The idea of ​​nurturing education and f herbart. Herbart I.F. General Pedagogy Derived from Purpose. Psychological views of Herbart

TOPICS ON THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY OF EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGICAL THOUGHT"

Teacher: Mychko Elena Iosivovna.

Johann Friedrich Herbart

Birthplace: Oldenburg, Germany

place of death: Göttingen, Germany

Johann Friedrich Herbart (German: Johann Friedrich Herbart, May 4, 1776, Oldenburg - August 14, 1841, Göttingen) was a German philosopher, psychologist, teacher. One of the founders scientific pedagogy.

Biography

Born in Oldenburg. Herbart was educated first at the Latin classical school and then at the University of Jena. He got acquainted with the teachings of the representatives of the German classical philosophy of Kant, Fichte, but the teaching of the ancient philosopher Parmenides that everything in the world is one and unchanging had a great influence on him. After graduating from university, Herbart became a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. In 1800 he visited the Burgdorf Pestalozzi Institute. However, the democratic orientation of the views of the great teacher was not mastered by him. Since 1802, Herbart worked at the University of Göttingen and Königsberg as a professor. In them, he launched a broad pedagogical activity: he lectured on psychology and pedagogy, led a seminary for the training of teachers. He died in 1841 in Göttingen.

Psychological ideas

The founder of empirical psychology in Germany. Opposed Wolff's ability theory. Herbart was a supporter of associative psychology and sought to build a psychology based primarily on experience: its subject should be facts, phenomena of consciousness. To turn psychology into a true science, Herbart considered it necessary to use mathematics, tried to use it to explain the statics and dynamics of representations, which, according to Herbart, are elements of consciousness. According to Herbart, consciousness has three areas: the clarity of consciousness, consciousness and the unconscious, between which there are non-rigid boundaries, called thresholds by Herbart. The term "repression", used by Herbart to denote the transition of representation into the unconscious, was then widely used in psychoanalysis. Herbart also singled out the conditions for the transition of ideas from the unconscious to consciousness: the strength of the idea itself and the number of connections of this idea with past experience (the process of “supporting” the idea from past experience Herbart called apperception).

Philosophical and psychological foundations of pedagogy

He derived the goals of education from philosophy. With the help of psychology, he substantiated ways to achieve these goals. Developed an aesthetic theory. Flattened the process mental activity to mechanical combinations of representations. Introduced the concept of apperception into science.

Ideas in the field of education

Pedagogy was understood as the science of the art of education, able to strengthen and defend the existing system. The purpose of education is the formation of a virtuous person who knows how to adapt to existing relationships respecting the established legal order. The goal of upbringing is achieved by the development of the versatility of interests and the creation on this basis of an integral moral character, guided by 5 moral ideas: inner freedom, perfection, goodwill, law, justice. Tasks of moral education: 1. Keep the pupil; 2. Determine the pupil; 3. Establish clear rules of conduct; 4. Do not give grounds for the pupil to doubt the truth; 5. Excite the soul of the child with approval and censure. Herbart lacks labor education - he sought to educate a thinker, not a doer. He paid great attention to religious education. Religious interest in children should be aroused as early as possible and constantly developed. Religion requires a sense of humility and is necessary as a deterrent.

Introduced the concept of "educational education" into pedagogy. Educational teaching should not separate the communication of knowledge from the awakening of the student's intellectual self-activity. It is this last property, and not the question of pure knowledge or its usefulness, that determines the point of view that educative teaching should adhere to. It can be argued that it was Herbart who introduced the concept of “educational education” into pedagogy, which, as it were, summed up the long search for pedagogical thought in this direction. Outlining his thoughts on educative education, Herbart tried to separate the logic of education from the logic of education, proceeding from the fact that teaching should be carried out in two directions: “upward”, revealing to the pupil “the most beautiful and worthy”, and in the opposite direction, analyzing reality from its perspective. “disadvantages and needs” in order to prepare the pupil to meet them. Thus, it can be argued that Herbart's understanding of educative education proceeded from the fact that upbringing and education, specific in their functions, are interconnected and interact dialectically with each other.

With all the shortcomings of the one-sided psychological substantiation of the idea of ​​educative education, its undoubted merit lay in the fact that Herbart strove to consider mental life as a whole. He proceeded from the fact that the teaching method should be based on psychological principles, since all personality development takes place from within. It was in this direction that all his didactic searches went. There are sufficient grounds to assert that the experimental psychology associated with the name of Herbart and his ideas of educative education were milestone on the path of theoretical development of the foundations school education and education in late XIX- early XX century.

