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Psychology as a science

Psychology (from the Greek Psyche - soul + logos - teaching, science) - the science of the laws of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life.
The psyche (from the Greek Psychikos - spiritual) is a form of active reflection by the subject of objective reality, arising in the process of interaction of highly organized living beings with the outside world and performing a regulatory function in their behavior (activity).

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The object of psychology is highly organized living beings, carriers of the psyche
The subject of psychology is the psyche

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Historical view on the subject of psychology

6th century BC – V century AD: the subject of psychology is the soul.
Plato: The idea (eidos) of any thing or being is the deepest, most intimate and essential in it. In man, the role of an idea is played by his immortal soul.

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Aristotle: the soul is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body.
The soul has various abilities as stages of its development: vegetative, sensual and mental (inherent only in man).
Mind in its highest, essential expression is something different from the body. The hierarchy of levels of cognitive activity was completed by the "supreme mind", which did not mix with anything bodily and external.
“If the eye were a living being, its soul would be sight” (Aristotle)

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Middle Ages:

Scholasticism (Greek σχολαστικός - school scientist) is a systematic medieval philosophy, which is a synthesis of Christian (Catholic) theology and the logic of Aristotle.

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Renaissance:

The German scholastics R. Goklenius and O. Kassmann first introduced the term "psychology" (1590).

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Age of Enlightenment. René Descartes (1596-1650):

developed the doctrine of consciousness in the context of a psychophysical problem,
introduced a criterion for the allocation of the psyche,
introduced the concept of a reflex, thereby laying the foundation for the natural science study of the behavior of animals and humans.

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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679):

There is nothing in the world but material bodies;
Associations are connected traces of sensations;
Associations are a universal law of psychology.

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John Locke (1632 - 1704):

"There is nothing in the mind that would not be in the feeling";
The formation of simple ideas from complex ones through various operations (connection, comparison, etc.);
Association - "an incorrect, that is, not corresponding to a natural ratio, combination of ideas, when ideas that are not related in themselves are combined in the minds of some people in such a way that it is very difficult to separate them."

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Definition of Consciousness

Consciousness is a form of reflection of objective reality in the human psyche.
Consciousness is the ability to reproduce reality, as well as specific mechanisms and forms of such reproduction at its different levels.

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Classical psychology of consciousness

Structural psychology of consciousness (W. Wundt, E. Titchener)
Functional psychology of consciousness (W. James)

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Structural psychology of consciousness

W. Wundt defined the main tasks of psychology:

analysis of the process of consciousness by the method of self-observation;
identification of elements of consciousness;
establishing patterns of their connection.

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Structure and properties of consciousness according to W. Wundt:
Structure: Field of consciousness and focus of consciousness (field of attention)

Properties:

rhythm (connectedness, grouping of impressions) - consciousness is a structure
heterogeneity - center and periphery
has volume - the number of simple impressions that the subject currently perceives as a single whole (7+\-2)

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How does consciousness work?
The mechanism of interaction of elements of consciousness (simple sensations) - association
The process of entering the focus of consciousness of a new image is called apperception.

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E. Titchener - the founder of structuralism
Studied the elements of consciousness
He proposed the metaphor of "Waves of Consciousness", the conscious that lies on the crest of the wave (in the field of attention).

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E. Titchener introduced the wave metaphor to explain the phenomenon of attention. Thus, he emphasized the discontinuous nature of attention, i.e. argued that at any given time only one content reaches the "crest of the wave of attention" (apperception).
He described the phenomenon of "accommodation" of attention - the predominant apperception of the content that is better consistent with the previous one.

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Functional psychology of consciousness

W. James - founder of the functional approach
Consciousness is a stream, a river in which thoughts, sensations, memories, sudden associations constantly interrupt each other and are bizarrely, “illogically” intertwined.

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4 properties of consciousness:

each "state of consciousness" tends to be part of a personal consciousness;
within the boundaries of personal consciousness, his states are changeable;
every personal consciousness is a continuous succession of sensations;
it accepts some objects willingly, rejects others, and generally makes a choice between them all the time.

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Unconscious or unconscious - a set of mental processes in respect of which there is no subjective control.

Distinguish:

unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions;
unconscious stimuli of conscious actions;
"superconscious" processes.

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Modern concepts of consciousness. The laws of the work of consciousness

Hume's law: random events must always be justified in the human mind by non-random causes.
The Freud-Festinger law: the mechanism of consciousness, faced with conflicting information, begins its work by trying to distort this information or even remove it from the surface of consciousness.
The pattern breaking law: an unexpected change of context causes an emotional shock and a failure in behavior until, as a result of the work of the protective belt of consciousness, a reinterpretation of the situation occurs, a new context is found, from the point of view of which this situation will be further considered.

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The laws of the work of consciousness

Uznadze's law: violation of a situational pattern leads to the destruction of habitual patterns of behavior, to difficulties in making the simplest decisions, and causes a failure in behavior.
James's law: everything unchanged disappears from consciousness, i.e. ceases to be realized, or there is a change in the idea given to consciousness about this changeless. In other words, only information that changes either objectively or subjectively can be realized.
Law of classification: any particular stimulus (object) always appears in the surface content of consciousness only as a member of a certain class of stimuli (objects), while the class cannot consist of only one member.

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Functions of Consciousness

reflective,
generative (creative-creative),
regulatory assessment,
reflexive function - the main function, characterizes the essence of consciousness. The object of reflection can be:
reflection of the world
thinking about him
how people regulate their behavior
the processes of reflection
your personal consciousness.

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properties of consciousness

reactivity;
sensitivity;
dialogism;
polyphony;
spontaneity of development;
reflectivity.

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/ / 6. Classical psychology of consciousness (W. Wundt, E. Titchener, W. James)

6. Classical psychology of consciousness (W. Wundt, E. Titchener, W. James)

tags: Knowledge , Psychology , Scientific , Research , Worldly , Activity , Observation , Man

1. Definition, subject, methods of psychology Psychology (“soul science” (Greek “psyche” - soul, “logos” - knowledge, word)) is:

the science of mental life
behavioral science
science of knowledge
the science of the laws of generation and functioning of the mental in life, the activities of living individuals

Psychology is a field of scientific knowledge that studies the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development (changes) of mental processes, mental states and mental properties of a person, that is, the psyche as a special form of life, as well as the psyche of animals. Phenomena studied by psychology: 1. Phenomenology (direct subjective reality of experience): images of perception, representations, memories, experiences, etc. 2. Behavior (postures, gestures, speech, etc.) 3. Physiological reactions (sweating, redness / blanching of the skin, changes in heart rate) 4. Products of activity (works of art, autobiographies, test results) Subject of psychology:

mental processes (sensations, perceptions, ideas, imagination, thinking, emotions, desires, memory, attention - the whole psyche, human consciousness)
psychological personality traits (personality orientation, temperament, character, interests, abilities of a given person)
psychological features human activity (work, teaching, creativity, games, sports activities).

Basic methods of psychology: Observation is a method of passive and direct study of reality (open, hidden, included, third-party).

Conversation is a method of verbal (speech) interaction between the subject and the object of research in order to obtain information. An experiment is a specially organized controlled impact in order to test cause-and-effect hypotheses. Questionnaire, test, questionnaire, study of activity products, self-observation, biographical, comparative, complex methods, modeling, meta-observation ... By the criterion of immediacy-mediation: direct (introspection), indirect (currently used) By the aspect of dynamics: cross-sectional, longitudinal According to the degree of generalization of the research results: methods of broad and narrow representativeness Interactive methods According to the degree of formalization of the research procedure: algorithmic formal/informal According to the method of processing the obtained data: quantitative, qualitative analysis. 2. Everyday and scientific psychology Everyday (everyday knowledge) about the psyche is acquired by an individual and society as a whole spontaneously through the accumulation of individual observations and generalized inductively. It materializes in the form of proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, common ideas of "folk wisdom". Scientific knowledge arises from the application scientific methods knowledge, covers and explains both obvious common facts and phenomena, and practical situations unobservable in everyday life, moves along the path of eliminating internal contradictions, strives to be reflected in a system of clear concepts unambiguously understood by the scientific community, and is transmitted through socially normalized technologies.

8 pages, 3513 words

Collective creative activity I. P. Ivanova. MODELING is a research method that involves creating ... in pedagogy, a foreign language, philosophy, psychology, methodology, linguistics? Closed questions ... suggest to him: “Name the most authoritative people who can be contacted for ... the scale. EXPERIMENT "An experiment in science is an artificial change or reproduction ...

Everyday and scientific psychology (Yu.B. Gippenreiter)
Zhiteiskaya
Knowledge is specific, timed to specific situations, people, tasks	1. Knowledge is expressed in generalizations and scientific concepts
Knowledge is intuitive	2. Knowledge is rational and conscious
The ability to transfer knowledge is limited (the problem of "fathers and sons")	3. Knowledge is expressed in concepts and laws, transmitted in books, articles, through conferences
Basic Methods: Observation and Reflection	4. Basic methods: observation, experiment, questioning
Sketchy facts and observations	5. Extensive, varied, unique factual material

3. Areas of psychological knowledge Two areas of psychological knowledge are scientific and worldly psychology (see question no. 2).

If scientific psychology arose relatively recently (in 1879, W. Wundt opened the first laboratory in Leipzig experimental psychology), then worldly psychological knowledge has always been included in different kinds human practice (distinguishing and taking into account the peculiarities of the mental warehouse).

4. The development of psychological ideas within the framework of ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, Hippocrates)

Fragments of psychological knowledge began to bear a scientific character. The first mention of this term in a rational-philosophical context is found in Aristotle's treatise On the Soul, where he refers to Thales of Miletus (640-546 BC).

cosmological category, one of the substances of the universe (with a dualistic approach) or a special form of existence of a single substance with a monistic approach
special immortal essence, "animating" the body
designation of the inner world of man

From the very first steps of ancient philosophical thought, the soul was interpreted as driving force. Pythagoras (570-500 BC) - his views are based on the idea of numerical harmony. The soul, according to the Pythagoreans, is immortal, indestructible, repeatedly embodied in living beings in accordance with certain numerical patterns. The substantial difference between soul and body (development in Plato's dualism) is rooted in Pythagoreanism.

Anaxagoras adhered to a dualistic interpretation of the relationship between the soul and the body (462-432 BC).

The concept of dualism can be opposed to the tradition of Ionian natural philosophy, in which the soul and mental phenomena were considered on a par with natural phenomena, genetically derived from them. Democritus (acme - c. 420 BC) - the author of the first psychological writings. He believed that everything consists of atoms, developed the principle of determinism (“Everything arises by inevitability”).

Then Epicurus complicated the idea of the mechanistic conditionality of mental phenomena, introducing the factor of chance into the sphere of the mental. Along with attempts to describe the origin and ontological status of the soul, there is an interest in the inner life of the subject. There are classifications of mental processes, descriptions of their properties and possibilities of controlling mental phenomena. An important role was played by the doctrine of the temperament of Hippocrates, the psychological views of Socrates and the sophists. Hippocrates (460-370 BC) developed Heraclitus' ideas about the "liquid" nature of differences between people (4 mental types).

