entrusted with the protection of the emperor. A large barrel of gasoline was hidden on this steamboat, about which Pu Yi did not know anything, although he was sitting three meters from it. It was assumed that if the escape failed and the ship began to be pursued by Chinese troops, the Japanese soldiers would set fire to the steamer. At midnight, they reached the mouth of the Dagu River, where, according to the plan, the Japanese merchant ship Awaji Maru was supposed to come and take the emperor on board. Finally, on the morning of November 13, the ship "Awaji Maru" with Pu Yi moored in the port of Yingkou City, Liaoning Province. Such is the story of the "kidnapping" of Pu Yi by the Japanese.
In Yingkou, Pu Yi, who went ashore, was met by several Japanese. Among them was a certain Amakasu Masahiko. He was known in Japan for the fact that after the earthquake in Japan in 1923, when, taking advantage of the panic among the population, the Japanese military department killed many progressive figures and the actions of the military authorities became known to the general public, the authorities were forced to public opinion as a scapegoat to bring the captain of the Japanese gendarmerie Amakasa Masahiko to trial. A military tribunal then sentenced him to life imprisonment. However, he was soon amnestied and sent to France to "study". There he allegedly studied painting and music. A few years later, this "artist" returned to Japan, and he was immediately sent to work in his "profession" - to serve in the intelligence service of the Kwantung Army. And this polite short-sighted "artist" in thin-rimmed glasses met Pu Yi in the port. The emperor was asked to sit in the waiting carriage, which took him to railway station. Then for about an hour the fugitive rode the train, then again in the carriage, finally, he reached the Tangangtse hot springs resort area. Pu Yi was quietly placed in the finest room on the second floor of the superbly furnished Japanese-style Duinuige Hotel, owned by the Japanese South Manchurian Railway Company. railway"Mantetsu", where only Japanese officers, senior employees of the South Manchurian Railway and high-ranking Chinese dignitaries usually settled. Temporarily, he was not only not allowed to take a walk outside, but was even forbidden to go down to the first floor. “At that time, I did not yet know that the Japanese were very worried about the current situation,” Pu Yi recalled. “In the international arena, Japan was isolated, and within the country there was still no consensus on what form of government to choose for the new colony. In this regard, the Kwantung Army, of course, could not allow me to immediately go on stage. I just felt that the Japanese do not treat me with the same respect as in Tianjin. And Kayoshisumi was no longer the same as before. So I spent a whole week waiting for trouble. Suddenly, Itagaki called me and invited me to Lushun (Port Arthur - V.U.)» . On the same day in the evening, Pu Yi boarded a train for Lushun and the next morning was in the city. There he stayed on the second floor of the famous Yamato Hotel in the city. At this time, Pu Yi's wife Wan Rong also decided to move from Tianjin to Luishun, but when she was given the order of the Japanese forbidding to move, she decided that something had happened to Pu Yi, threw a grandiose tantrum, after which she was allowed to go to husband. However, she was not allowed to live in the Yamato Hotel, and only when a month later the leadership of the Kwantung Army moved Pu Yi to a private house, she and the two sisters of the emperor were allowed to live with him.
In considerable isolation, Pu Yi lived in Lüshun for three months. He was worried that the Japanese to this day have not determined what system will be in the new state: monarchical or republican. At this time, he fell into mysticism, often referring to the Chinese book "The Art of Foreseeing the Future", brought from Tianjin, fortune-telling on coins, asking the spirits for advice.
On February 9, 1932, on the second day after Pu Yi's birthday, a message arrived: The Administrative Council of the Northeast decides to establish a republic in Manchuria.
On February 18, one of the members of this council, at the behest of the Japanese Itagaki, announced the decision to establish a republic, followed by the publication of the Declaration of Independence of Manchuria and Mongolia. It said:
“Several months have passed like a moment since the incident in the Northeast. The people have always sought to have power over themselves, like those who are thirsty to quench their thirst. At present, during the period of major transformations, the desire of the people for revival is becoming especially sincere. ... A new government body was created, consisting of the top leaders of each province of the Special Region of the Eastern Provinces and Mongolia, with the assignment of the name "North-Eastern Administrative Committee". The creation of this Committee was announced everywhere. With this, all communication with the government of Zhang Xueliang was interrupted, and the Northeastern provinces gained full independence.
The despotic power has already been destroyed, the bloodshed is over. The people survived the times of severe trials, when no one was sure of saving their lives. But the tears of the bitter sufferings experienced have not yet dried up and the remnants of the forces of usurper power, which is like the claws of a predatory beast, have not yet been completely eradicated. A complete elimination of these forces is necessary to prevent any possibility of their resurrection and spread.
IN holy books It says: "The queen lavishes favors, but the king protects the people."
The creation of a government that aims at good governance and striving to ensure the peace and well-being of the revived people is the first task of the Administrative Committee. In the final part of the document, they called on all compatriots to provide assistance and assistance to the Administrative Committee.
When this news reached the emperor, he was beside himself. “I hated Doihara and Itagaki with all my heart,” Pu Yi recalled. “That day, like a madman, throwing the book“ The Art of Foreseeing the Future ”on the carpet, I rushed around the living room of the former Grand Duke Su and smoked one cigarette after another. I remembered the Quiet Garden and suddenly thought that if I did not become emperor, then it would be better for me to just live the quiet life of a man who retired from business. Having sold some of the jewelry and paintings, I could go abroad and live there for my own pleasure.
Then Pu Yi decided to express in writing command of the Kwantung Army, those thoughts and arguments that arose in his head, proving the need to preserve hereditary imperial power. And if the Japanese military command does not support him, then immediately return to Tianjin. They came down to 12 points (the last four were added by one of his associates):
"1. We cannot relinquish hereditary imperial authority out of respect for five thousand years of East Asian morality.
2. Maintaining high morality, first of all, it is necessary to think about the foundations of relationships between people, and this requires hereditary imperial power.
3. When governing the state, it is necessary that the people be full of faith and respect, and for this, hereditary imperial power is necessary.
4. China and Japan are friendly fraternal powers. If we want to live in peace and achieve common glory, then we must respect the firmly established moral foundations so that the peoples of our countries are brought up in the spirit of equality, and this requires hereditary imperial power.
5. China has been harmed by its democratic system of government for more than 20 years. With the exception of a tiny handful of egoists, the vast majority of the people hate the republic and are full of love for our dynasty, therefore hereditary imperial power is necessary.
6. Manchus and Mongols have long been accustomed to preserve their customs, and in order to gain their trust and respect, hereditary imperial power is needed.
7. The republican system is falling into more and more decline every day, to this must be added the unemployment growing every day - all this causes great anxiety to the Japanese empire; if China achieves the restoration of the imperial system of government, then this will be a great boon for our peoples, both mentally and morally, and for this, hereditary imperial power is necessary.
8. The great Qing dynasty existed in China for more than 200 years, before that it ruled in Manchuria for more than 100 years; in order to preserve the customs of the people, calm people's hearts, pacify our land, preserve the spirit of the inhabitants of the East, restore imperial power, strengthen the imperial traditions of both your country and our country, hereditary imperial power is needed.