Ideas for learning

Learning objectives. Development in children of multilateral interest, which is associated with the teaching of all subjects, their selection and teaching methods. He highly appreciated the study of literature, history, ancient languages, and mathematics. The tasks of managing children: disciplining children, streamlining their actions and desires, suppressing the wild playfulness of the child. Types of schools: elementary, city, gymnasium. According to Herbart, the basis of learning is interest. Types of interests: empirical, speculative, aesthetic, social, religious. Methods of managing children: Basic - threat, supervision, orders, prohibitions, punishments, corporal punishment; auxiliary - authority, love. Types of learning: 1. Descriptive - to identify the experience of the child and supplement it; 2. Analytical - to correct and improve the student's thoughts; 3. Synthetic - building a coherent system of thought.

Steps of learning: 1. Clarity - deepening in a state of rest. The student's attention is mobilized. New material is being introduced; 2. Association - deepening into a state of movement. Children are waiting. A connection is established between the old and the new; 3. System - search for conclusions, definitions, laws based on new knowledge associated with old ideas. Children search - generalize, draw conclusions, determine; 4. Method - awareness in a state of motion, application of the acquired knowledge to new facts, phenomena, events. Children apply knowledge and skills. Herbart noted that pedagogical work is carried out more successfully if it is preceded by the mastery of pedagogical theory. The art of education is acquired in everyday life. pedagogical activity.

aesthetic theory

Herbart was the founder of formal aesthetics, usually opposed to Hegel's substantive aesthetics. Beautiful, according to I.F. Herbart, lies in the formal relationships of symmetry, proportions, rhythm, harmony, which are the source of aesthetic pleasure. Based on psychological ideas about the interaction of ideas, I.F. Herbart developed an aesthetic theory. Complex aesthetic experiences caused by a work of art or natural phenomena are based on the interaction of the ratios of formal elements, on the harmonic ratios of tones, rhythms, proportions, colors. These relationships can be expressed mathematically, which allows you to accurately associate the sense of beauty with certain formal relationships between elements. artwork. Of all the arts, music lends itself to such a description to the greatest extent. M.M. Bakhtin writes: “I.F. Herbart put forward a programmatic thesis: the beautiful is not an idea, not a content, but a property of the form itself; the form, on the other hand, is determined by the internal connection, the structural organization of the parts. Idealism, Herbart taught, underestimates the independence of the form in the face of content, but this means - underestimates the visibility, the surface of phenomena in comparison with their inner, spiritual content. This means that it is not these or other ideally meaningful moments that create the beautiful as a whole, but the formative relationships of these moments among themselves. In the historical and philosophical plan, Herbart and his school outlined a direction of thinking leading beyond the limits of speculative-metaphysical aesthetics.According to I.F. Herbart, the aesthetic form is determined by the relations inherent in any object; the essence of beauty is in relations.

I.F. Herbart writes about aesthetics: “There is still a class of concepts that coincide with those previously mentioned in that, in relation to them, thinking cannot be limited to a simple logical reduction to distinctness (Verdeutlichung); they differ in that they do not require changes, like the above [concepts], but bring with them such an addition to our representation (Vorstellen), which consists in judgments of approval or disapproval. The science of such concepts is aesthetics. By its origin, it is connected with the knowledge of the given only insofar as it prompts us to imagine concepts that, quite independently of their reality, arouse approval or dissatisfaction. But in relation to this, aesthetics passes into a series of teachings about art (Kunstlehren), which, without exception, can be called practical sciences, because they indicate how certain subject the one who deals with them, so that not discontent is generated, but, on the contrary, a sense of satisfaction. However, among the teachings of art there is one whose prescriptions require obligatory observance, for we ourselves, without realizing it, are constantly the subject of this teaching. That is, this subject is ourselves, and the named doctrine is the doctrine of virtue, which, in relation to our manifestations, turns into deeds and opportunities, into the doctrine of duties. ”Aesthetic ideas of I.F. Herbart were developed by R. Zimmerman, E. Hanslik, A. Riegl, G. T. Fechner. Zimmerman assessed all aesthetic constructions, from Plato to Herbart, from the point of view of the position that the fundamental principle of beauty in art is form, not content. In this, as in the understanding of form, he follows Herbart. Alois Riegl transformed Herbart's aesthetic into his own philosophy of style, by which he understands "the relationship in which the parts are to each other and to the whole." Herbart's ideas are developed in the psychological aesthetics of G.T. Fechner.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozii

Pestalozzi was born in 1746 in Switzerland, in Zurich, in the family of a doctor. His mother and devoted maid had a great influence on his upbringing.