The principle of therapeutic conversation goes back to it. Sophists (Protagoras and Gorgias) studied speech behavior, forms of public communication. Socrates (470−399) proposed the pedagogical method of maieutics (through skillfully posed questions to induce the interlocutor to "generate" true knowledge).

His philosophical conversations formed the basis of the work of his student Plato (428−348).

Plato substantiated the universality of the maieutics method by putting forward the theory of recollection. Plato also offered a structural view of the psyche. In the Neoplatonist movement, the opposition between soul and body became even more fatal. In Platonism, the spiritual life of a person is initially doomed to a dynamic conflict. Aristotle (384−322) — the founder of the functional approach to the psyche. According to Aristotle, the soul is the "form of the body", that is, the function and cause of bodily organization. The book "On the Soul": Reasonable and unreasonable soul (cannot claim immortality).

Aristotle introduced the concept of target (final) causality into scientific use. In contrast to the mechanistic causality of Democritus, the principle of target causality implies development in the pursuit of some goal that has not yet been realized, existing in the form of an idea or a model. Galen (2nd century) established the role nervous system as a "conductor" of the influences of the soul on the body. Galen also suggested a two-way nature of the interaction between the somatic and the mental: not only the soul exercises control over bodily manifestations through the nerve pathways, but also bodily changes affect the course of mental processes. The idea of perfecting the soul was developed by the Stoics and Epicureans. The early Stoics (Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus) developed the concept of sensory perception ("grasping perception").

Stoics: logic, physics, ethics. The main focus is on ethical issues. The purpose of life: the achievement of dispassion and spiritual equanimity. Epicurus (342-270).

According to Epicurus, pleasure (the purpose of life) is the absence of suffering. The greatest suffering is the fear of death. Plotinus (204−270 BC) saw in the isolation of the soul from its source in the other world an insurmountable barrier to true knowledge. The problems of reflection, singled out the processes of the soul's turning towards itself.

The contribution of ancient scientists to the knowledge of the soul
	Soul as an active principle
Heraclitus	Similarity of the individual soul and the world Logos
Democritus	Determinism: everything arises out of necessity; Monistic materialism: an explanation of the mental and physical
Anaxagoras	The role of bodily organization in the manifestation of mental
Hippocrates	The doctrine of temperament
Sophists (Gorpy, Protagoras)	"Man is the measure of all things", interest in the communicative aspects of human behavior
	The dialogical nature of thinking and the method of dialogue in pedagogy; maieutics
	Problems of universal forms of thinking; dialogic knowledge; conflict as an integral characteristic of mental life
Aristotle	Target determination of human development; functional approach to the soul; level structure of the soul
	Ways to cope with life crises
epicureans
	The phenomenon of self-consciousness
	Discovery of the role of the nervous system

5. The development of psychological ideas within the framework of the philosophy of modern times (rationalism, empiricism, associationism).

Francis Bacon (1561−1626) stands at the origins of modern times with his epistemological optimism and his call for an experimental study of the psyche. Bacon proposed to consider the soul and body in unity, he adhered to the traditional division of the soul into a rational divine soul and a non-rational sentient soul. Recognized the inductive method for true knowledge. But still Bacon was skeptical about the possibilities of human knowledge. Bacon makes a transition from the identification of the soul and the mental to the interpretation of the psyche as consciousness. René Descartes (1596−1650) completed this transition.

Descartes is a dualist, considering the material and the ideal as two heterogeneous substances. The attribute of the ideal is thinking, the attribute of the material is extension. Considers consciousness as a subject of psychological reflection. The problem of the relationship between the mental and the physical (the “Psychophysical Problem” of Descartes) declared by him is still being solved in world science. The dualism of Descartes was overcome primarily by the psychological concept of B. Spinoza (1632−1677).

He suggested that there is only one single substance, and thinking and extension are its attributes. Spinoza solves the psychophysical problem in the spirit of unity, and also creates a theory of affects. The solution of the psychophysical problem in the spirit of parallelism was proposed by G. V. Leibniz (1646−1716) (the hypothesis of "pre-established harmony").

T. Hobbes (1588−1679) returned in his philosophy to the materialistic interpretation of the soul, depriving mental life of originality and reducing mental phenomena to the manifestation of movement. The psyche for Hobbes is an epiphenomenon (a phenomenon that accompanies other phenomena and does not have its own functions).

The dilemma of rationalism-empiricism. Rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza, I. Kant, Leibniz) were sure that abstract knowledge cannot be derived from experience. Some innate forms of thinking or "ideas" were supposed to exist in the psyche. Empiricists (T. Hobbes, D. Locke) believed that all knowledge can be derived from experience. D. Locke (1632−1704) was interested in the formation of human consciousness by experience. According to Locke, experience can be obtained from sensation or from reflection. Associationism (18th century) adopted Locke's teaching and transformed it. D. Gartley (1705−1757), a representative of materialistic associationism, developed the doctrine of the psyche as a product of brain activity. Mental includes: sensations, ideas of sensations, affective tones. E. Condillac, J. La Mettrie, K. Helvetsky, P. Holbach, D. Diderot - French materialists-enlighteners - shared the view of the psyche as a configuration of sensations arising from external influences on the body, which gradually become more complex according to the principle of associations, then forming an internal experience. The opposite position regarding the essence of associations was taken by the idealistic associationists D. Berkeley (1685−1753) and D. Hume (1711−1776).

The source of spiritual life is not the brain, but consciousness.

The contribution of modern scientists to the formation of psychological knowledge
	Apologia for the inductive method of cognition, classification of obstacles to the implementation of the inductive method (“idols”), consciousness as a subject of psychology
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of interaction, the reflex principle of the functioning of the body, the regulatory function of the psyche, thinking is the center of mental life
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of unity, classification of cognitive processes, classification of affects on the basis of reduction to three simplest - pleasure, displeasure, desire
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of unity, introduction of the problematic of unconscious cognition
	The psyche as an epiphenomenon, the development of the concept of association
Rationalists/empiricists	Deductive and inductive way of knowing
	Theory of transformation of sensory experience into concepts, introspective method, development of laws of associations
	Mechanistic associationism: Associationism is a subtype of neural connections in the brain.

Elements of consciousness:

Feel
Representation
Feelings
Acts of will

Processes of consciousness:

Perception
Apperception (will and attention).

Founder of structuralism

Edward Titchener (1867−1927)

William James (1842−1910)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832−1920)

W. James distinguishes two types of state of the phenomena of consciousness:

sustainable
Changeable, quickly passing

Transitional moments from one state to another are very difficult to catch by self-observation.

The stream of consciousness is the movement of consciousness, the continuous change of its contents and states

The processes of consciousness are divided into two large classes:

involuntary
Arbitrary

Experiences Wundt.

With the help of a metronome, the direct purpose of which is to set the rhythm when playing musical instruments, both types of processes are well demonstrated, as well as a number of other remarkable properties of consciousness. Experience Wundt consisted in the fact that he presented the subject with a series of sounds, then interrupted him and gave a second series of the same sounds. There was a ban on counting sounds, and the subject had to answer the question whether the sounds were the same length or different?

Wundt discovered the important fact that the human mind can be saturated almost indefinitely with some content if it is actively combined into larger and larger units. Wundt's student Titchener developed the method of analytic introspection. The main thing in his method was an attempt to avoid the "stimulus error", that is, the confusion of the mental processes of perceiving an object and the influence of the object itself. The result of his atomistic approach was the book "Essays in Psychology" with a list of 44,000 elementary sensations.

The ability to enlarge units is found in the simplest perceptual processes and in thinking.

A measure of the volume of consciousness is a series of eight double beats (or 16 separate sounds).

Acts of apperception - the organization of the unit more high order, namely the understanding of a phrase consisting of many words and more more individual sounds.

The simplest elements of consciousness W. Wundt announced individual impressions or sensations.

Each sensation has a number of properties (attributes):

Quality (visual, auditory, olfactory, etc.)
Intensity, length (i.e. duration)
Spatial extent (visual sensations exist, but auditory ones do not)

The objective elements of consciousness are sensations, with their properties described.

Subjective elements of consciousness:

Satisfaction - dissatisfaction
Arousal - Calm
Voltage - Discharge

These pairs are independent axes of the three-dimensional space of the entire emotional sphere.

7. Behavior as a subject of psychology. Behaviorism (J. Watson, B.F. Skinner) and neo-behaviorism (E. Tolman).

Behavior as a subject of psychology

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the emergence and development of behaviorism as a reaction to unsuccessful experimental studies. physiological psychology". The subject of behaviorism, or "behavioral psychology," is behavior. According to behaviorists, knowing the strength of the acting stimuli and taking into account the past experience of the “subject”, it is possible to study the processes of learning, the formation of new forms of behavior, without delving into its physiological mechanisms.

The American psychologist J. Watson, based on the research of I. P. Pavlov, concluded that consciousness does not play any role in learning. It has no place in psychology. New forms of behavior should be considered as conditioned reflexes. They are based on several innate, or unconditioned, reflexes.

Behaviorism and neobehaviorism Behaviorism is a branch of psychology that has rejected both consciousness and the unconscious as the subject matter of psychology. The origins of behaviorism should be sought in the study of the psyche of animals. Behaviorism as an independent scientific movement is based on the work of Edward Thorndike, who, based on the study of cat behavior, formulated two "laws of learning". The law of exercise says that the more often actions are repeated, the more firmly they are fixed. The Law of Effect points to the role of "rewards" and "punishments" in building or destroying various forms of behavior. The teachings of I.P. Pavlova about conditioned reflex and the theory of the associative reflex V.M. Bekhterev also had a significant impact on the formation of "psychology of the unconscious". The father of behaviorism is John Watson (1913, manifesto "Psychology through the Eyes of a Behaviorist").

The task of psychology, in his opinion, is to study the behavior of living beings that adapt to the physical and social environment. The goal is to create means of controlling behavior. The main mechanism of behavior is the connection between stimulus and response (S -> R).

Watson's experimental study on the formation of feelings of fear on neutral or even pleasant objects. Watson combined the display of a fluffy white rabbit baby with a harsh sound. As a result, the child began to react by crying not only to the rabbit itself, but also to all similar objects (this phenomenon was called "generalization").

Thus, Watson tried to show that irrational behavior (for example, alcoholism, etc.) is based on "wrong" circuits of stimuli and reactions that were fixed in childhood.

Watson's follower E. Gasri introduced the probabilistic principle into the description of the relationship between stimulus and response. B. Skinner shared the classical (passive) reflex of I.P. Pavlova and operant learning, in which the subject is active in the search for reinforcement of his behavior. Reinforcement is a necessary consequence of an action performed by a living being. Skinner refers to operant learning all forms of human mental life: perception, attention, thinking. He introduced the concept of "symbolic reinforcement" and described society as a system of symbolic reinforcements.

In the early 1930s, there were attempts to expand the subject of behavioral psychology by taking into account phenomena not directly observable in the study (neobehaviorism).