9. The heyday of your country falls on the reign of Emperor Meiji. His instructions and decrees addressed to the people are aimed at educating the people in morality and devotion. Emperor Meiji was in favor of using the achievements of Europe and America in science, and took Confucius and Mencius as real foundations; he preserved the spirit of ancient times that reigned in the East in order to avoid the corrupting influence of European vices; therefore, he achieved that all the people fell in love and began to respect their mentors and elders, whom they guard like the apple of their eye. All this deserves great respect. To follow the path of Emperor Meiji, hereditary imperial power is needed.
10. All Mongol princes inherit the old titles. With the introduction of the republican system, their titles will have to be abolished, which will cause ferment among them, and there will be no way to control them. Therefore, it is impossible to do without hereditary imperial power.
11. Your state provides support and assistance to the three Northeastern provinces, it cares about the happiness of thirty million people, which deserves gratitude and respect. We only want your attention to extend beyond the populations of the three North Eastern Provinces; it is our sincere desire that you use the North Eastern Provinces as a base to win the hearts of the people of our entire country and thereby save them from disaster and hardship. As for the common fate, the general flourishing of East Asia, the interests of the ninety million people of your empire are fully connected with this. We cannot have differences in the forms of government either. In order to develop both countries, hereditary imperial power is necessary.
12. Twenty years have passed since the events of the xinhai year, when I retired from power and began to live among the people. I do not think at all about personal honor and respect, all my thoughts are aimed at saving the people. If someone appears who will take on this mission and change our unfortunate fate in a fair way, I, as a simple person, express my full desire and consent to this. If I myself have to undertake this mission, then it will be impossible to repair the damage done by twenty years of republican rule. If I do not receive the legitimate title of emperor, then in fact I will not be able to exercise the right to dispose of people and therefore an independent state will not be created. One title without real power will only cause many difficulties, will not provide any help to the people and will only increase their suffering, which is completely at odds with my intentions. Then my guilt will be even more aggravated, with which I can by no means agree. Twenty years, during which I was not in power, interrupted my ties with society, and if one day I again begin to rule the country and the people, then whoever I become - president or emperor - I will be completely and completely satisfied . All my intentions are directed only for the good of the people, for the good of the country, for the good of our two powers, for the good of general position in East Asia. There are no selfish, selfish interests in this, therefore, hereditary imperial power is necessary.
This document, along with several jewels intended as a gift from Itagaki, Pu Yi asked his close associate Zhang Xiaoxu to hand over to the Japanese who arranged a meeting in Shenyang. However, as it turned out later, he did not even bother to do this, as he expected the Japanese to get a good post in the future new state. Even in a conversation with Itagaki, he assured the latter that he was taking over Emperor Pu Yi. The emperor is like a sheet of white paper and the Japanese military can draw whatever they want on this sheet.
On the afternoon of February 23, 1932, Pu Yi met with Itagaki. The latter thanked the emperor for the gifts and then explained that he had arrived on the orders of the commander of the Kwantung Army, Khonze, with a report on the creation of a new state on the territory of Manchuria. “The people in Manchuria do not support the harsh regime of Zhang Xueliang,” Itagaki began slowly and in a quiet voice about the plan to create a new state, “Japanese rights and privileges have no guarantees ... The Japanese army sincerely wants to help the Manchus establish virtuous rule and create a paradise. ... This new state will be called Manchukuo. Its capital is the city of Changchun, which from now on will be called Xinjing - the new capital. The state will include five main nationalities: Manchus, Mongols, Hans, Japanese and Koreans. The Japanese, who have lived in Manchuria for many decades, are giving away their strength and ability; therefore their legal and political position must naturally be the same as that of other nationalities. For example, they can, like others, serve as officials in the new state.
Itagaki pulled out the Declaration of the Manchu and Mongolian peoples from his briefcase, as well as the five-colored flag of Manchukuo, and placed it on the table in front of Pu Yi. Pu Yi was most interested in the question of the nature of the future state: will it be a monarchy or a republic? He insisted on a monarchy, but the Japanese said that the administrative council had made a decision and supported Pu Yi's candidacy for the post of head of the new state, that is, the supreme ruler. “I am very grateful for the great help of your state; we can agree on all other issues, but I cannot accept the regime of the supreme ruler, ”Pu Yi answered excitedly and passionately to Itagaki’s proposal. – I inherited the imperial title from my ancestors; if I cancel it, I will act dishonestly and disrespectfully towards them.” “The so-called regime of the supreme ruler is only a transitional period,” he heard in response. - I am sure that when the parliament is formed, it will certainly adopt a constitution on the restoration of the imperial system. Therefore, at present, such a “regime” can be considered as a transitional period. Pu Yi repeated three times his twelve points on the need for hereditary power, drawn up earlier, proving that he could not refuse them. Itagaki insisted on his own, their conversation lasted more than three hours. Finally, the Japanese calmly began to collect his briefcase, making it clear that the conversation was over and advising his opponent to think carefully before tomorrow. That evening, Pu Yi gave a banquet at the Yamato Hotel in honor of Itagaki. At the banquet that ended at 10 pm, he kept a close eye on Itagaki's mood. However, the latter's face was completely impassive, he drank heavily, happily joined in every toast, never once recalling the argument that had arisen a few hours earlier. The next morning, the Japanese invited Pu Yi's assistants to his place and asked them to tell his master that the requirements of the Japanese military department had not changed. If Pu Yi does not accept them, his behavior will be considered as clearly hostile and measures will be taken against him as an enemy.
With these words, Pu Yi was terribly frightened, his legs buckled and he fell on the sofa, for a long time he could not utter a word. One of his advisers, calming the emperor, said that, as the Chinese proverb says, "without entering the lair of a tiger, you will not get a tiger cub." That it is necessary to understand the current situation, that they are now in the hands of the Japanese, and it is not worth running into trouble, and in no case should you now break with the Japanese. One should act flexibly and deliberately depending on the circumstances, making better use of the opponent's plan. Others in Pu Yi's entourage also insisted that they should not break with the Japanese, as they would do as they were told. You should temporarily agree with the Japanese military department for one year, but if in a year the imperial power is not restored, you can refuse the title of ruler. This was decided by sending a messenger to Itagaki. Soon the messenger returned and announced that Itagaki agreed and that evening he would arrange a small banquet in honor of the future ruler. In the evening, Itagaki invited Japanese prostitutes to a banquet for guests, everyone drank wine and had fun. The Japanese did not hide his pleasure, drank a lot, treated Pu Yi with wine, wishing "a successful future fulfillment of all his desires."
“Thus,” Pu Yi wrote later, while living in the PRC, “because of my spinelessness, and also because I dreamed of restoring the throne, I openly embarked on this vile and vile path, became the main traitor to my homeland, a fig leaf for bloody rulers. Under the cover of this fig leaf, from February 23, 1932, the North-East of our country completely turned into a colony, and for thirty million compatriots a life full of disasters and suffering began.
On February 29, 1932, the so-called All-Manchurian Assembly, at the direction of the Fourth Division of the Kwantung Army in Shenyang, adopted the "Declaration of Independence of the New Mongol-Manchurian State."
It said: “Manchuria and Mongolia are starting a new life. In ancient times, Manchuria and Mongolia were annexed and separated more than once, but now the natural connection has been restored.