In his youth, Pestalozzi was a member of a circle whose members were engaged in exposing officials who robbed the peasants.

In 1769 he borrowed money and bought a small estate. In it, Pestalozzi wanted to organize a demonstration farm in order to teach the surrounding peasants how to properly manage their farm. But he soon went bankrupt due to impracticality.

After 5 years on this farm, he opened the "Institution for the Poor". He soon closed this institution due to lack of funds.

For the next eighteen years, Pestalozzi wrote books. In them, he develops his ideas about improving the lives of peasants.

In the city of Stanza, the government instructed Pestalozzi to organize educational institution for homeless children.

Pestalozzi was the head of this orphanage, teacher, treasurer, janitor and nurse all rolled into one.

Since 1799, Pestalozzi worked in the schools of Burgdorf.

In the very early XIX century, his works were published: “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children”, “The Book of Mothers, or a Guide for Mothers on How to Teach Their Children to Observe and Speak”, “The ABC of Visualization, or the Visual Teaching about Measurement”, “The Visual Teaching about Number” , which outlined new methods of primary education, "Letter to a friend about staying in the Stanz." In 1805, the authorities granted Pestalozzi a castle in Yverdon, in which he created a large institute. This institution soon gained worldwide fame. In 1825, Pestalozzi returned to his farm, where he had begun his teaching career 50 years earlier. He was already 80 years old. Here he wrote his last work - "Swan Song". He died two years later. On the tombstone was written: "Everything for others, nothing for yourself." Of his many undertakings, Pestalozzi did not derive any benefit. With royalties from the publication of books, he built schools for the poor. He had almost no property. Nothing but worldwide fame.

The idea of ​​developmental education and elementary education of Pestalocia

I upbringing

The basis of education is human nature

The purpose of education is to develop all the natural forces and abilities of a person.

The task of education is the creation of a harmoniously developed person

The basic principle of education is harmony with nature

Means of education - work, play, learning

Both skills and dexterity are acquired - through visibility

Basic principles- strict sequence, concentricity, feasibility.

Developing the ideas of the developing school education and elementary education, Pestalozzi was one of the founders of the concept of developing education: teaching subjects were considered by him, in his words, more as a means of purposeful "development of abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge.

Adolf Diesterweg

Biography

Adolf Diesterweg was born in the small industrial town of Siegen in Westphalia. In 1808 he entered the University of Herborn, where he studied mathematics, philosophy and history, and then transferred to the University of Tübingen.

In 1831-1841 he created four teachers' societies in Berlin, and in 1848 he was elected chairman of the "General German Teachers' Union".

Diesterweg developed the didactics of developmental education, formulating its basic requirements in the form of 33 laws and rules.

Philosophical worldview

Adolf Diesterweg, rejecting the revolutionary way of changing social relations, pinned his hopes on the peaceful transformation of society and especially on the enlightenment of the people.

He accepted the humanism of Lessing, Herder, Schiller, Goethe. The roots of his worldview are in the educational and humanistic literature of the 18th century.

Didactic rules

v Learning rules related to the student, to the subject.

v Learning rules regarding educational material, object.

v Learning rules according to external conditions, time, place, position, etc.

v Rules of instruction concerning the teacher

v “All true learning has a moral, character-developing power… Cognition of the truth is reflected in the way of thinking, beliefs and behavior, on all sides of the character… The whole being of a person, under the influence of training, is imbued with mental and moral development.”

Reforms of Peter I

Russian education in the 18th century is entirely connected with the grandiose personality of Peter I, the great reformer, who attached paramount state importance to education. In his circulars, he demanded that the subjects "as far as possible, teach children to read and write." In addition to the alphabet, it was recommended to use the Book of Hours and the Psalter. There was a special demand from the nobles: their children had to teach foreign languages and other sciences. Peter considered the development of a European-oriented, secular education as the most important component of his reforms. In this regard, it was decided to open public schools for the preparation educated people noblemen, merchants and the top tenants.