Edward Tolman came to the conclusion that it is necessary to introduce the concept of "intermediate variables". That is, behavior is a function of environmental stimuli, intermediate variables (intentions, expectations, knowledge - past experience recorded in the system of established reactions), heredity and age. Tolman introduced the concept of a "cognitive map" - integral structures for representing the world. The presence is proved by experiment: the rat, having studied the structure of the labyrinth, runs to the place where the food is located, regardless of from which point it starts moving. She focuses not on the sequence of movements that once led her to success, but uses a holistic view of the labyrinth structure.

At present, modifications of behaviorism are widespread in American psychology and are represented primarily by the theory social learning A. Bandura and D. Rotter.

8. The main ideas of Gestalt psychology (M. Wertheimer, W. Koehler, K. Levin)

Gestalt psychology- a trend in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the 20th century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology: Wolfgang Keller, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Kurt Lewin.

These scientists established the following ideas of Gestalt psychology:

1. The subject of psychology is consciousness, but its understanding must be based on the principle of integrity.

2. Consciousness is a dynamic whole, that is, a field, each point of which interacts with all the others.

3. The unit of analysis of this field (i.e., consciousness) is the gestalt - an integral figurative structure.

4. The method of studying gestalts is an objective and direct observation and description of the contents of one's perception.

5. Perception cannot come from sensations, since the latter does not really exist.

6. visual perception is the leading mental process that determines the level of development of the psyche, and has its own patterns.

7. Thinking cannot be considered as a set of skills formed by trial and error, but is a process of solving a problem, carried out through structuring the field, that is, through insight in the present, in the “here and now” situation. Past experience is irrelevant to the task at hand.

9. Unconscious as a subject of psychology. Psychoanalysis (z. Freud, c. G. Jung, a. Adler).

Manifestations in consciousness: psychopathology of everyday life, symbols of dreams and creativity, neurotic symptoms.

Theory of the unconscious. (S. Freud)

According to her, there are three spheres or areas in the human psyche: consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious.

The first distinguishing feature of unconscious representations is their efficiency . Their second property is that they hardly pass into consciousness. This is explained by the work of two mechanisms that Freud postulates - mechanisms displacement and resistance.

Psychoanalysis:

The main principles of psychoanalysis are as follows:

human behavior, experience and knowledge are largely determined by internal and irrational drives;
these drives are mostly unconscious;
attempts to become aware of these drives lead to psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms;
in addition to the structure of personality, individual development is determined by the events of early childhood;
conflicts between conscious perception of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can lead to mental disorders such as neurosis, neurotic character traits, fear, depression, etc.;
liberation from the influence of unconscious material can be achieved through its awareness (for example, with appropriate professional support).

In psychoanalysis, a number of methods have been developed to identify unconscious affective complexes. Chief among them is the method free associations and method dream analysis. Both methods involve the active work of the psychoanalyst, which consists in the interpretation of words continuously produced by the patient (method of free association) or dreams.

Freud proposed a three-component model of the psyche: "It" (a combination of 2 basic mental "energies": expansive (Eros) and destructive (Thanatos); they try to realize themselves), "I" (approximately coincides with consciousness), "Super-I" ( moral prohibitions, norms of social coexistence, religious institutions).

Adler accepted Freud's model of the psyche, but replaced the abstract Eros and Thanatos with more concrete ones. Human life is a struggle of 2 basic needs: in power and superiority and in affection and belonging to social group. The central concept is "compensation". The desire for overcompensation, in order to overcome the inferiority complex, starts the process of human development. According to A., a normal person is able to achieve balance and achieve community with people.

Jung expanded on Freud's model. Postulates the presence of the collective unconscious. In the form of archetypes, the entire experience of mankind is recorded. Two kinds of psycho. personality orientations: intro- and extraversion. Psychological types were identified by Yu on the basis of a combination of psycho. orientation of a person and his predominant psycho. functions (intro. mental, extrav. intuitive).

10. Psychology of the second half of the 20th century: cognitive psychology (W. Neisser, J. Bruner) and humanistic psychology (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, W. Frankl)

cognitive psychology — modern direction in the study of cognitive processes. It emerged in the 1960s. as an alternative to behaviorism. cognitive psychology rehabilitated the concept of the psyche as a subject of scientific research, considering behavior as mediated by cognitive (cognitive) factors.

Representatives of cognitive psychology: George Miller, Jerome Bruner, Ulrik Neisser.

The main position of cognitive psychology: The human psyche is like an information processing device. Thus, the psyche is fundamentally modeled, like engineering devices.

Modern cognitive psychology consists of many sections: perception, pattern recognition, attention, memory, imagination, speech, thinking and decision making, in general, natural intelligence and partly artificial intelligence.

Humanistic psychology - a direction in Western psychology, recognizing as its main subject the personality as a unique complete system, which is not something given in advance, but an “open possibility” of self-actualization, inherent only to man.

Humanistic psychology as its philosophical base, it relies on existentialism (the direction of philosophy that focuses its attention on the uniqueness of human being).

Principles of humanistic psychology:

1. Conviction in the holistic character of human nature.

2. The role of conscious experience.

3. A priori recognition of free will, spontaneity, responsibility and creative power of man.

4. Study of psychologically healthy individuals.

This area may include: A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl

11. Evolution of the psyche of animals and humans The psyche is the product of a long and complex process of development of organic nature. The simplest microorganisms do not have a psyche. They are characterized by a more elementary form of reflection - irritability.

The emergence of the psychic form of reflection as a property of special matter is associated with the emergence of the simplest nervous system. Such a nervous system first appears in intestinal animals (hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone).

This nervous system consists of individual nerve cells with processes intertwined with each other, and is called reticular or diffuse. With such a nervous system, undifferentiated reactions of the whole organism to various stimuli are observed. There is no control center here yet.

The control center appears at the next stage of the system - the ganglionic (nodal or chain) nervous system. In worms, nerve nodes (ganglia) are located in each segment of the body. All nodes are interconnected, and the body acts as a single whole. At the same time, the head node is much more complicated than all the others, and reacts more differentially to external stimuli.

The nervous system characteristic of insects is a further development and complication of the ganglionic nervous system. Here, the abdominal, thoracic and head sections are already clearly distinguished. The head knot, which regulates the movement of the limbs, wings and other organs, becomes noticeably more complicated. Higher insects (bees, ants) have olfactory, gustatory, tactile and visual sensations.

In vertebrates, a new type of nervous system appears - the central one, which is characterized by the isolation of the spinal cord and brain. The development of the central nervous system is expressed in gradual corticalization, i.e., an increase in the volume and role of the cerebral cortex.

The development of the central nervous system in different animals occurs differently and unevenly. It is due to the way of life of the species, the characteristics of the habitat.

For birds, vision is crucial, and the visual cortex has received greatest development. In monkeys and humans, visual sensations play a leading role. Their visual area of the cortex is much better developed than, for example, the olfactory area. With the advent of the central nervous system, a new form of mental reflection appears - the perceptual stage in the development of the psyche. At this stage, animals can simultaneously reflect several stimuli and synthesize them into the image of an object. This creates a subject reflection.

The development of the psyche is a regular change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations. The development of the psyche is characterized by the relative reversibility of changes, directionality (that is, the ability to accumulate changes, “build up” new changes over previous ones) and their regular nature (for example, the reproducibility of changes of the same type in individuals of the same species).

The development of the psyche is realized in the form of phylogenesis and ontogenesis. A special subject of research is the formation and disintegration of the brain organization of mental structures. Theories of the development of the psyche differ depending on the interpretation of the structure of the psyche and the conditions that determine its transformation. You can only point to two general provisions characteristic of most concepts. First, there are two groups of factors that determine the development of the psyche: natural inclinations and the external environment (most clearly in V. Stern, K. Buhler and their followers).

Sometimes isolated in special group factors of personal activity, different from natural inclinations (G. Allport).

In the external environment, when it comes to a person, usually pay attention to appropriation social norms and culture, fixed in sign-symbolic forms (D. Bruner, D. Mead, J. Piaget, K. G. Jung, L. S. Vygotsky).

It is noted that under the influence of these forms, the generative structures of the psyche are restructured. Secondly, the existence of some universal laws of the development of the psyche is recognized, in particular, unifying the ontogeny and phylogeny of the human psyche. This idea is most clearly influenced by biogenetic law E. Haeckel was expressed by S. Hall in his theory of recapitulation, according to which the ontogenetic development of the child's psyche reproduces the phylogeny of mankind. In the 1920s and 1930s, in Russian psychology, the problems of the development of the psyche were developed mainly within the framework of child psychology, and later on the material of zoopsychology, pathopsychology, and historical psychology. The development of the psyche was considered in this case as a process of successive inclusion of a person in a number of social-objective activities. The internalization of the structures of these activities determines the formation of multilevel basic structures of the psyche. L. S. Vygotsky substantiated the proposition about the leading role of education in the development of the psyche: education must go ahead of development. He critically assessed the idea of identifying development with learning and separating the development of the psyche from learning. The development of the human psyche acts in unity with the development of his personality, although these processes are not identical.

12. The concept of consciousness. Altered States of Consciousness

Consciousness — functional state, at which the maximum synchronization of all components of mental experience (or many areas of the cerebral cortex) is achieved.

Altered (trance) states of consciousness:

Sleep (rapid - follows the slow one and lasts 10-15 minutes and slow - lasts 80-90 minutes, comes immediately after falling asleep) is a special state of consciousness of humans and animals, which includes a number of stages that naturally repeat themselves during the night.
Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness that simultaneously combines signs of wakefulness, sleep, and sleep with dreams.
Alcohol intoxication is a special state of the nervous system due to the intake of alcohol, which causes changes in the psychological, physiological and behavioral functions of a person.
Drug intoxication is a special state of the nervous system due to the use of drugs that causes changes in the psychological, physiological and behavioral functions of a person.

At the initial stage, intoxication is sometimes manifested by an unreasonably joyful, high spirits (euphoria).

Delusion is a mental disorder characterized by the appearance of a set of painful ideas, reasonings and conclusions that does not correspond to reality, in which the patient is completely, unshakably convinced and which cannot be corrected.
Ecstasy is a special state of consciousness in which the boundaries between the external and the internal are lost, this state is accompanied by a feeling of enthusiasm.

13. Classification of mental processes. Regulatory: motivation, emotions, will. Cognitive: sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, memory, attention. Motivation is the psychological factors that support, motivate, direct, and stop specific activities. Emotions are a mental reflection in the form of a direct biased experience of the relationship of phenomena and situations to needs (see question 22).

Will is a property of a person, which consists in his ability to consciously control his psyche and actions. It manifests itself in overcoming obstacles that arise on the way to achieving a consciously set goal. Sensation is the process of reflecting the individual properties of the objects of the surrounding world. Perception is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world. This is a mental process, which consists in the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Thinking is the process of modeling the systematic relations of the surrounding world on the basis of unconditional provisions. Imagination - the ability of consciousness to create images, representations, ideas and manipulate them; plays a key role in the following mental processes: modeling, planning, creativity, play, human memory. In a broad sense, any process that takes place "in images" is imagination. Memory is one of the mental functions and types mental activity designed to store, accumulate and reproduce information. Attention is the selective focus of perception on a particular object.