These lands have colossal natural wealth, and the peoples living here are distinguished by their straightforwardness and simplicity of morals.
Over the years, the population of Manchuria and Mongolia has increased and in parallel with this - the national economy is growing and strengthening, the markets for raw materials and furs are increasing.
In 1911, a revolution took place in China. From the very first moment after the formation of the Republic, the despotic militia captured the Three Eastern Provinces.
For about twenty years military tyrants have criminally trampled on international and public law, demonstrating to the whole world exceptional greed, outright robbery of the population and disgusting depravity.
All this had a painful effect on the masses.
As a result of the wild management of the state, the region has become an arena economic crisis. Trade and industry came to a standstill.
Tyrants often stepped outside the Great Wall and this caused internecine bloodshed. In the end, the unfortunate rulers lost all authority and aroused the hatred of all neighboring states.
Criminally trampling on people's rights, they also took up the persecution of foreigners. The whole region was filled with bandit gangs, which, without meeting resistance from the authorities, openly robbed the civilian population, devastating villages and villages.
As a result, popular discontent grew, the cadres of the hungry grew, but the authorities continued their former suicidal policy.
Now the thirty million people of Manchuria and Mongolia, who were suffocating under the old tyrants, can finally breathe freely.
The new state opens before him wide doors and a bright new life.
To the great happiness of 30 million, the hand of a neighboring power liquidated the barbarian military, liberated the tormented region from tyrants. The dawn of a new life calls on all the peoples of Manchuria and Mongolia to wake up from their sleep and begin building a new life in the name of a radiant future.
When we remember what was inside China and on its outskirts before, from the moment of the revolution to the very last days. We are confronted with pictures of internecine wars created by unscrupulous military parties that had nothing in common with the masses of the people in whose name they spoke.
These parties cared only about their partial welfare, and how can they be called "national"? Of course not, because state power in the hands of the Kuomintang was a sinecure of money-loving dictators and idlers.
The hegemony of military groups brought the country to the point where even the establishment of more or less definite territorial boundaries was impossible in China.
A rich country has fallen into poverty. Increasingly, in the memory of the people began to resurrect the era happy life during the Daqing dynasty, as well as the dynasty of the three emperors Taku.
Just as doctors are the enemies of disease, so we, the new government, are ardent enemies of communism, to which all the old military groups would inevitably lead the country.
A few months ago, we started organizing meetings to create a right-wing state here. For this purpose, we invited representatives of Mukden, Girin, Tsitsikar, Zhehe and Mongolian khoshuns. At all these meetings, we unanimously reached the following conclusions:
Based on the fact that Manchuria and Mongolia used to be independent states, we have now decided to create a powerful independent state of "Manchukuo" from these two components.
In this declaration, we bring to the attention of the public so far the most important principles of our work, about which we inform foreign states.
The foundation of the future government will be exclusively justice, proceeding from the highest moral standards.
The new government will rely on the broad masses of the people, and not on the selfish interests of the rulers.
All citizens of the new state will have equal rights; all privileges - personal, class and national - are abolished.
In addition to the indigenous inhabitants of the Han, Manchu and Mongol tribes, all other nationalities, like the Nippons (as the Japanese were then called - V.U.), Koreans, Russians and others will enjoy all the rights in our country.
Having eliminated the dark past, the government reforms laws, encouraging county autonomy, developing industry and Agriculture by assisting in the development of natural resources.
The reform of the police apparatus and the uncompromising struggle against banditry and communism are also considered the priorities of the new government.
Every effort will be made to develop the education of the broad masses of the people.
In the nomes of the state, religions will receive special protection, mockery of which will be considered as a serious crime.
All nationalities included in the state of Manchukuo will have the opportunity, like the rising sun, to shine with their exemplary behavior and create the unfading glory of East Asia.
In foreign policy there will also be purity and justice; all the debts of the old authorities will be recognized. Those who wish to invest their capital in the trade and industry of the new State will be welcomed by us, in accordance with the policy of open doors.
The above declaration is an important basis for the structure of the new state. From the day of her reign, all responsibility falls on the new government.
We take care of a population of 30 million and swear that we will do our duty.
Government of the State of Manchukuo".
Pu Yi was appointed the supreme ruler of the new state.
Further, according to the planned Japanese scenario, it was necessary to play a small performance in two acts. As Pu Yi was informed, the delegates of the assembly will arrive in Lüshun to ask him to assume this position. He must prepare a response speech by this time. There should be two such speeches. The first should contain the refusal, and the second - the consent, which he had to give when the delegates of the assembly made their request a second time.
On March 1, 1932, the expected 11 delegates arrived in Lushun and met with Pu Yi. The performance began, which lasted twenty minutes. The delegates, in accordance with the written script and the text of a short speech, strenuously "persuaded" Pu Yi, and he "refused" in every possible way. The second act of the performance took place on March 5, when 29 delegates arrived according to the written script to turn to Pu Yi with a "request" for the second time. This time, their mission was successful. “I do not dare to refuse the great responsibility that your trust imposes on me,” said Pu Yi. “After deep reflection, I realized that I should not disappoint the hopes of the people ... I will try my best and will perform the functions of the supreme government for one year. If there are too many shortcomings, then in a year I will retire. If, within a year, a constitution is drawn up and the form of government established in accordance with the way I imagine it, I will think again, weigh my strength and decide how to proceed.
On March 1, 1932, the Japanese cabinet unanimously decides to create a new state in the occupied Manchurian territory - Manchukuo. At the head of this puppet state, the Japanese put last emperor Qing dynasty Pu Yi. The residence of Pu Yi and the capital of the new state becomes Xinjing (“ New capital”), the former city of Changchun. The administrative division is also changing: instead of three large provinces: - Heilongjiang, Jilin, Fengtian - 12 dwarf ones were formed.
A week later, on March 8, 1932, Pu Yi, together with his wife Wan Rong, arrived in Changchun by train. Before the train had even reached the platform of the station, the sounds of a military band rang out on the platform. Surrounded by his retinue, where there were also the Japanese Amakasu and Kaeisumi, Pu Yi got out of the train car. “Everywhere you could see detachments of Japanese gendarmes and multi-colored ranks of those who met,” he later recalled. - Among the latter were people in long robes, jackets, European costumes and Japanese clothes. They had flags in their hands. All this touched me very much. Finally, I saw what I dreamed about on the pier in Yingkou. Xi Xia, pointing to a flag with a yellow dragon, visible among many other flags with the image of the rising sun, said: - These are all the Manchus, they have been waiting for Your Majesty for twenty years.
Tears welled up in my eyes, and I realized that I had something to hope for.
A dragon flag and an orchestra at the Changchun railway station, a crowded celebration ceremony on the occasion of Pu Yi's accession to the position of Supreme Ruler, welcoming speeches - all this, as we can see, made a deep impression on Pu Yi.
“If we work with the Japanese,” he thought, “perhaps they will support me and restore my imperial title. Since I am now the head of state, it will be easier for me to talk with the Japanese. When will I have capital? Pu Yi considered the position of the Supreme Ruler as a step towards the transition to the "imperial throne".