Thanks to Peter, a system arose in Russia vocational education. In 1701, navigation, Pushkar, hospital, command and other schools were created, which were under the jurisdiction of the relevant state bodies. On August 27, 1701, the first state school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened in Moscow. It recruited 180 first volunteers, among whom were teenagers 12-17 years old. There were also several adults - twenty-year-old students. Education at the school was free. Moreover, poor students (and such students were also accepted into the school) received from her a cash allowance for food. This school trained shipbuilders, captains and teachers for other schools.

"Navigation school" was located in the Sukharevskaya tower. Classes began with the study of literacy. The very first subjects were Russian literacy and arithmetic. Depending on the social background of their parents, students received a different education. Strict discipline was introduced at the "Navigation School", and students were fined for absenteeism. Those who graduated from school went to serve in the navy, artillery, and the best students were sent abroad to continue their education.

Graduates of Navigation, Engineering, Medical, Artillery schools, opened in Moscow by nominal decrees of Peter 1, receiving not only

general, but also vocational education, occupied leading positions in civil and military service became active reformers. Among them - the author of the first "Arithmetic" L.F. Magnitsky, publicist I.S. Pososhkov, the first Russian doctor of medicine and philosophy P.V. Postnikov and many other "chicks of Petrov's nest".

The Petrine era created unique opportunities for the personal growth of talented people from the people; the development of general literacy and spirituality was seen as a priority state task, education was welcomed in every possible way. So, in Moscow, in the chambers of the boyar V.F. Naryshkin on Pokrovka at the beginning of 1705, a school was established for the children of "boyars and roundabouts, and duma, and neighbors, and all the service and merchant ranks ...".

In 1714, a decree was issued on universal educational service for children of all classes (except peasants). It was decided: without a certificate of completion of training, “do not allow marriage and do not give crown memories.”

By 1722, 42 so-called "digital schools" were opened in different cities of Russia, providing initial education mathematics. Humanitarian education was provided by theological schools, teachers for which were trained by the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

By 1725 there were about 50 diocesan schools. The number of students in digital schools decreased due to the opening of diocesan schools, where almost all the children of priests and deacons moved, and the unwillingness of the "townspeople" (merchants and artisans) to send their children to digital schools (they preferred to teach the craft). Therefore, the main contingent of digital schools became soldiers' children and children of clerks, and some schools had to be closed.

Peter's favorite brainchild was the Academy of Sciences. She established the first Russian university in St. Petersburg, and at the university - a gymnasium. This whole system, created by Peter, began to operate after his death - in 1726. Professors were invited mainly from Germany - among the professors there were celebrities of the European level, for example, mathematicians Bernoulli and Euler. There were very few students at the university at first. They were mostly children of nobles or foreigners living in Russia; however, scholarships and special places for "state-funded" students (studied at the expense of the state) were soon introduced. Among the state students were raznochintsy, and even peasants (for example, M.V. Lomonosov). The children of soldiers, artisans and peasants also studied at the gymnasium, but they were usually limited to the lower (junior) classes.

In 1755, a similar university with two gymnasiums attached to him (for nobles and for raznochintsy) was opened in Moscow. The course of the noble gymnasium included Russian, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, geography, brief philosophy and foreign languages; in the gymnasium for raznochintsy they taught mainly arts, music, singing, painting, and technical sciences.

In 1732, garrison schools arose, giving not only elementary military, but also elementary mathematical and engineering education. Some of the spiritual ("episcopal") schools expanded their course at the expense of the "middle" and "higher" classes and began to be called "seminaries". In addition to literacy, they studied grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and theology.

It is to Peter that we owe the introduction of the civil alphabet, which we still use today, and the first translations into Russian of Western European textbooks, primarily in natural, mathematical and technical subjects - astronomy, fortification, etc. In the 1111th century, the Printing House, which received the name "Moscow Printing House" under Peter 1, still played a significant role in Moscow education.

She printed various calendars and alphabets, books of hours and psalms. The set was no longer Slavic, but Russian letters. Textbooks, especially ABCs, were in first place among secular books published in Moscow. From September to December 1714, 1525 alphabets were sold in the city, for the whole next year - 9796, and in 1716 - more than five thousand. Calendars were published in record circulations, only for one year 1709 - 7200.