14. Personality, its definition and structure (individual and personal properties).

Personality is a unique dynamic system of psychological and physical properties a person in which the universal essence of the individual is embodied as a representative of the human race, realizing his individual life path in a certain socio-cultural space. The uniqueness of a person is endowed with:

Makings.
Sustainable forms of behavior (character, temperament).
social roles.
Motives and values.
All past life and experience.

Individual properties:

Age and sex characteristics.
constitutional features.
Features of interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain.
Features of neurodynamics (temperament).
Psychophysiological features (inclinations).

Personal properties:

Communication
Leadership
Conflict
Conformity
Compromise

15. Individual preconditions for personality development. Models of temperament (I.P.Palov, Eysenck)

Personality development according to A.G. Asmolov.

Individual ( species) Personality (culture and society) Individuality

Theories of personality development.

Two-factor theories:

Theories of confrontation between two factors (biological and cultural).

Sigmund Freud (1856−1939); Erik Erickson (1902−1994)

Stages of psychosexual personality development according to Z. Freud:

Oral stage (0-1.5 years).
Anal stage (1.5-3 years).
Phallic stage (3-6 years).
Latent period (6−12 years).
genital stage.

Stages of psychosocial development of personality according to E. Erickson:

Stage	Age	Psychosocial crisis
1. Oral stage	Birth -1 year	Basic Trust - Basic Distrust
2. Anal stage		Autonomy - Shame and Doubt
3. Phallic stage		Initiative is guilt
4. Latent period		Industriousness is inferiority
		Ego Identity - Role Mixing
6. Early maturity		Intimacy is isolation
7. Medium maturity	26-64 years old	Productivity is stagnant
8. Old age	65 years old - death	Ego Integration - Despair

Theories of convergence of two factors (biological and cultural).

Humanist conception (Carl Rogers (1902−1987)); Social learning theory (Albert Bandura (b. 1925))

Interhemispheric asymmetry of mental processes is the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. In the implementation of some mental functions, the leading hemisphere is the left hemisphere, while others - the right hemisphere.

Temperament - (from lat. temperamentum - the proper ratio of parts) - a stable association of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity.

Temperament Theories:

Humoral theory of temperament(Hippocrates, Galen).
Constitutional theories of temperament(E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon).
Theories of temperament, explaining it in terms of features of the functioning of the nervous system(I.P. Pavlov, V.M. Rusalov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, B.M. Teplov, G. Eysenck).

Temperament theory by I.P. Pavlov

Temperament is determined by the type of higher nervous activity (HNA).

Depends on strength, balance And mobility nervous processes.

Types of VND:

Weak (melancholic)
Strong:

unbalanced (choleric)
Balanced:

Inert (phlegmatic)
Movable (sanguine)

Sanguine:

a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system; has a fast reaction;
his actions are deliberate;
cheerful, therefore high resistance to the difficulties of life;
feelings easily arise and quickly change;
he is a sociable person, easily converges with new people;
a very productive figure, but only if he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring, lethargic.

Most suitable activity that requires quick reactions, considerable effort, distribution of attention.

Phlegmatic person:

a person with a strong, balanced, but inert NS, as a result of which he reacts slowly;
taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer);
has high performance;
strategist, goes to the goal, calculating forces;
memorize everything learned
well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to new unexpected situations;
does not like to change habits, work, friends
mood is stable, even;
the most reliable

Achieves the greatest success in those activities that require a uniform exertion of strength, perseverance, stability of attention and great patience.

fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated;
reacts quickly, often thoughtlessly;
shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, incontinence; increased excitability under adverse conditions can become the basis of irascibility, even aggressiveness;
characteristic abrupt change sentiments;
he is characterized by cyclicity in the change of his activity and vivacity: being carried away by some business, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is worked out to the point that everything becomes unbearable for him.

It achieves the greatest effectiveness in activities that require increased reactivity and a significant one-time effort.

Melancholic:

a person with a weak NS, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, therefore, in stressful situations (competitions, exams, danger), performance results may worsen compared to the usual situation;
increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (a longer rest is required);
an insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears;
the mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show outwardly his feelings, does not talk about his experiences;
often sad, depressed, insecure, anxious;
Feelings arise easily, are poorly restrained, outwardly distinctly expressed
strong external influences hinder activities
under certain conditions of life, shyness and indecision are easily formed.

Theory of temperament G. Eysenck

16. Inclinations and abilities. Types of abilities. Intelligence An important prerequisite for the formation of personality are abilities. Capabilities- these are the psychological characteristics of the individual, containing the potential for the successful implementation of certain types of activities. Abilities are divided into two types: general abilities (intelligence, creativity) and special abilities (musical, artistic, mathematical).

The formation of abilities occurs on the basis of inclinations. W appendages- these are innate psychophysiological prerequisites for the development of abilities. The same inclination may, depending on the social and individual conditions of the child's development, be realized in completely different abilities, and under unfavorable conditions, the existing inclinations may generally remain not embodied in developed abilities.

According to A. Adler, a high level of innate abilities hinders the development of the individual in the appropriate direction. Conversely, the traumatic experience of inferiority in any area can become an incentive to achieve success in that area. He called the process of overcoming the "inferiority complex" overcompensation. A look at human life leads to the conclusion that people can achieve great success almost regardless of what individual characteristics they possess. It helps to explain this paradox. the concept of "individual style of activity» according to E.A. Klimov. He identifies the following features of an individual style of activity:

A stable system of techniques and methods of activity.
The conditionality of these techniques by individual properties.
The effectiveness of the developed system of techniques for adapting to the objective requirements of reality.

The individual style of activity is designed to compensate for the limitations of the effectiveness of activity imposed by individual properties.

Intelligence- this is a general ability to learn and solve problems, which determines the success of any activity.

Three Forms of Intelligent Behavior(R. Sternberg):

Verbal intelligence (vocabulary, erudition, ability to understand what is read).
Ability to solve problems.
Practical intelligence (the ability to achieve goals).

Types of intelligence

social intelligence The ability to correctly understand and interpret the behavior of others.

Emotional intellect is a group of mental abilities that are involved in awareness and understanding of one's own emotions and the emotions of others. 17 Character. character accentuation.

Character- an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, embodied in his typical ways of behavior.

Degree of expressiveness of character:

norm | accentuation | psychopathy

character accentuation- 1) this is an extreme version of the norm, in which individual character traits are excessively strengthened, as a result of which selective vulnerability is found in relation to a certain kind of psychogenic influences with good resistance to others.

2) this is a feature of character that is within the critical norm, in which its individual features are excessively enhanced.

Character accentuations are seen as extremes of the norm. They, in turn, are subdivided into overt and covert accentuation.

3 Criteria for difference according to p.B. Gannushkin:

The totality of manifestations of character
Stability of character over time
Social maladaptation

(if a person has 1 or 2 points the same, then we are talking about accentuation, and if 3, then about psychopathy)

K. Jung identified 2 main types of character: 1) extroverted, 2) introverted

E. Kretschmer described 2 types: 1) cycloid, 2) schizoid

Classification of [constitutional] psychopathies- developed in 1933 by P. B. Gannushkin classification of personality disorders.

1 Asthenic psychopathy

2 Psychasthenic psychopathy

3 Schizoid psychopathy

4 Paranoid psychopathy

5 Excitable psychopathy

6 Hysterical psychopathy

7 Affective psychopathy

8 Unstable psychopathy

According to the classification of A.E. Lichko, the following types of character accentuations can be distinguished:

labile type
Hyperthymic type
Cycloid type
Astheno-neurotic type
sensitive type
Psychasthenic type
Schizoid type
epileptoid type
hysteroid type
Unstable type
Conformal type
The stuck type is often added to this list.

Brief description of the psychotype

Main feature labile type- extreme mood variability, fast and little predictable switching of the emotional state. Rich sensory sphere, high sensitivity to signs of attention. They are interested in communication, reach out to their peers, are content with the role of a ward.
Permanent feature - good mood. Energetic hyperactive. Friendship is superficial, the soul of the company. Unforgiving. Conformist. Romantic. Straightforward. Fair. Easy to get along with others.
A person with a cycloid accentuation experiences cyclical mood swings, when depression is replaced by elevated mood. When the mood declines, such people show hypersensitivity to reproaches, they do not tolerate public humiliation. However, they are proactive, cheerful and sociable.
Astheno-neurotic type (irritability, training is tiring, does not interfere with the team, fear)
Excessive sensitivity, impressionability, high moral requirements, first of all, to oneself, low self-esteem, timidity and shyness. Under the blows of fate, they easily become extremely cautious, suspicious and withdrawn.
Psychasthenic type determines the tendency to introspection and reflection. Psychasthenics often hesitate in making decisions and cannot bear the high demands and burden of responsibility for themselves and others.
Non-plastic. This is a formula man. Thinking is original, but inconsistent. In creativity, the process is important, not the result. In science, a generator of ideas. schizoids the mind of the earth. Intellectual aggression. Feel bad for others.
Speech is intelligible. Thinking is standard. Restrained, but explosive. Likes order. Ultimate. Lawyer. Moralizer.
The desire to stand out, to attract the attention of others, to be in the center of attention.

Artistry, imagination, ease of getting used to any role and any invented truth.

Lack of objectivity, but attitude towards others and towards oneself. Ease of self-justification, natural self-deception is characteristic.

Unstable type character accentuation determines laziness, unwillingness to conduct labor or educational activities in a person. These people have a pronounced craving for entertainment, idle pastime, idleness. Their ideal is to be left without outside control and be left to their own devices. They are sociable, open, helpful. They talk a lot
Conformal type characterized by conformity to the environment, such people tend to "think like everyone else." They do not tolerate drastic changes, breaking the stereotype of life, deprivation of their familiar environment.
The basis of the stuck, paranoid type of personality accentuation is the pathological persistence of affect. Feelings that can cause strong reactions usually subside after the reactions are "unleashed". In a stuck personality, the picture is different: the affect stops much more slowly, and as soon as the thought returns to what happened, the emotions that accompanied stress immediately come to life.

A. E. Lichko highlights two degrees of accentuation:

Explicit accentuation is an extreme version of the norm. Accentuated character traits are quite pronounced throughout life. Compensation does not occur even in the absence of mental trauma.

Hidden accentuation is the usual version of the norm. Accentuated character traits are manifested mainly in mental trauma, but do not lead to chronic maladjustment

Leonhard classification

To temperament, as a natural formation, Leonhard attributed the following types:

hyperthymic - desire for activity, pursuit of experiences, optimism, focus on good luck

dysthymic - lethargy, emphasizing ethical aspects, worries and fears, focus on failure

affective-labile - mutual compensation of traits, focus on various standards

affective-exalted - inspiration, elevated feelings, erection of emotions into a cult

anxious - timidity, timidity, humility

emotive - kindness, fearfulness, compassion

To the character, as a socially conditioned formation, he attributed the types:

demonstrative - self-confidence, vanity, boasting, lies, flattery, focus on one's own Self as a standard

pedantic - indecision, conscientiousness, hypochondria, fear of inconsistency with ideals

stuck - suspiciousness, resentment, vanity, transition from rise to despair

excitable - short temper, heaviness, pedantry, focus on instincts

TO personal level types were assigned:

extroverted

introverted

18. Methods for studying personality. Main theses Personal characteristics (generally): status, position, roles, functions, goals, values, motivational sphere, character, abilities. Personality diagnostic methods: straight(test questionnaires (MMPI, 16PF)), projective(test of ink spots by G. Rorschach, TAT, color test by M. Luscher).