He believed that he should "successfully overcome this stage" and safely take the "throne". A few days later, he expressed the new ideas that came into his head to his Chinese advisers as "two oaths and one wish" that he must implement and then "die in peace." First, Pu Yi will try to correct all his previous shortcomings, especially laziness and frivolity. Secondly, he is ready to put up with all the hardships and swore he promised not to stop until he restored the great deeds of his ancestors. Third, he asked the heavenly ruler to send him a son in order to continue the lineage and deeds of the great Qing dynasty.
The following day, March 9, an official inauguration ceremony for Pu Yi was held in a hastily prepared reception hall. The ceremony was attended by the Japanese side - Director of the South Manchurian Railway Uchida, Commander of the Kwantung Army Honjo, Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army Miyake, State Councilor Itagaki and other important people, from the Chinese - Pu Yi's inner circle, old Qing dignitaries and some Mongol princes, former leaders of the Fengtian militarist group, a lawyer who processed Pu Yi's divorce in Tianjin. The supreme ruler of Manchukuo was dressed in a European full dress.
Under the gaze of high Japanese officials, the “founders of the nation” bowed three times in etiquette to Pu Yi, and he answered them with one bow. Then the "delegates" on behalf of the "people of Manchuria" presented Pu Yi with the seal of the supreme ruler, wrapped in yellow silk.
Then, on behalf of the Supreme Ruler, the Declaration of the Supreme Ruler on the occasion of the founding of the state was read out with the following content:
“Humanity must respect the moral principles. To recognize the inequality of different peoples means to oppress others in order to exalt themselves, and thereby violating the principles of morality up to their complete trampling. Mankind must respect the principles of benevolence and peacefulness, while international enmity is directed towards harming others and extracting benefits for oneself; thus, the principles of benevolence and peacefulness are violated to the point of their complete trampling.
Now a new state has been created. The basis of this state is morality, benevolence and peacefulness. We will destroy the differences between peoples, we will not allow international clashes. Let everyone see in practice the implementation of Wang Dao's principle of justice, which leads to earthly well-being.
I call on all loyal subjects to follow this path together with Us.
After the official celebration, a reception of foreign guests took place, at which the director of the South-Western Railway, Uchida, delivered a greeting and one of the Chinese dignitaries read out the response speech of the Supreme Ruler. After that, everyone went out into the courtyard to raise the flag of the Republic of Manchukuo and take pictures. At the end, a solemn banquet was given.
About a month after these events, the residence of the "supreme ruler" moved to a newly converted building - the former administration building of the Jilin-Heilongjiang salt company. Pu Yi gave the name to some rooms and offices, he called his office "the office of serving the people."
So, in Manchuria, a “new” state was formed - Manchukuo, headed by Pu Yi, who was entirely in the hands of the Japanese and their henchmen.
On April 28, 1932, the Manchurian Daily Newspaper (Manshu Niti-Niti), which began to appear in Japanese in Xinjing, wrote in an editorial: “1312 thousand square meters. km of territory, stretching from north to south for 1700 km and from east to west for 1400 km, represent the widest field of activity for the liberated 30 million Manchu population. Warmed by the rising sun of the Yamato empire, it begins to turn over the pages of the history of its free development, and it is no longer threatened by either the colonial expansion of the West, or communist aggression from the USSR or the agents of the Comintern from Beijing or Nanjing.
On March 13, 1932, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Manchukuo sent a telegram to M.M. Litvinov, in which he announced the creation of the Manchu state, declared that this state recognized the international obligations of the Republic of China and proposed to establish "formal diplomatic relations." However, Moscow did not give a direct answer to this proposal. On March 23, 1932, an official of the Soviet Consulate General in Harbin visited the head of the diplomatic department in this city only to report that the Kremlin had received this telegram. From the point of view of international law, the existence of consular relations, according to the historian and sinologist R.A. does not mean diplomatic recognition of one or another public education. In 1933, the Japanese government and the Manchu authorities again raised the issue of the exchange of ambassadors between Manchukuo and the USSR with the Soviet government, the Soviet Union again refused. However, this did not prevent Moscow from maintaining de facto diplomatic relations with Manchukuo. Thus, the Soviet Union allowed the Manchu authorities to open five consulates, including in Moscow. The same number of Soviet consulates existed in Manchuria. The People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs quite logically explained this step "by the practical necessity to maintain actual relations with the authorities that currently exist in Manchuria, where our road is located, where we have tens of thousands of our citizens, where we have 5 of our consulates and where, in addition to the power of Manchukuo- Guo, there is no one else to talk to and do business with.”
It is well known that in China since ancient times, among the most widespread forms of cult, the cult of ancestors, which meant the deification and veneration of the common ancestor of a clan or family in the male line, was of particular importance among the people. In other words, the cult of ancestors, which should have been especially revered, is a belief in the independent existence of the spirit of the deceased.
The descendants of the deceased have always believed that his spirit constantly keeps in touch with them and influences their lives. And if this is so, he should be regularly helped, provided with everything necessary: housing, food, clothing, basic necessities, etc. All this was "delivered" to the spirits of the ancestors by means of sacrifices.
Strictly observing the complex ritual of honoring the spirits of their ancestors, the descendants counted on their help in a variety of earthly affairs. They asked the dead to prolong the life of family members, to give happiness and well-being to the whole family. At the same time, during the ceremony of worshiping ancestors, the descendant had to report to his parents once a year for what he had done and report on his future plans.
On June 26, 1932, Pu Yi just performed such a ceremony, bowing to the ancestors and uttering the following words during the sacrifice:
“It is hard to look at the disasters experienced by the people for 20 years and be powerless to help them. Now that the people of the three Northeastern provinces are giving me support and a friendly power is helping me, the situation in the camp is forcing me to take responsibility and come to the defense of the state. Starting any business, it is impossible to know in advance whether it will be successful or not.
But I remember the signs of sovereigns who had to restore their throne in the past. For example, the Jin prince Wen-gong defeated the Qin prince Mu-gong, the Han emperor Guan Wu-di overthrew the emperor Geng-shi, the founder of the Shu state defeated Liu Biao and Yuan-shao, the founder of the Ming dynasty defeated Han Lin'er. All of them, in order to fulfill their great mission, had to resort to external help. Now I, covered with shame, want to take on a great responsibility and continue the great work, no matter how difficult it may be. I want to devote all my strength to the sure salvation of the people, and I will act very carefully.
In front of the graves of my ancestors, I sincerely speak about my desires and ask them for protection and help.
In June 1932, the lower house of the Japanese Parliament at its meeting unanimously adopted a resolution on the immediate recognition of Manchukuo. It was also decided to establish the post of ambassador in Manchuria, whose tasks would include coordinating the activities of all Japanese institutions there, as well as commanding the Kwantung Army.