Peter 1 was keenly interested in the affairs of education, paying special attention to the education of respectable and diligent subjects, loyal patriots. Under his personal control, the "Honest Mirror of Youth" was printed and distributed in a huge edition, this wonderful monument of national pedagogical culture, filled with fatherly advice on many issues. It became the most popular home reading in noble families.

Peter dreamed of creating a unified non-class education system. In fact, the system he created turned out to be not unified ( professional school- spiritual school), and not out of class. The task was not set general education, it was given in passing, as a part and condition of vocational education. But this system played a gigantic role in the development Russian education, "writing" it into the European education system.

MAIN RESULTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL REFORM OF PETER I

A system of vocational education emerged

A large number of schools were opened - digital, garrison, diocesan schools, Navigation, Artillery, Engineering schools, etc.

· Young nobles are sent abroad to study

Study has become one of the types public service

The content of education has changed: in the first place - not church, but secular sciences

Secular textbooks are created, and the first printed newspaper Vedomosti is published

Founded in 1714 the first library

The first museum was created - the Kunstkamera in 1714 in St. Petersburg

Established the Academy of Sciences in 1725

Develops domestic science: Russian inventions are introduced, geographical, geological and other expeditions are organized

4. Number (arithmetic) schools

At the beginning of the XVIII century. the government of Peter I made the first attempt to create a network of state educational institutions throughout Russia primary schools, which would give students knowledge in reading, writing, arithmetic, prepare them for the state secular and military service, to work in factories and shipyards, to study at vocational schools. Organization general education schools was carried out through the Military, Admiralty and other colleges, magistrates, as well as the church, which had at its disposal the necessary means for this (premises, teachers, well-known pedagogical experience). State schools for teaching children literacy and arithmetic were created at bishops' houses, at shipyards, mining plants, and military units.

The first schools of this type were opened on the initiative of A. A. Kurbatov in 1711 in Arkhangelsk, where he served as vice-governor.

On February 28, 1714, Peter I issued a decree on the opening in all provinces at the bishops' houses and in large monasteries of numbers, or arithmetic schools, in which it was necessary "to teach numbers and some part of geometry." This act introduced compulsory education for "noble and clerk ranks, deacon and clerk children from 10 to 15 years old." Soon, the children of the clergy and merchants began to be involved in teaching in digital schools.

Pupils of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences and the Naval Academy were used to teach in the digital schools that were being opened.

The organization of schools ran into great obstacles. The surviving extensive correspondence on this issue suggests that it was perceived by many as a heavy burden. Local authorities often refused to provide premises for them and allocate funds for the maintenance of teachers.

Great difficulties also arose with the recruitment of students, since parents, most often noblemen, refused to send boys to schools that were at a great distance from their place of residence. The cruel disciplinary measures applied in schools also did not favor children and parents. Teachers were asked to issue to students at the end of the school "certified letters in their own hands" and to ensure that without such evidence they were not given "married memories" (that is, permission to marry).

Harsh measures did not bring the desired results, and digital school teachers constantly complained about the lack of students. One estate after another asked the king for release from compulsory service to teach their sons in new schools. In 1716, noble children were exempted from compulsory education in digital schools. In 1720, petitions began to come from different cities about the release of the children of the townspeople from compulsory education in digital schools. Peter I granted the request of the merchants and ordered that the townspeople's children be accepted into teaching only at the request of their parents. At the same time, Peter I in the “Regulations of the Chief Magistrate” (1721) demanded not to neglect public schools, to provide them with all kinds of assistance and the magistrates of all cities to take care of the maintenance of small schools for teaching children to read, write and arithmetic.

Number of children to be compulsory education in digital schools, everything was decreasing. In 1722, in connection with the publication of the "Spiritual Regulations" (1721) and the organization of bishops' schools, the Senate was instructed to educate the children of the clergy in these new schools.

Thus, in the end, all classes, with the exception of those who were called raznochintsy, were exempted from the mandatory sending of children to digital schools.

Digital schools failed to establish themselves. They did not receive support in the circles of the nobility and the clergy, who sought to isolate their children from other classes. For the townspeople, the schools were very inconvenient, as they were far from shopping centers and towns, there were no hostels and boarding schools with them. These schools did not have sufficient funds to support teachers and students. Rough coercive measures used in recruitment to schools and in the process of education also created a negative attitude towards them.