Direct Methods: The method of conversation - the specific role of conversation, as a method of studying personality, follows from the fact that in it the subject gives a verbal report on the properties and manifestations of his personality. Therefore, in a conversation with the greatest completeness, the subjective side of the personality is revealed - self-consciousness and self-esteem of personality traits, experiences and emotional attitude expressed in them, etc. Of great importance is correct setting questions. Necessary condition for this method- the presence of confidential contact between the subject and the experimenter. The method of characterological conversation is a special form of natural experiment. A special place in the system of research methods, intermediate between the method of observation and artificial experiment, is occupied by the “natural experiment” of A.F. Lazursky. characteristic feature natural experiment is that it brings the study closer to natural conditions; carried out in the usual environment for the test subject. Using the method of natural experiment, it is possible to observe the subject under certain conditions in purposefully created situations, organizing observation according to a predetermined plan. Observation of the behavior and reactions of the subject allows you to get an idea about the characteristics of the personality as a whole and its individual properties. Biographical method - allows you to explore the stages life path, features of personality formation, can be an addition to the interpretation of data obtained by experimental methods. Questionnaires as one of the methods of studying personality are used to diagnose the degree of severity of certain personality traits or other traits in an individual. There are 2 types of questionnaires: one-dimensional- one characteristic is diagnosed and multidimensional- provide information about a range of different personality traits. Questions are closed. The disadvantage of the method of using questionnaires is that personality characteristics are based on self-assessment data. Projective methods A group of methods intended for diagnosing a personality, in which the subjects are asked to respond to an indefinite (ambiguous) situation; for example, interpret the content of the plot of a picture (Thematic Apperceptive Test), arrange colors according to subjective pleasantness (M. Luscher color test), give an interpretation of indefinite outlines (Rorschach spots) ... Answers to tasks of projective methods cannot be regarded as correct or incorrect, a wide range of the range of solutions, it is assumed that the nature of the answers of the subject is determined by the characteristics of the personality, which are projected onto the answers. For the subject, the purpose of projective methods is relatively disguised, which reduces his ability to make the desired impression on the experimenter.

19. Need-motivational sphere. Classification of needs

The concept of motivation. Classification of needs

Motivation (from French. "motif" - "reason")- a set of psychological factors that induce, direct, maintain and stop specific activities and behaviors.

Need- this is the state of the objective need of the human body for something that lies outside it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning.

According to the criterion, attractive or repulsive is, they talk about positive And negative motives.

An example of a positive type of motive is the achievement motive.

An example of a negative motive: the motive of avoiding failure.

According to the criterion of the time of updating the needs, they distinguish permanent, stable, cyclic and situational.
According to the intensity of experiencing the need state: strong and weak
By the predominance of focus on the result or on the process of performing activities: procedural and effective

G. Murray divides needs into viscerogenic (the need for oxygen, water) and psychogenic (the need for understanding, respect).

The ratio of needs and motives

objectification is the process of finding a specific object that can satisfy a need.

In the act of objectifying a need, a motive is born

motive is the subject of need.

Biological bases of motivation. Instinct

Instinct- this is a ready-made specific program of behavior aimed at satisfying biological needs.

With instinctive objectification of a need, it often has the character of imprinting

Imprinting (D. Spaulding)

Imprinting- this is an instant and irreversible finding by the need of its object.

organic needs

in nutrition;
at rest;
in optimal temperature conditions;
in reproduction

supraorganic needs

in status and achievements;
in communication and belonging (affiliation);
in caring for offspring;
in knowledge.

20. Basic and higher human needs. Pyramid of needs according to A. Maslow. The shift of the motive to the goal as a mechanism for the formation of human motivation (A.N. Leontiev).

Field theory (K. Levin) and cognitive dissonance (L. Festinger).

A. Maslow's model suggests that the path of development motivational sphere of a person lies in the consistent awakening and satisfaction of ever higher needs up to the highest - the need for self-actualization.

The needs at the base of the pyramid are more fully satisfied than those at the top.

The motives that are the result of the objectification of needs become more and more diverse as we move to the top.

The shift of the motive to the goal is a mechanism for the formation of new motives, author A.N. Leontiev. Those actions that previously served to achieve goals subordinated to some specific motive acquire an independent meaning and are split off from the original motivation. At the same time, the auxiliary goals for which these actions were directed acquire the status of an independent full-fledged motive.

K. Levin proceeded from the fact that needs (quasi-needs) are the basis of human activity, they direct human activity. The need creates a system of tension in the personality, striving for relaxation, in which, according to Lewin, the satisfaction of the need lies. The discharge of the need is carried out in a certain situation, called by Levin the psychological field. According to Lewin, some things have a positive valence, while others, without such a motivating force, have a negative valence. Thus, the objects of the field are positively and negatively charged valences in relation to the need. An excess of positive valences of the "character field" can lead to the "saturation phenomenon" described by Lewin. In a situation where it is impossible to stop the action that caused satiety, it is easy to negative emotion, aggression.

The theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger claims that a person has a positive emotional experience when his expectations are confirmed, and cognitive ideas are realized, that is, when the real results of the activity correspond to the intended ones. Negative emotions arise and intensify in cases where there is a discrepancy, inconsistency or dissonance between the expected and actual results of the activity. Subjectively, the state of cognitive dissonance is usually experienced by a person as discomfort, and he seeks to get rid of it as soon as possible.

Getting out of the state of cognitive dissonance:

change cognitive expectations and plans
try to get a new result

21. Law of optimum motivation r. Yerkes-J.Dodson

For any activity, there is an optimal (usually average) level of motivation, at which the effectiveness of this activity is maximum. The more complex the activity, the lower the level of motivation is optimal. R. Yerkes and J. Dodson conducted a series of experiments that gave comparable results when the subjects were rats, chickens, cats and people. The subjects performed the task of distinguishing two brightnesses. The level of difficulty of the task and the degree of motivation varied. The degree of motivation was determined through the force of punishment with a blow electric current with an incorrect answer. Based on the data obtained, the law of “optimum motivation” was formulated, which links the strength of the motive for achieving the result, the complexity of the task and the effectiveness of the performance of the activity. The law of optimum is formulated as follows: in order to achieve the maximum learning rate, as the difficulty of the task increases, the intensity of reward or punishment must decrease. In other words, if the activity is relatively simple, it will perform best with a high level of motivation, and if it is complex, with a moderate level.

Similar data were obtained in more recent studies conducted exclusively on humans. For example, in the experiment of J. Patrick, the subject was placed in a cabin with four doors, of which only one was an exit. There was no logical solution to the problem, since the location of the desired door was constantly changing, but the subject could develop a more or less rational strategy for finding it. Patrick found that when the subject's motivation increased to immediately leave the cabin (nails began to fall on his head from above or a weak but unpleasant electric current was passed through the floor), the decisions became less rational, stereotyped and ineffective.

Obviously, in the type of experimental research described, the mountains manipulated the subjects' external motivation (electric shocks were not relevant to the essence of the matter, for example, determining the brightness of spots or finding the right door).

Taking into account the internal motivation of the subject will, of course, lead to a significant complication of the picture. 22. Emotions, their types and functions.

Emotions are a mental reflection in the form of a direct biased experience of the relationship of phenomena and situations to needs. Emotions are very closely related to motives and needs.

The main types of emotional states

Feelings, Emotions proper, Affects, Passions, Moods

Affect is a very short in its duration, but incredibly intense emotional state in its nature.

Passion is an emotional state that has an object of passion under it, but

not always conscious.

Functions of emotions

- Mobilizing function (incitement to action) (for example, the release of adrenaline into the blood during fear; the phenomenon of "narrowing of consciousness" makes the body focus all its efforts on overcoming a negative situation).
- Evaluative function (makes it possible to instantly assess the meaning of an isolated stimulus or situation for a person).
- The function of compensating for information deficiency ("reserve resource" for solving problems when there is not enough information for rational decision making).
- The function of stimulating and maintaining activities (emotions reveal the true motives of the activity, during the implementation of the activity, the dynamics of emotions signals its success or obstacles).
- Regulatory function of emotions (Reflecting and evaluating reality, emotions and feelings direct the behavior of the subject in a certain direction, contribute to the manifestation of certain reactions).
-Function of trace formation (anticipation of events that will occur in the future (heuristic / anticipatory function).
- The function of communication (The expressive (expressive) component of emotions makes them "transparent" to the social environment. For example, the expression bolt causes the awakening of altruistic motivation in other people).
- The function of disorganization (intense emotions can disrupt the effective flow of activities).
- Function of offline emotion value. 23. Behavioral and physiological manifestations of emotions. Emotion recognition.

Behavioral manifestations of emotions(Paul Ekman)

Adaptive gestures- these are actions that reduce the intensity of tension (jumping in place when happy).
Regulators- movements that set the rhythm of the flow of the emotional process (tapping with fingers in a state of uncertainty).
Illustrators- bodily expressions of the intensity of emotions (amplitude and sharpness of gestures).
Demonstrators- these are spokesmen for specific emotional states, usually mimic (frowning the eyebrows with anger).
Emblems are movements that are commonly used to express emotions in a given culture. To these expressive means you can add intonation characteristics of the voice (sad voice, angry exclamation)

Physiological manifestations of emotions(W. James, G. Lange)

A complex of involuntary adaptive reactions of the body, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, designed to respond urgently to the stimulus that caused the emotion (for example, sweating, rapid pulse, pressure, redness, crying).

The theory of mimic feedback P. Ekman, R. Levinson and V. Friesen.

Based on changes in facial muscles. According to this view, an automatic change in the configuration of the facial muscles, which develops as a response to the impact of a stimulus, leads to awareness of the emotional state corresponding to this configuration and, as a result, to the emergence of emotion.

Emotion recognition.

Any sincere emotion lasts a fraction of a second!

Surprise - eyebrows raised, eyes wide open, mouth parted.
Happiness - small wrinkles in the corners of the eyes, cheeks are raised, the muscles around the eyes are involved.
Anger - eyebrows lowered. and brought together, glitter in the eyes, mouth closed, lips narrowed.
Fear - the eyebrows are raised and extended, the upper eyelids are raised and the lower ones are tense, the lips are slightly elongated.
Disgusted - the nose is wrinkled, the upper lip is raised.
Contempt - a raised corner of the mouth only on the 1st side.