Before de jure To recognize Manchukuo in Tokyo on September 15, 1932, the Japanese government gathered for a meeting, for which the Headquarters of the Kwantung Army, which settled in Xinjing, prepared and published a special reference book "Manchukuo". Any member of the government from the directory could learn about the natural resources of Manchuria. Iron ore reserves were estimated at 5 billion tons, coal - 20-30 billion tons, timber - 100 billion cubic meters, oil shale - over 7 billion tons, there were significant reserves of non-ferrous metal ores, and agriculture made it possible to collect annual grain harvest is about 18-20 million tons. The Board of the SUMZhD prepared and published an appendix to the handbook, which gave short description already existing industrial centers in Anshan, Fushun, Mukden. And the Japanese leadership hoped to soon use these riches of Manchuria. (Already in the early 1930s, Japan accounted for 39% of Manchurian exports and 41% of imports, and at the end of the decade, 65% and 85%, respectively).
It was after getting acquainted with these data on September 15, 1932 that the Japanese government recognized Manchukuo de jure.
Even before the recognition of Manchukuo de jure in Tokyo, the initial scheme of its state structure was developed, creating the appearance of independence. Formally, all power in the country was concentrated in the hands of the supreme ruler, and then the "emperor" Pu Yi. He was also declared the commander-in-chief of the "national armed forces." The "State Council", that is, the government, consisted of ministers appointed by Pu Yi after the approval of their candidacies by the Japanese. Zhang Jinghui, who had worked with Zhang Zuolin for many years in the interests of Japanese imperialism, was appointed President of the State Council. In the same way, heads of departments and departments were appointed.
In reality, all power belonged to the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan to Manchukuo, who was also the Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army. All Japanese adviser officers in the Manchukuo army were subordinate to him, and as an ambassador, all Japanese holding any positions in the government apparatus and local provincial authorities. A department of "general affairs" was created at the Japanese Embassy, which controlled the activities of all ministers and heads of government departments. The head of this department, a Japanese, convened the so-called coordinating meetings of vice ministers, at which draft laws and regulations were considered. Then they were formally approved by the "State Council".
By the end of 1932, in the state apparatus of Manchukuo there were three thousand deputies and advisers specially trained and sent from Tokyo - the Japanese, who essentially managed all the affairs of the "state" of Manchukuo.
Even before the official recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese prepared a future draft cooperation agreement in top secret.
At the Tokyo trial in 1946-1947. a secret transcript of the meeting of the Privy Council of the Japanese Empire dated September 13, 1932 was placed on the court table as evidence, which contained the text of the secret part of the treaty between Japan and Manchukuo and cited the statements of the members of this council, who were supposed to approve this treaty. The document is rather curious and cynical.
This document stipulated that this agreement "will be strictly confidential by mutual agreement between Japan and Manchukuo."
"A. Manchuria will entrust our country with its national defense and the maintenance of peace and order, and will bear all the corresponding costs, - said the first paragraph.
B. Manchuria agrees that the control of railways, harbours, river routes, air lines, etc., as well as the construction of new communication channels, insofar as this will be carried out by our imperial army for the purposes of national defense, be completely entrusted to Japan or such organization as she may designate, said the second paragraph.
V. Manchukuo will help with all possible means in relation to the various necessary measures carried out by our imperial army, - was said in paragraph three. -
D. The position of state councilors of Manchukuo will be appointed from among the far-sighted and well-reputed Japanese, and, in addition, the Japanese will be officials of both central and local government institutions. The choice of these officials will be made on the recommendation of the commander of the Kwantung Army, and their removal will be carried out with his own consent. The issue of increasing or decreasing the number of state advisers will be decided by negotiations between both parties.”
Judging by the documents presented, this draft treaty caused a mixed reaction and controversy even among some statesmen of the Empire of Japan.
Thus, adviser Okada, who approved the draft treaty, at the same time stated "that the Manchurian question cannot be resolved simply by our recognition of Manchukuo", since the secret agreement violated the international "pact of nine powers", according to which Japan pledged to respect the integrity of the Chinese state and the independence of his people.
Okada did not hide his doubts from his colleagues: “A comparison of the secret agreements in this project with the Nine Powers Pact shows that there are many controversial points that reveal contradictions between these two documents. Besides, is it even possible to keep these agreements strictly secret? This is probably possible for Japan, but hardly possible for Manchukuo. I believe that it is necessary to recognize the impossibility of keeping them secret. If the secrets are disclosed, China will not be silent, but will demand the convening of a conference of powers that have signed the Nine Powers Pact ... And Japan will find itself in a very difficult situation.
Foreign Minister Uchida hastened to reassure the venerable adviser. He stated that the "Nine Power Pact" provides for respect for the territorial integrity of China, but does not provide for a provision for a part of China to become independent as a result of its internal division. He also referred to the help of the “Far East Munich”: “Ambassador Debuti recently asked the leading figures of America whether they would protest if Japan recognized Manchukuo. They replied that they did not have the slightest intention of making any protest or calling a conference of nine powers, since there was no hope that such a conference would come to any agreement. And then Uchida summarized: “I see no objection to Manchuria instructing Japan to deal with those issues that she herself cannot deal with. If the secret agreements between Japan and Manchukuo are disclosed, then I do not think that our side will become aware of them. Manchukuo must pay special attention to ensuring that these agreements are not disclosed to them.
The minister was energetically supported by Ishii's adviser: "Now that Japan has formally recognized Manchulu-Guo and entered into an alliance with the latter, Japan will be able to declare in the future that the independence of Manchukuo is the result of China's disintegration and that the territorial integrity of the Republic of China was violated by no one other than Manchukuo. This will nullify the argument that Japan allegedly violated the Nine Power Pact. Now that Japan has made an alliance with Manchuria for the sake of a united national defense, I believe that there will be no objection to the stationing of Japanese troops in Manchuria, thus the latest resolution of the League of Nations will turn into an empty piece of paper.
Even Minister of War Araki, who was famous for his aggressiveness, paragraph "A" of the above treaty seemed excessive.
“The national defense of Manchukuo is also the national defense of our country,” he said. “Therefore, I believe that it would be unfair and unreasonable to force Manchuria alone to bear all the expenses necessary for national defense.”
But, despite certain doubts and discussion, when the chairman of the Privy Council proposed to vote, the law was adopted unanimously. After that, as the protocol says, “His Majesty the Emperor retired to the inner palace.”
And here is how Pu Yi himself described the preparation of this document, recognizing that he was a puppet in the hands of the Japanese command.
“On August 18, 1932, Zheng Xiaoxu came to my office, took out a bundle of documents, and said, “Here is the agreement that we signed with Commander Khonjo. I ask Your Majesty to take a look. After reviewing the agreement, I was furious.
Who gave you permission to sign this?
“All this was agreed with Itagaki back in Lüshun,” Zheng Xiaoxu replied calmly. “Itagaki talked about this with Your Majesty even earlier.
- I don't remember that. Yes, if he did. Before signing, you should have told me about it!
“That's what Honjo told me. He was afraid that Hu Siyuan and the others, not understanding the current situation, would only complicate things.
Who is the boss here anyway? you or me?
- Guilty. This agreement is only a temporary measure. If Your Majesty is counting on the help of the Japanese, how can you deny them the rights that they actually already have? In the future, it may be possible to sign another agreement under which these rights will be valid only for a certain period.