Lie detector (polygraph)

Background (registration of physical indicators in a calm state)

Reaction (indicators when giving answers)

Types of stress

25. Definition of perception. The main characteristics of perception. Illusions of perception.

Perception - these are reflections of integral objects and events of external physical energies on the sense organs. A mental process consisting in the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

The types of perception are as follows:

1. Perception of surrounding objects (due to the activity of the eye).

2. Perception of space (gives us a picture of three-dimensional space, shows distance and attitude).

3. Perception of time (reflects the course of time, the duration of the event, its speed and sequence. The perception of time in a person is a kind of mental clock, with the help of which he evaluates the passage of time. The leading role here is played by both the content of the activity and the presence of interest in it.

4. Perception of movement (gives us data on the movement of objects relative to us and in relation to each other).

5. Perception of a person by a person (a special kind of perception, which is based on previous experience).

The main characteristics of perception:

Objectivity is an act of objectification, that is, the correlation of information from the external world with this world. Touch and movement play a decisive role. The object is perceived by us as a separate physical body isolated in space and time. This property is most clearly manifested in the mutual isolation of the figure and the background.
Integrity - sensations reflect the individual properties of objects, perception is only a holistic image, emerging on the basis of generalization of knowledge about individual properties, qualities obtained in the form of individual sensations. Internal organic relationship of parts and the whole in the image. Two aspects of this property should be considered:

combining different elements as a whole;
the independence of the formed whole from the quality of its constituent elements.

Structurality (generalization) is not the sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time (listening to music, we hear notes one after another).

Constancy - relative to the perceiving subject, objects are constantly changing. Due to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system to compensate for these changes, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color. Multiple perception of the same objects under different conditions gives rise to the constancy of this image. Provides relative stability of the surrounding world, reflecting the unity of the objects of its existence.

Meaningfulness - although perception arises as a result of the direct impact of the stimulus on the receptors, perceptual images have a certain meaning. Perception is closely connected with thinking, we understand the essence of an object, which allows us to mentally name it, that is, to attribute it to a certain group of objects, class, to generalize it. It is based on the connection of perception with thinking, with understanding the essence of the subject. Associated with the work of secondary cortical fields of analyzers.

Selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

Illusions of perception:

Illusions - this is a false or distorted perception of the surrounding reality, which causes the perceiver to experience sensory impressions that do not correspond to reality, and inclines him to erroneous judgments about the object of perception. The term " distorted" means that the visible (or audible, tactile) us does not correspond to the objective situation; the distortion can be eliminated, for example, by measurement.

Illusions are divided into types:

Physical, physiological, affective, optical illusions, sound illusions, verbal, organic, awareness illusions, pareilolic.

26. Perception of space and time

1) Perception of space - the ability of a person to perceive the spatial characteristics of the surrounding world: the size and shape of objects, as well as their relative position.

IN perception of space distinguish:

1) perception of the extended properties of objects - their shape, size, volume

2) the perception of the distance between objects - their position or place among other objects and their distance from the observer (deep vision).

Depth perception.

Depth perception is related to the assessment of the proximity or distance of objects. It is carried out using both binocular and monocular vision.

Depth indications:

1. Overlap.

2. Elevation (rise).

3. Relative displacement of objects in motion of the observer (motor parallax).

4. Simultaneous difference between images for the right and left eyes (disparity).

2) Perception of time - a figurative reflection of such characteristics of the phenomena of the surrounding reality as duration, flow rate and sequence.

Temporal relations are expressed by:

- Chronometry - the countdown of time, measured by the uniform movement of an object, for example, the hands of a clock;

- Chronologies - reflections of time in accordance with phenomena common to all people: the seasons of the year, the number of years lived, etc.;

The psychology of consciousness is the science of the properties of consciousness, its elements, the connections between them and the laws to which they obey. The most important functions and properties should be derived from the structure of consciousness. What is the content of consciousness? It is very varied. The central area of consciousness that is clear and distinct is the "focus of consciousness"; and beyond its borders there is another area, with an unclear and indistinct content - the “periphery of consciousness”. The contents of these areas are in continuous motion.

The German psychologist W. Koehler described his content of consciousness, which included images of the immediate surrounding world, images - memories, feelings of strength and well-being, and an acute negative emotional experience.

W. James singled out two types of states of consciousness: stable and changeable, i.e. those images on which our thoughts stop and we reflect; and fast passing, i.e. those thoughts that follow each other. W. James compared the whole process with the flight of a bird, in which periods of calm soaring are combined with flapping wings. He also put forward the idea of a "stream of consciousness" as a continuously changing process, describing its properties: continuity, variability, the impossibility of "entering the same river". The fact of inner experience is that some conscious processes are taking place. The states of consciousness are replaced in it by one another. Within the boundaries of personal consciousness, its states are changeable (the states of consciousness are unique, because both the subject and the object have changed, objects are identical, not sensations). Every personal consciousness represents a continuous succession of sensations. It perceives some objects willingly, rejects others, makes a choice between them - this is the process of attention. In the stream of consciousness, impressions are not equal in importance. There are more, there are less significant. The contents of consciousness are associated with interests, hobbies, habits and intentions. And those that are more significant direct the flow as a whole. He believed that consciousness is indivisible into elements, and that each part of the stream of thought, as a subject, remembers the previous ones, knows the objects known to these parts, focuses its concerns on some of them as on its personal, and assigns to the latter all the other elements of knowledge. "Performing the function adaptation, consciousness overcomes the difficulties of adaptation, when the stock of reactions (reflexes, skills and habits) is not enough: it filters stimuli, selects significant ones from them, compares them with each other and regulates the behavior of the individual. Being personally isolated, individual, consciousness forms the basis of personality as "empirically given aggregate of objectively knowable things.

W. Wundt - German psychologist, physiologist and philosopher, founded in 1879 at the University of Leipzig the world's first experimental psychology laboratory. Based on the understanding of psychology as a science of direct experience, discovered through careful and strictly controlled introspection, he tried to isolate the "simplest elements" of consciousness. This objective elements (coming from outside, from the object) - simple impressions, sensations and ideas that have properties: quality, intensity; subjective(associated with the subject, his inner experiences) - feelings, emotions, in which he singled out 3 parameters: pleasure-displeasure; arousal-sedation; voltage-discharge. These elements make up complex feelings. Feelings provide a connection between elements, a synthesis of elements of consciousness: perception is the process of entering some content into the field of consciousness (associations, by similarity, by contrast, by temporal and spatial contiguity, causal ...) and apperception(associated with the area of clear vision) - the concentration of consciousness (attention) on any content, i.e. content falls into the realm of clear consciousness. The organization of a unit of a higher order is an act of apperception (letters - into words, words - into phrases, etc., i.e., the unification of small units of consciousness into large ones). W. Wundt also established the basic laws of mental life:

A. Law of psychic relations: all elements of consciousness are connected.

B. The law of contrast - are perceived more clearly.

C. The law of creative synthesis - the complex is irreducible to the simple.

D. The law of heterogeneity of goals - the process of achieving a goal can generate new goals.

Physiology was considered as a methodological standard, which is why the psychology of W. Wundt was called “physiological”. But the study of higher mental processes, in his opinion, should be carried out using other methods (analysis of myths, rituals, religious beliefs, language), which was reflected in his 10-volume work "Psychology of Peoples".

Consciousness, in his opinion, is something that is accessible to introspection, it exists only in self-observation. The main method is introspection, the experiment is auxiliary. He conducted an experiment with a metronome, where he described the properties of consciousness (impressions), after which he singled out 3 of its main properties:

1. rhythm (connectedness, grouping of impressions) - consciousness is a structure. Separate elements of consciousness tend to form groups of elements interconnected. This may be involuntary or controlled by attention. Due to the grouping, the volume of attention and consciousness can increase.

2. heterogeneity - two areas: the area of vague consciousness and clear consciousness and the point of fixation, which is located in the center of the area of clear consciousness (this is the area of the brightest consciousness). This is the field of attention and the periphery.

3. has volume - the number of simple impressions that the subject currently perceives as a whole (16-40 metronome beats). People group impressions in different ways - highlighting the area of the field of attention.

Another American scientist E. Titchener, a student of W. Wundt, tried to combine the theory of W. Wundt and W. James. Soul - a set of mental processes experienced by a person throughout his life. Consciousness - a set of mental processes occurring in the soul in this moment time. Consciousness is a cross section of the soul. There is a level of clear consciousness and a level of vague consciousness. Clarity, sensory intensity - degree of attention, wave height.

Let us turn to the structure of consciousness. One of the first ideas about the structure of consciousness was introduced by Z. Freud. Its hierarchical structure is as follows : subconscious-conscious-superconscious, and she, apparently, has already exhausted her explanatory material. But more acceptable paths to the analysis of consciousness are needed, and the subconscious and the unconscious are not at all necessary as a means in the study of consciousness. More productive is the old idea of L. Feuerbach about the existence of consciousness for consciousness and consciousness for being, developed by L. S. Vygotsky. It can be assumed that this is a single consciousness, in which there are two layers: existential and reflex. What is included in these layers?

A. N. Leontiev singled out 3 main constituents of consciousness: the sensual fabric of the image, where sensual images give conscious experiences the quality of a living, real world that exists outside of us, the images retain their original subject relatedness, meaning and meaning. The deep nature of mental sensory images lies in their objectivity, in the fact that they are generated in the processes of activity that practically connects the subject with the external objective world.

N. A. Bernshtein introduced the concept of living movement and its biodynamic tissue. Thus, when adding this component, a two-layer structure of consciousness is obtained. The existential layer is formed by the biodynamic fabric of living movement and action and the sensual fabric of the image. On the existential layer of consciousness, very complex tasks are solved, since for effective behavior in a certain situation, the actualization of the desired image and motor program is necessary, that is, the mode of action must fit into the image of the world. The reflex layer forms meaning - the content of social consciousness, assimilated by a person - these can be operational meanings, subject, verbal meanings, everyday and scientific meanings-concepts, and meaning - subjective understanding and attitude to the situation, information. On the reflective layer, there is a correlation between the world of ideas, concepts, worldly and scientific knowledge with meaning, and the world of human values, experiences, knowledge with meaning. Misunderstanding is associated with difficulties in understanding meanings. The processes of comprehension of meanings and meanings of meanings act as means of dialogue and mutual understanding. Biodynamic fabric and meaning is available to the outside observer and some form of registration and analysis. Sensual fabric and meaning are only partially accessible to self-observation. An outside observer can draw conclusions about them based on indirect data, such as behavior, products of activity, deeds, self-observation reports.

In the psychology of consciousness, the method of introspection, which in Latin means “I look, peer inside,” was recognized as the main and only method of psychology. Thanks to this method, knowledge about the structure of consciousness was expanded, where the center and periphery were distinguished; formed the idea that the content of consciousness are objects that differ from consciousness. The consciousnesses of different people were compared at that time with closed spheres, which are separated by an abyss. No one can cross this abyss, no one can directly experience the states of my consciousness as I experience them.

The ideological father of the method of introspection is the English philosopher J. Locke (1632 - 1704). He believed that there are two sources of our knowledge: the first is the objects of the external world, to which our external senses are directed and as a result we receive impressions of external things. The second is the activity of one's own mind - thinking, doubt, faith, reasoning, knowledge, desires, which is known with the help of an inner feeling - reflection. He notes that reflection is a special focus on the activity of one's own soul and the maturity of the subject.

J. Locke contains two important statements that there is a possibility of splitting the psyche. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, at two levels: the processes of the first level - perceptions, thoughts, desires; processes of the second level - observation, or "contemplation" of these perceptions, thoughts, desires. And the second statement contains the fact that every person and even a child has the activity of the soul of the first level. Mental activity of the second level requires a special organization. This is a special activity. Without it, knowledge of spiritual life is impossible.

These statements were accepted by the psychology of consciousness and the following scientific and practical conclusions were also made: in order to find out what is happening in the content of the consciousness of another person, a psychologist can conduct psychological research only on himself, putting himself in the same conditions and observing himself. The second conclusion was that introspection does not happen by itself and requires a special activity in which a long training is required.

Psychologists of that time noted important additional advantages of the method of introspection. First, it was believed that the causal relationship of mental phenomena is directly reflected in consciousness. The second merit is that introspection supplies the psychological facts, so to speak, in their pure form, without distortion.

In the psychology of the late nineteenth century. a grandiose experiment began to test the possibilities of the method of introspection. Scientific journals of that time were filled with articles with introspective reports; in them, psychologists described in great detail their sensations, states, experiences that appeared in them when certain stimuli were presented, when certain tasks were set. These were not descriptions of the facts of consciousness in natural life circumstances, which in itself might be of interest. These were laboratory experiments, which were carried out "under strictly controlled conditions" in order to obtain the agreement of results in different subjects. The subjects were presented with individual visual or auditory stimuli, images of objects, words, phrases; they had to perceive them, compare them with each other, report on the associations that they had.

E. Titchener introduced two more additional requirements, in which introspection would be directed to the selection of the simplest elements of consciousness, that is, sensations and elementary feelings; and also in this method, the subjects had to avoid in their answers terms describing external objects, and speak only about their sensations, which were caused by these objects, and about the qualities of these sensations. For example, the subject could not say: "I was shown a large, red apple." A should have reported something like this: “At first I got a feeling of red, and it eclipsed everything else; then it gave way to the impression of a round one, at the same time as a slight tickling in the tongue, apparently a trace of a taste sensation. There was also a rapidly transient muscular sensation in the right arm...”. Those. the subject was required a sophisticated analysis of "internal experience", an analytical setting, avoidance of "stimulus error".

In these studies, we see the problems and difficulties, as well as the meaninglessness of such an "experimental psychology". Contradictions accumulated in the results, which did not coincide with different authors and even sometimes with the same author when working with different subjects. This pushed to the collapse of the foundations of psychology - the elements of consciousness. Psychologists began to find such contents of consciousness that could in no way be decomposed into separate sensations or presented as their sum. The systematic application of introspection found non-sensory, ugly elements of consciousness. Among them, for example, are "pure" movements of thought, without which, as it turned out, it is impossible to reliably describe the process of thinking.

In psychology, instead of the triumph of science, which has such a unique method, a situation of crisis has ripened. The arguments put forward in defense of the method of introspection have not been rigorously tested. These were statements that seemed true only at first glance. The use and discussion of the method of introspection in practice revealed a number of shortcomings that called into question the method as a whole, and with it the subject of psychology - the subject with which the method of introspection was inextricably linked.

In the second decade of the 20th century, i.e., a little more than 30 years after the founding of scientific psychology, a revolution took place in it: a change in the subject matter of psychology. It was not consciousness, but the behavior of man and animals. J. Watson, the founder of the new direction, wrote: “...psychology must... abandon the subjective subject of study, the introspective method of research and the old terminology. Consciousness with its structural elements, indecomposable sensations and sensual tones, with its processes, attention, perception, imagination - all these are just phrases that cannot be defined.

Currently, the method of introspection as a subjective report of the subjects is used together with the experimental method to collect primary data and test hypotheses. It is a method of obtaining data, not of interpreting it. In the subjective report there is no purpose, technique, the product is a selective report on the interests of the subject or experimenter. The facts of the subjective report are considered as material for further analysis. The experimenter must in each individual case apply a special methodical technique that will allow him to reveal the connections of interest to him. The subject in this case is a naive observer who is required to report in the usual terms of everyday life. The experimental psychologist exists in order to come up with an experimental device that will force the mysterious process to open up and expose its mechanisms.

By the end of the first quarter of the 20th century, the psychology of consciousness had almost ceased to exist. There were three reasons for this:

1) limitation to such a narrow circle of phenomena as the content and state of consciousness;

2) the idea of decomposing the psyche into the simplest elements was false;

3) limitedness in its capabilities was the method that the psychology of consciousness considered the only possible one - the method of introspection.

Similar information.

It was within the framework of the introspective direction that two programs that became the most famous for building psychology as an independent science were proposed. These programs were put forward almost simultaneously in Germany by W. Wundt and in Austria by F. Brentano.

The separation of psychology from philosophy and other sciences was prepared by the development of empirical and experimental studies physiology of the nervous system and sensory organs, attempts to measure (even indirectly, as was the case with G. T. Fekhner) some parameters of mental processes, etc. Of course, this separation was not a one-time event, but there is a conditional date of birth of psychology as an independent science . This is 1879 - the year of the appearance at the University of Leipzig of the world's first laboratory of experimental psychology. This laboratory was opened by a German physiologist, philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, who organized its work on the basis of the program he proposed for building psychology as an independent science (published in 1873-1874) and created a large psychological school, in which future psychologists from around the world were trained and educated (E. Titchener, S. Hall, O. Kulpe, F. Kruger, E. Meyman, G. Munsterberg, N.N. Lange, etc.). The famous Soviet physiologist, psychiatrist, neurologist and psychologist V. M. Bekhterev also studied at one time with W. Wundt.

This program was based on the most common in introspective psychology point of view on consciousness as “the totality of states we are aware of” (i.e., the understanding of consciousness as a “picture of the world”, as an “image” came to the fore). This is exactly how (as a set of conscious states) Wundt defined consciousness in one of his works. He believed that psychology as a science of consciousness should solve the following problems:

1) description of the properties of consciousness,

2) highlighting the structural components of consciousness (elements of consciousness),

3) establishing links between elements,

4) finding the laws of mental life.

To solve these problems, he used the experiment, but the introduction of the experiment not only did not exclude introspection, but, on the contrary, assumed its strictly controlled application.

To illustrate, we present several experiments by W. Wundt. As an experimental instrument, he used the metronome, well known to musicians. W. Wundt established a number of properties of consciousness, using self-observation of the subject, who had to describe the subjective experiences that arise when he listens to the sounds of a metronome. First, he drew attention to the fact that it is difficult to hear the beats of the metronome's pendulum with the same strength (although objectively they are exactly the same), which can be conditionally conveyed by the words “tick-tock” or “tick-tick”. As a result of this experiment, W. Wundt concluded that consciousness rhythmically by it's nature.

In another experiment, he determined the so-called scope of consciousness. The subject was presented with a series of metronome beats following each other with an interval of 1-1.5 s, and a very short time after it, a new series of beats. The subject had to tell by direct impression (not counting the number of strokes) whether the given rows were the same or whether one of them was longer. As a rule, if the number of beats in each of the rows does not exceed sixteen (perceived under normal conditions as eight pairs) sounds (“tic-tac” or “tac-tick”), the identity or difference in length of the rows is noticed by the subject. With a larger row size, the subject finds it difficult to determine the equality or inequality of the rows in length. So, W. Wundt stated, we measured the volume of consciousness, equal to the number elements that the subject can be aware of as a whole in one act of perception (i.e. perception). In the experiments mentioned by W. Wundt, this volume was equal to eight pairs of sounds. If the units of consciousness are “enlarged” with some effort on the part of the subject (not a pair of sounds, but eight can act as a unit of consciousness), then the total number of sounds, perceived as a single whole, increases to 40.

W. Wundt established that the elements contained in consciousness are not perceived in the same way: some of them are perceived more clearly and distinctly than others. Clarity of an impression means its "subjective" power, distinctness means its difference from others. If you listen to the beats of the metronome in a row, you will notice that the just sounded beat is perceived most clearly, the previous beats are less clear and distinct, and some of them sounded so long ago that the impression of them has already disappeared from the subject's consciousness. Using the terms of other researchers (in particular, G.T. Fechner), W. Wundt said that this impression "sank under the threshold of consciousness." What is the distinctness of the impression - this example is difficult to demonstrate, since the sounds of a metronome objectively do not differ from each other. But if we take such objective stimuli that have differences, then we can try to study how the subjective impressions corresponding to them can differ from each other in terms of their degree of distinctness.

For research, W. Wundt used a device called a tachistoscope (from the Greek. tachiste- as soon as possible and scopeo- look), with the help of which the subject was presented with a tablet of letters for a very short time. First, the subject looked at a white screen, in the middle of which there was a point - the subject had to focus his attention on it. Then, for a very short time, the screen moved. The subject's attention was directed to a plate of letters, and then the screen again covered this plate. How many letters can the subject distinguish during one act of apperception (the act of focusing attention on an object)? It turned out that the number of letters that the subject can perceive in such a way that each of them is clearly and distinctly recognized (i.e., recognized by the subject, and not just seen) is rather small - this number did not rise above six.

With the help of this procedure, W. Wundt determined attention span, which is much smaller than the volume of consciousness. Analyzing further attention, he stated that fixation point of attention(i.e. the point of maximum concentration of attention) does not coincide with the fixation point of the gaze (i.e. a person can look at one point or letter, and pay attention to another).

All these points are reflected in the proposed by W. Wundt models of consciousness(Fig. 4). Consciousness can be represented as two concentric circles with a point in the middle (the center of the circles). This center is the fixation point of attention. A smaller concentric circle is the field of attention, delimited from a wider field - the field of consciousness - by the threshold of attention. The great circle is the field of consciousness, limited by the threshold of consciousness. Those contents that do not "fit" into consciousness go beyond its threshold and cease to exist not only as conscious, but also as mental phenomena. Thus, W. Wundt shared the general position of introspective psychology that there are no mental phenomena that would not be realized. In such a model, consciousness appears as a scene that has a circular shape and is generally illuminated (in the center to a greater extent than along its edges). Various contents of consciousness rise and fall on this stage - elements of consciousness and more complex formations made up of elements. Getting into a more illuminated field, the contents of consciousness fall into the field of attention, i.e. become perceived by the subject more clearly and distinctly than other contents of consciousness. W. Wundt considered the elements of consciousness Feel And the simplest feelings as he called elementary emotional phenomena(pleasure - displeasure, tension - discharge, excitement - calm). Each element has two properties: quality and intensity.

Model of consciousness according to W. Wundt

Student of W. Wundt Edward Bradford Titchener(Titcheneg, 1867-1927), in addition to sensations" and feelings, he considered the elements of consciousness also representation(“traces of past sensations”). He proposed a more rigorous method of introspective analysis - the method of analytical introspection. With this type of introspection, the subject had to learn to isolate the sensory mosaic of consciousness without making the “stimulus error”, which is very characteristic of “naive subjects” and should not appear in real professional psychologists who study consciousness as the sum of states we are aware of.