He was right. The rights that the Japanese asked for in the agreement actually belonged to them long ago. The agreement had 12 points and a lot of all sorts of applications. Its main content was as follows: state security and public order in Manchukuo is entirely the responsibility of Japan; it will control railways, ports, waterways and airways, and also, if necessary, create new ones; Manchukuo is responsible for the material resources and equipment needed by the Japanese army. Japan has the right to conduct exploration and build mines; Japanese can be appointed to positions in Manchukuo; Japan has the right to resettle Japanese in Manchukuo, etc. The agreement stipulated that in the future it would form the basis of a formal bilateral treaty. ... Since I was counting on help, I was supposed to pay a reward. ... It only remained to come to terms with what had already happened.
By mid-September 1932, the new commander of the Kwantung Army and the first ambassador to Manchukuo Muto Nobuyoshi arrived from Japan in Changchun (Colonel General in the past, served as deputy chief of staff, chief inspector for training, military adviser. In the first world war he commanded the Japanese army that occupied Siberia, died in 1933), soon received the rank of marshal.
On behalf of the Japanese government, on September 15, 1932, he signed the Japanese-Manchurian Protocol, which was based on the previously signed secret agreement.
Routinely, three times a month, Pu Yi met with the new commander of the Kwantung Army and the Japanese ambassador to discuss some issues.
The choice of Pu Yi by the Japanese as the ruler of Manchukuo was due to his claims to restore Qing monarchy in China. The Japanese hoped to make Pu Yi an instrument for asserting Japanese dominance throughout China. Without waiting for the discussion of the report of the Lytton Commission in the League of Nations, the Japanese government hurried to "recognize" de jure Manchukuo and sign with his government on September 15, 1932 in Xinjing the "Protocol of the Nippono-Manchurian Agreement."
The 1st clause of this "agreement" provided for the recognition and respect for the rights and interests of Japan and Japanese subjects in the territory of Manchukuo in accordance with all previous Japanese-Chinese treaties, agreements and various private treaties; The 2nd paragraph of the protocol stated that if the presence of a threat to the territory, peace, order, coexistence of one of the "high contracting parties" is recognized, Japan and Manchukuo will jointly cooperate in maintaining the national security of the affected party. For these purposes, Japanese troops will be deployed on the territory of Manchukuo.
The Japanese authorities, casually hinting to local Chinese officials about possible troubles in the near future, recommended that those who served the former Manchu government not leave their posts and continue to fulfill their duties. It was part general plan: the whole world and, first of all, the League of Nations, must make sure that the formation of Manchukuo is the result of a "revolution carried out by the people of Manchuria itself"; Japan has only an indirect relation to this. But there was another part of the plan - according to which, back in September, Lieutenant-General Honjo received an order from "neutral" Tokyo: "Evict 25,000 Chinese families and prepare conditions for the resettlement of Japanese families in their place." This part of the plan began to be quickly implemented even with a certain excess: if before the occupation there were about 250 thousand Japanese in Manchuria (of which 115 thousand were in the Kwantung region), then by the end of 1932 their number reached 390 thousand (with 220 thousand outside this area).
150,000 soldiers and officers of the Kwantung Army were hastily deployed on the territory of Manchuria. From March 1932, under the auspices of Tokyo, the "national armed forces" of Manchukuo began to form, which by the end of the year had more than 75 thousand military personnel. They were equipped at the expense of Japanese supplies with old equipment that had been decommissioned in the Japanese army. At the lower ranks, there were also such museum exhibits as Mauser guns of the 1888 model of the year, infantry, sappers and cavalry were armed with small-caliber five-shot Japanese rifles and carbines. All non-commissioned officers were equipped with dust goggles, two non-commissioned officers per squadron with binoculars. Each officer relied on glasses and binoculars. The commander-in-chief was Pu Yi, who formally owned all the fullness of civil power. But in reality, all real power was concentrated in the hands of the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan to Manchukuo, who was also the Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army. In all military formations of Manchukuo - from a platoon to a division - Japanese military advisers and instructors were appointed, who determined the programs of military training and ideological education and were responsible for the morale of the soldiers. At headquarters military units Japanese gendarmerie units were created with a total number of about 18 thousand people who performed counterintelligence functions. Another four thousand secret service agents were engaged in counterintelligence. All of them were supposed to "protect the people of Manchuria from the Chinese Bolsheviks, the Kuomintang and other bandits." Almost all financial leverage was also in the hands of the Japanese.
Attention is drawn to the abundance of various intelligence and police agencies in Manchukuo, proving that it was created as a police state.
In addition to the police apparatus, the following Japanese intelligence and police agencies existed there:
Japanese intelligence, the head of which reported directly to Tokyo.
Japanese gendarmerie subordinate to the Japanese military authorities.
Gendarmerie of Manchukuo, subordinate to the military authorities of Manchukuo.
State Police of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Manchukuo.
City police, run by the city government.
Japanese Consular Police.
Criminal Investigation Departments, independent and not subordinate to the city police.
State intelligence agencies of the Military Ministry of Manchukuo.
The railway police are run by the railway administration.
In addition, by the end of 1932, there were about three thousand Japanese "advisors" and "consultants" to the government administration in the state apparatus of Manchukuo. (By 1935 their number already reached 5 thousand, and by 1945 - 100 thousand people). Not only a department or office, but also an ordinary employee worked under the supervision of one or even two "advisors"; they controlled everything and everyone, demanding strict compliance with their orders.
Who acted as Japanese advisers in Manchukuo, given the urgent need for a large number of "advisers" and "consultants"?
As the Italian intelligence officer Amleto Vespa, who worked in Manchukuo for the Japanese in those years, reported, the first contingent of Japanese advisers to the government of Manchukuo were the most random people: any Japanese who explained himself in Chinese or Russian with sin in half, could well count on this position. Moreover, in 1932, 95% of all Japanese in Manchuria were people who were somehow at odds with the law: owners of brothels and drug dens, smugglers and adventurers of all stripes - in short, representatives of the most different types underground business. Before the occupation, all these people with a dubious past and no less dubious present, under the protection of their white flag with a red circle in the center and enjoying the rights of extraterritoriality, were inaccessible to Chinese laws. Now most of them - and many unexpectedly for themselves - found themselves in the chairs of the heads of administrative institutions, they became the owners of almost unlimited power, punishing or pardoning "according to their mood." You can't take a step without paying them. If the Japanese could, they would probably tax all non-Japanese for the mere ability to breathe Manchu air. (This is generally a trend of the Japanese occupation policy: after all, even after the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905, the Chinese in Kwantung conquered by the Japanese from Russia ate all their dogs, the meat of which is widely eaten by both the Chinese and Koreans, because the new owners and this the animal was taxed exorbitantly).
In the construction and functioning of the puppet state of Manchukuo Japanese authorities in Tokyo, an important place was given to the award system as a tool not only for encouraging, but also for managing the political elite of the “new independent state". But to no lesser extent, this system they created was used "for their own needs." Orders and medals of Manchukuo were generously awarded to members of the Japanese imperial family and representatives of the highest aristocracy, numerous Japanese officials and advisers who worked in the government of the "empire", officers and ordinary soldiers of the Kwantung Army, as well as officials of some local administrations of the Republic of China, who worked closely with Manchukuo. Rewarding others foreign citizens performed quite rarely.
Officially, the system of state awards of Manchukuo originated from the law prepared by Japanese officials on orders of merit and medals, adopted on April 19, 1934. Reward system new "empire" was borrowed from Japan and was practically its "tracing paper". It had analogues of most Japanese orders (including the same degrees, rules for awarding and wearing as in Japan). The appearance of the orders of Manchukuo was developed by Professor Hata Sekiti, who taught at the Tokyo Higher Technical School. They were made at the mint in Osaka (Japan) and usually had the hallmark of this mint in the form of the Latin letter “M” of the Order, according to O. Rozanov, they were made in a manner and technique typical of Japanese masters. On its reverse there are the same hieroglyphs as on Japanese orders.
The medals were made at the Osaka Mint, as well as by some private firms. Award bars, lapel rosettes and even award boxes were similar to those in Japan.
Officers and soldiers of the Kwantung Army wore Manchdou Guo awards along with Japanese ones. The order of location on a common block was determined by the sequence of their receipt by the awarded.
Manchurian order Pillars of the state was established by the edict of Pu Yi on September 14, 1936. It had eight degrees and corresponded to the Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure. The name of the order was taken from Chinese classical history.
October 1, 1938 Orders and medals were established Red Cross Societies Manchukuo. In addition, about eight medals were introduced in Manchukuo.
Having occupied Manchuria, Japan proceeded to strengthen the military position of this region for a future offensive against the USSR. The construction and modernization of a network of railways and highways to strategic points along the Soviet border began. A belt of fortified areas was created, especially in the coastal direction. At the same time, the power of the Kwantung Army was significantly increased: in ten years, from two divisions in 1931, it grew to 15. Military airfields and warehouses, barracks for soldiers, fortifications. Piers and river ports have grown along the banks of the Sungari and along the right bank of the Amur. Large military factories and arsenals arose in the rear. The network of built Manchurian railways and highways led from the main centers to the border with the Soviet Union. A deep strip along the Soviet border was densely populated by Japanese reserve colonists, ready at any moment to put on military uniform and join the Kwantung Army.
During 1936, the Japanese provoked more than 40 border incidents here, which threatened to develop into a serious military clash. Military provocations intensified and western borders Manchukuo - with the Mongolian People's Republic. These border clashes sometimes had the character of open reconnaissance in force. Japanese reconnaissance groups were often able to penetrate Mongolian territory and carry out reconnaissance work in preparation for an invasion from Manchuria. Defiantly provocative actions were accompanied by the intensification of anti-Soviet and anti-Mongolian propaganda on the radio and in the press in Japan and especially in Manchukuo.
On March 23, 1935, the "Agreement between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Manchukuo on the cession of the rights of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in relation to the Chinese Eastern Railway (North Manchurian Railway)" was signed in Tokyo. The agreement consisted of 14 articles that regulated in great detail the procedure for the transfer of the road, the payment of the redemption sum and the supply of goods. The agreement did not say anything about the USSR's ownership of the Chinese Eastern Railway - the general wording "all rights" was used, which the USSR cedes for the sum of 140 million yen to the government of Manchukuo-Di-Go.
Recall that negotiations on the purchase of the railway by Japan began in June 1933 and ended almost two years later. The initial price requested by the Soviet side was 250 million gold rubles (at the exchange rate of that time it was 625 million yen), and the CER was sold for four times less.
Tension in relations between Japan and the USSR increased even more after the conclusion in August 1937 of the Soviet-Chinese non-aggression pact. This period was marked by Tokyo's major military adventures carried out from the territory of Manchukuo, primarily the undeclared war on Khalkhin Gol in May-September 1939. However, the rebuff received by the Japanese military made it possible to preserve the independence of the MPR and forced the Japanese leadership to postpone plans for "expansion north" against the Soviet Union.
After the conclusion of the aggressive "anti-Comintern pact" by Japan, Italy and Germany in 1936, Japan's military leadership began to make attempts to draw Manchukuo into this pact. Thus, on November 13, 1937, the commander of the Kwantung Army sent a top secret telegram to the Comrade Minister of War and Deputy Chief of the Japanese general staff. “I believe,” wrote the commander of the Kwantung Army, “that under the present circumstances it would be timely to force Manchukuo to join the said pact ... If you have no particular objections, we would like Manchukuo to begin its diplomatic activities in this direction".
This proposal was motivated, in particular, by the fact that such accession would help to achieve international recognition of the state of Manchukuo.
However, if the Japanese military tried to speed up this process, then the diplomats of the country of the Rising Sun acted in the same direction more carefully and more slowly, but more consistently.
This can be eloquently evidenced by the second telegram dated May 15, 1938, from the commander of the Kwantung Army to the Japanese war ministry. Referring to his first telegram mentioned above, the commander points out: “Now that the friendship treaty between Manchukuo and Germany has been signed and diplomatic relations between the two countries have been established ... it is necessary that Manchukuo join the Anti-Comintern Pact as soon as possible.”
And, finally, on May 24, 1938, the War Ministry gave the actual owner of Manchuria, the commander of the Japanese occupying army, a long-awaited positive answer: help her…” Here we see that the question is being resolved - how best to technically furnish the entry of Manchukuo into the "anti-Comintern pact".
After such secret preparations, the Manchukuo government finally entered into the Anti-Comintern Pact. He signed in February 1939 a special Protocol on the prolongation of the Pact against the Comintern for another five years. It said:
“The governments of Japan, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Manchukuo and Spain, stating the fruitfulness of the pact concluded between them in order to protect against the harmful activity of the Comintern, and the commonality of interests of the contracting states demanding solid cooperation against a common enemy, decided to prolong the aforementioned pact and to this end decided as follows:
Article 1.
Pact against the Comintern, consisting of the pact concluded on November 25, 1936 and the protocol attached to it, as well as the protocol of November 6, 1937, and to which: Hungary - according to the protocol of February 24, 1939, Manchukuo Go - according to the protocol of February 24, 1939, Spain - according to the protocol of March 27, 1939, - to extend the validity period for five years ... ".
On March 1, 1932, the formation of an "independent" Manchurian state, Manchukuo, was officially announced. Maria Molchanova understands how this event changed the state of affairs in the Far East and why the League of Nations did not stop the unfolding Japanese aggression.
Part of the territory of northeastern China, Manchuria, already in late XIX century has become the object of political conflicts of foreign states claiming dominance in this area. The Russian government, having concluded an agreement on a military alliance with China in 1896 and signed a contract for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) through Northern Manchuria, secured Port Arthur and Dalniy (Dairen), and after the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising in Beijing in 1900 approved Northern China as its sphere of influence.
The Shimonoseki Peace Treaty of 1895, which ended the unsuccessful war for China with Japan and marked Japan's entry into the international community as an equal partner, expanded the Japanese political and economic impact in the country.
The clash of interests in the region led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, as a result of which South Manchuria with all the "rights" and "interests" of Russia, that is, the lease of Kwantung, the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway from Dairen to Changchun and Russian-made enterprises, went over to the Japanese. From the very end of the Russo-Japanese War, the demands of "national defense" and economic interests emphasized that Japan had extremely important rights to the territory of Manchuria.