According to E. Titchener, the stimulus error means that the observer, instead of describing the states of his own consciousness, begins, as a rule, to describe the external object (stimulus) as such: “We are so used to living in the world of objects, we are so used to clothe thought in popular expressions that we it is difficult to assimilate a purely psychological point of view on the intensity of sensation and to consider consciousness as it is, regardless of its relation to the objective world. .

“A purely psychological point of view” means, according to E. Titchener, that the subject should not say “I see a book or a lamp”, he should only describe the sensations that arise in the mind when perceiving an external object - a book or a lamp (light, dark, etc.). .P.). Therefore, the subject - if he wants to engage in scientific research of consciousness - must be trained to highlight the sensory mosaic of the image (E. Titchener suggested that in this way it is possible to achieve greater objectivity in scientific research subjective world). Feelings, like building blocks, form the entire content of our mental life, including more complex mental formations. He called his variant of introspective psychology structuralism (meaning by structure, in fact, the sum of subjective elements in consciousness).

E. Titchener, in principle, agreed with W. Wundt's "concentric model", however, from his point of view, it did not take into account possible changes in the states of consciousness over time. Therefore, he represented consciousness as a "two-level" stream (Fig. 5), the upper "level" of which includes clear contents of consciousness, the lower one - vague. E. Titchener assumed that in this stream there is a constant process of transition of some states of consciousness from the upper to the lower level and vice versa. As properties of sensations, E. Titchener singled out quality, intensity, distinctness and duration.

Before us is one of the models of consciousness proposed in the framework of introspective psychology. This direction was based on the Descarto-Lockean concept of consciousness, in which consciousness was considered a world of subjective phenomena closed in itself. So understood consciousness was the subject of research for W. Wundt and E. Titchener. It was studied by the method of a special, sophisticated introspection, dividing consciousness into elements. At the same time, the conscious was identified with the mental (the existence of unconscious mental processes was denied). In addition, structuralism (as well as the concept of W. Wundt) is characterized by distinct elementalism - the desire to divide consciousness into elements, then indivisible "atoms" of consciousness, and then collect more complex contents from them. At the same time, since these elements were of a sensory (sensual) nature, this direction of introspective psychology was characterized by a distinctly pronounced sensationalism (there are no conscious processes that cannot be derived from sensations and ultimately cannot be reduced to them). The presence in the consciousness of other - non-sensory - contents was not allowed. The sensations themselves arise without any activity on the part of the subject - as soon as the object appears before the eyes (this position can be designated as mechanism). Mechanism is also felt in the explanation of complex phenomena of consciousness arising from simple ones by establishing associative links between them. However, in the concept of W. Wundt, in addition to associative connections, apperceptive connections are also presented, however, in order to understand the essence of these connections, it is necessary to turn to the history of the emergence of these concepts in psychology.

Remember that the first device was a metronome. We listen to the metronome and fix after Wundt the natural property of consciousness is its rhythm, let's take a rhythm. Rhythm in a broader sense means the organization of impressions. Or, in another way, the connection of these impressions. After Wundt we draw an important conclusion. If consciousness can be studied with the help of introspection, then there is a model of consciousness. Consciousness can be thought of as a structure resembling a field of view. There is a periphery and a focus. This model also resembles the retina, which also has a central point and a periphery. The retina is a physiological organ. In this version, psychology is called physiological. But Wundt not a physiologist.

Lecture 4 (10.10.97) (top)

Gradually there is a transition from philosophy to psychology. Philosophy is not a science, it is the very condition for the existence and emergence of any science. Philosophy itself originated in the 6th century. BC, when the first philosophical schools began to appear. And what was before philosophy? There was myth, mythology. In the myth, and this is its undoubted merit, everything was clear and there were no problems. But it is clear in a special way. For example, lightning struck - it means Zeus was angry. Or, for example, if you hurt your leg along the way, it means that another deity punished. Any philosopher comes out of a myth in which there was a meaning. But the meaning is mythological, incorrect for us, obviously unscientific. And then the philosopher ventured to ask, “Why is there anything in the world at all?” There is something reasonable, say, why there is goodness, honor, conscience, etc. in the world. Why there is evil in the world is not necessary to explain to anyone, because everyone has their own self-interest and people, colliding with each other, sometimes harm. And in order to explain why there is good, the philosopher restores the meaning, but already a reasonable meaning - "logos", reasonable word. But all this was a long time ago, but is there mythology today? Every psychologist in real life may be a philosopher. For example, the philosopher sees the inscription "MMM-no problem." The philosopher will ask who has no problems, me? No, that predecessor who believed in spirits has no problems. Perhaps there was a queue near this inscription. People in line for vouchers have some papers, but they have no concept of money. Therefore, the philosopher warns that it may turn out that tomorrow there will not only be no more money, but they will certainly lose what they have in their hands now. The philosopher looked at the line, somewhere in the newspaper it says “Tomorrow”. These people - not philosophers, but people from the past, do not have the concept of time, not only money. They have no tomorrow, they want to live yesterday.

But we are talking about professional philosophers. Are they doing science? No. They create the conditions for the emergence of sciences, they make an effort of thought. The world is incomprehensible, but they risk understanding it. Let us suppose that a science, for example, psychology, appears. What should and can the researcher do? He not only runs the risk of asking “why?” he begins to explore and seek questions. Him "logos" not just a meaning, but a concept by which he can reason, the results can be verified by experience. A philosopher accompanies us from above, we will sometimes ask him questions and get answers. Do our concepts make sense? And which? A philosopher always has a name: Plato, Aristotle, Descartes.

Second question. Classical psychology of consciousness: facts and concepts. The structure of consciousness and its properties. The development of ideas about consciousness. Gestalt psychology . Possibilities and limitations of the introspection method.

If we study something scientifically, we have a conscious idea, a model. This means that Wundt must have a model of consciousness, hardly accurate, it is more of a metaphor. Wundt says that consciousness can be thought of as a field of view. When we look at something, we always focus on a certain point, then there is a center in consciousness. And there is the periphery. Another research question. This is the second third of the 19th century. Wundt builds psychology on the model of the natural sciences, distinguishing parts in their subject. And consciousness has objective and subjective elements. How many elements does this structure include? Or what is the scope of consciousness?

Volume of consciousness is the number of interconnected elements (simple impressions according to Wundt), which the subject currently perceives as a single whole.

Consciousness is rhythmic and therefore structural. The simplest experience using the method of identification or identification. The subject is presented with a certain set of metronome beats. Starting from 8 pairs - 16 strokes. The subject does not count them. He listened to them. After a short time, approximately the same equal set is presented, maybe a little more and a little less, or exactly the same. And we ask you to say, has it become more, less or the same? And then suppose he answers correctly. This means that he can contain this entire set as a whole in the structure of consciousness. Wundt doing experiments on different people and comes to the conclusion that the volume of consciousness in terms of quantity has a fairly large spread, from 16 to 40 elements, simple impressions. Apparently, because the elements are connected with each other in their own way. One has just a couple of blows, the other has four, and the third has its own groups of sensations that act as units. Then Wundt asks the subject to clarify the elements, to try to highlight the element itself. If the subject concentrated his inner effort in the center, the focus of consciousness, then Wundt believes that around the center there is a special area where the elements acquire special properties. This central part is called the field of attention.

And what are the properties of the elements in the focus area? Clarity and distinctness of consciousness. Clarity would require a little simple effort of introspection. First of all, it is sensual clarity. When something became clear, understandable - this is cognitive clarity. But here is another clarity - sensations. And then for an explanation we will resort to other model. This model of consciousness resembles a top hat. And if you look at it from the side, it is like a step with a base. And this model was proposed by a student of Wundt - Edward Titchener. This model is called the wave of attention. And then what is clarity? The outer border in the first model is the base in the model Titchener. And the inside is a vertical line. Attention is the main property of consciousness. Sensory clarity. If in the field of attention the elements are clear, then on the periphery they are vague. And I must say that clarity can be replaced, for example, by intensity or degree of attention.

What is distinctness? This is what happens to the elements in the field of attention itself, this is the separation of elements from similar neighboring ones. Distinctness, the ability to distinguish, the distinguishability of elements. Highlight individual metronome beats, individual letters in a word or phrase. This repeats the identification procedure.

Attention span - from 3-4 to a maximum of 6 Wundt.

attention span- this is the number of elements that the subject at a given moment (at a given time) perceives clearly and distinctly.

Is it possible to expand the scope of attention? Wundt would have said in the language of George Miller, whose number was different (7 +/- 2). The number of seats, say 6, cannot be increased. But at each place, in principle, you can form another unit. And then it must be said that the formation of other units of consciousness in classical psychology means somehow linking the elements together. And connections are associations. For example, you can link objects that are observed simultaneously in space - this is a spatial association. Elements that follow each other sequentially in time - temporal association. Elements are related in meaning, like letters in a word - a semantic association. There are associations based on the similarity of objects, or, on the contrary, on contrasting differences. There are many ways to link elements together.

It is sometimes said that teaching Wundt And Titchener is associationism. And you can say it differently. Associationism arose long before Wundt. There were many associates. And if we're talking about Wundte, then we want to name the concept that he considered basic. Wundt he will say that consciousness is certainly a structure, but it is not static, forces act, the structure can change. Say, according to the model, there are forces that pull outward or towards the center. If there is a focus of consciousness, then we are interested in central forces and they have two names, which the model suggests.

The outer boundary of the volume of consciousness. And then something is beyond that boundary. But we are inside the volume and we do not perceive what is there. On the periphery operate on Wundt perceptual powers. If something attracts attention, it crosses the border. But what happens at the inner border? Forces are at work here too. This is the basic concept Wundt apperception, apperceptive forces. They seem to control our attention, it is they who allow us to expand, or rather change the amount of attention. Apperception has several definitions.

Apperception is the process by which the elements of consciousness become clear and distinct. That is, this attention is not as a state of clear and distinct consciousness, but attention as a process.

Second. Apperception is the process of transformation (for example, enlargement) of units of consciousness. And then small the simplest example just to understand what apperception is.

The essence of experience. In German, there are words consisting of a large number of letters, more than 6 or even 10-12. Such a word is taken and the subject is asked to highlight individual elements, that is, to achieve clarity and distinctness of each letter. Thus, each letter is presented in turn. And sometime the volume of attention overflows and the last letter pushes out the first one, and so on. And, as a rule, at this moment the subject suddenly realizes that this is not a set of letters, but a word, the letters are interconnected in meaning and, as soon as he understands this, all the elements (both those that have almost fallen and those that have not yet were presented), fall up in the model Titchener(or to the center, in the model Wundt). The power of attention enlarged the element of consciousness.

And then the concept of apperception can be supplemented. Apperception according to the result, according to what the subject in this case can observe in himself - this is clarity and distinctness (in the center, with objective side). But on the subjective side (feelings, but not in the sense of sensory, but in the sense of emotionality), this was expressed in different ways, some displeasure at first, but if this continues, then there is a feeling of activity, a feeling of effort, internal introspective work.