Russian troops retreat from Mukden in 1905
The situation in Manchuria worsened significantly for Japan in the winter of 1928, when on December 29 Zhang Xueliang proclaimed the annexation of the three eastern provinces to the Nanjing government. And although the political influence of the Kuomintang in Northeast China was small, the Kuomintang conducted intense agitation against foreign powers, especially Japan. Therefore, the leadership of the Kwantung Army already in March came to the conclusion that the Manchu-Mongolian problem could be solved only by subordinating these territories to Japan.
Since the end of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan has claimed Manchuria.
The international situation favored Japan's plans. An internal war was going on in China, the Peking government opposed the Southern government, the Peiyang military group opposed the Southern revolutionary government. Groups were active in Manchuria seeking to restore the Qing Dynasty, fighting for the preservation of borders and tranquility on their territory, for the independence of Mongolia.
Soldiers of the Kwantung Army
The occupation of Manchuria in September 1931 was preceded by a series of "incidents" methodically carried out by the Japanese army, pretexts for unleashing military aggression. The largest Japanese provocation, known as the Manchurian Incident, took place on September 18, 1931. In accordance with a predetermined plan, the Japanese troops stationed in the SUMZD zone moved deep into Chinese territory and occupied Mukden.
Within 5 days, the Japanese garrison, without encountering significant resistance from the Chinese army, occupied the main cities in the SMW area: Andong, Mukden, Changchun, Fushun, Kuanchengzi station, Jilin. Considering that it was not possible to prevent the occupation by force, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Zhang Xuenyan to pursue the policy of "non-resistance" of the Japanese army.
The occupation of Manchuria was preceded by a series of Japanese military provocations.
On September 21, the Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations with the hopethat it will rule in favor of China, and with the help of international pressure it will be possibledrive Japanese troops out of Manchuria. The Japanese occupation was the first serious test for the system of collective security for which the League of Nations was created. The United States was not a member of the League, and England was interested in maintaining friendly relations with Japan, which was still nominally an allied power. At the same time, British diplomacy pursued a policy aimed at maintaining friendly relations with Chiang Kai-shek, which generally caused difficulties. John Simon, British Foreign Secretary, informed the Cabinet that Japan had the right to send troops to China. The USSR officially condemned the Japanese occupation of South Manchuria, but the Soviet government did not want to escalate the conflict and resort to open confrontation as long as the Japanese army was outside the CER zone.
The entry of the Japanese army into Harbin
On February 29, 1932, at the direction of the Fourth Division of the Headquarters of the Kwantung Army, the All-Manchurian United Congress for the Establishment of the State met in Mukden. It decided to form the "state" of Manchukuo on the territory of Manchuria and appoint Pu Yi as its supreme ruler. The standard of the Qing Empire (yellow field with red, blue, white and black stripes) was chosen as the flag of Manzhou Guo, the era of government was called Datong (great prosperity), the capital was the city of Changchun, renamed Xinjing (new capital).
Japanese occupation tested the League of Nations ineffectiveness
On March 1, 1932, the "Declaration on the Establishment of Manchukuo" was published, which stated that the purpose of establishing the state was the welfare of the people. The Japanese government sent a note to the League of Nations stating that "all the changes that have taken place in the composition of the Manchu administration are the result of the actions of the local population." In fact, the creation of a new state was not accompanied by any referendum or other form of expression of the will of the people.
Pu Yi, ruler of Manchukuo, with members of the government. To the right of Pu Yi is Zheng Xiaoxu, the first premier of Manchukuo
On March 1, 1934, Manchukuo was officially proclaimed a monarchy headed by Pu Yi. The new state was recognized de jure by Japan's allies under the Anti-Comintern Pact. On November 1, 1937, the regime in Manchuria was recognized by Italy. Despite the existence of trade ties with Manchuria, Nazi Germany for a long time refrained from recognizing the pro-Japanese regime in this region, explaining this by the fact that one cannot "give Japan a gift without receiving something in return." Formal recognition took place only on February 20, 1938.
De facto Manchukuo recognized the USSR. Thus, Soviet diplomacy hoped to ensure the safety of state property and the safety of Soviet citizens, to achieve the resolution of issues related to the establishment of uninterrupted navigation along the border rivers. In addition, the CER passed through the territory of Manchukuo. However, in 1935, an agreement was signed on the sale of the Chinese Eastern Railway to Manchukuo, which is regarded as a solution to one of the most important problems in the Far East and, at the same time, as the largest positive event in the development of Soviet-Japanese relations.
Autographed photograph of Emperor Pu Yi
The occupation of Manchuria by Japanese troops significantly worsened the strategic situation for the Mongolian People's Republic(MNR). China did not recognize the independence of Outer Mongolia and considered it part of its territory. Japan did not recognize Mongolian independence either. Tokyo's idea was to unite the Mongolian People's Republic with the Chinese provinces of Inner Mongolia into another puppet state "Mongolo Guo" modeled on Manchukuo. The ultimate goal of these transformations was the formation of a single "Manchurian-Mongolian empire", that is, the return of Outer Mongolia under the rule of the Manchu rulers, as was the case with late XVIII until the beginning of the 20th century. This formation was to become a new mainland possession of Japan.
Map of the Pacific in November 1941
In the conditions of growing tension in connection with the Japanese aggression in China, the border zone of Mongolia and Manchuria turned into a place of constant clashes between detachments of the opposing sides, and this process was mutual, and it was almost impossible to establish the initial guilt of one side or another. Under the prevailing conditions, the most realistic policy for preserving statehood and maintaining the national security of the MPR was further military-political and economic rapprochement with the USSR.
Japan sought to extend its hegemony to all of China
On November 27, 1934, the parties agreed to conclude a gentleman's agreement, which provided for support and assistance, including military assistance, in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties. In March 1936, a Soviet-Mongolian protocol on mutual assistance was signed in Ulaanbaatar. The next phase was directly the Mongol-Japanese armed conflict, which developed from 1932 with mutual invasions of both the territory of the MPR and the territory of Manchukuo. Military operations at Khalkhin Gol, which took place from mid-May to September 16, 1939, ended in the complete defeat of the Japanese-Manchurian side.
Battles at Khalkhin Gol
The occupation of Manchuria and the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo on its territory were important steps in strengthening Japan's strategic positions on the Asian mainland. By 1938, most of China's industrialized areas were under Japanese control. In this situation, on November 3, 1938, the Konoe government issued an official statement, signed by the emperor, stating that Japan's task at this stage was to establish a "new order in East Asia."
Japan sought to extend to the whole of China a form of exercising its dominance, found in the process of creating Manchukuo and successfully applied in practice. This meant an attempt to establish Japanese economic and political hegemony in all of China and demand recognition of such a position by other powers.
Celebration of the decade of the founding of Manchukuo
With the outbreak of the Pacific War, on December 22, the "Emergency Economic Policy Program" was adopted, which included increasing the efficiency of the controlled economy, reducing the influx of goods from Japan, and increasing Japan's production and supply of raw materials to thereby facilitate the conduct of the war.
In general, Japan made an attempt to create a state with all the attributes of a sovereign state, based on the idea of "informal imperialism". Nevertheless, it was absolutely obvious that Manchukuo did not play an independent role either in the international arena or in its internal affairs, and steadily followed the political course of the metropolis.