Although digital schools could not establish themselves as the main type of Russian school, they were nevertheless important in the development of Russian pedagogy. They were the first secular public schools in the provincial part of Russia. Their network was relatively extensive. They taught arithmetic, elementary geometry, geography. The experience of digital schools served as the basis for organizing academic work secular schools of other types - Admiralty garrison and mining. Many teachers of digital schools went to work in these schools and continued to work fruitfully in the field of primary education.

The first Admiralty Russian school was opened in St. Petersburg in 1719. In the same year, similar schools were opened in Kronstadt and Revel, and then (about 1720) in Tavrov and at the St. Petersburg Particular Shipyard (1722).

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the first schools that trained skilled workers and craftsmen also arose. These were mining schools. The first of them was opened in 1716 on the initiative of the commandant of the Olonetsk province V. I. Gennin at the Petrovsky plant - on the territory of Karelia. The Admiralty College sent its first students to the school for training - 20 teenagers from poor noble families. Even before the opening of this school, in the same place, at the Olonets Plants, they taught mining to young men mobilized by the government to work at mining plants, as well as 12 pupils "from the lower ranks" of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in blast furnace, blacksmithing and anchor skills. The children of the settlers of the new Petrovskaya Sloboda also studied at the Petrozavodsk school. At school, in addition to writing and reading, arithmetic, geometry, artillery, and mining were studied.

Several mining schools were created in the Urals by VN Tatishchev. Working as the head of the Main Directorate of Siberian and Kazan state-owned factories, he was in the 20s. created digital and "verbal" mining schools at the Ural state factories. Yekaterinburg became the main center of mining education in the Urals. Children of the lower ranks and working people were admitted to these schools. The students were trained in factories.

The garrison, admiralty, mining schools of the Urals and the Olonets factories were further developed in the second quarter of the 18th century. They played a positive role in spreading literacy and technical knowledge among the lower classes, in training personnel for the army and navy, construction and industrial enterprises.

8. Figures in the field of education

F.S. Saltykov’s educational organization project

One of the representatives of pedagogical thought in the first quarter of the 18th century. there was also Fyodor Stepanovich Saltykov, a relative of Peter I, a supporter of the reforms in Russia. In 1711, Peter I sent him to England and Holland to buy ships for the Russian fleet. From England, F.S. Saltykov sent two notes to Peter I - "Propositions" and "Statements that are profitable for the state." In these notes, he proposed to develop industry and trade with the help of merchant companies, build factories and plants, organize fairs, and expand trade relations with other countries.

The author of the notes insisted on the widespread dissemination of education and recommended the establishment of higher education in all provinces. educational establishments 2,000 students each. According to his plan, children of the nobility, merchants and "all sorts of different people" will study in them. An extensive program was planned for the academies: foreign languages, grammar, rhetoric, poetics, philosophy, theology, history, arithmetic, geometry, navigation, fortification, artillery, mechanics, statics, hydrostatics, optics, architecture, geography. It was also proposed to teach "to ride horses, fight with swords and dance."

One of the first in Russia, F.S. Saltykov raised the question of organizing women's education, proposing "to teach women's schools in all provinces and turn women's monasteries to this end." In schools to train girls from 6 to 15 years old. The program of women's schools was significantly inferior to the academies, limited to reading, writing, arithmetic, French and German, drawing, music, singing and dancing. In addition to teachers in women's schools, it was proposed to have special guards who would teach schoolgirls external manners and rules of behavior.

F.S. Saltykov also proposed to organize solid libraries in each province.

The project of organizing school education by F.S. Saltykov, which did not take into account the real possibilities of the state and the peculiarities of Russia at that time, could not be implemented, but it is evidence of the relatively broad aspirations of the leading representatives of the nobility in the organization of education.

Pedagogical statements of I. T. Pososhkov

Well-known publicist and economist of the first quarter of the 18th century. Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (1652-1726) was the son of a craftsman, silversmith in the village of Pokrovsky near Moscow; studied engraving and carpentry, had a distillery, made attempts to organize the production of sulfur, paints, invented a machine for minting copper money, and made an improvement in firearms. He was engaged in all kinds of commercial transactions and by the end of his life he became a merchant and landowner.I. T. Pososhkov was well acquainted with the extensive chronicle literature, with many foreign historical and geographical books, had extensive knowledge of mathematics for his time. He sharply reacted to all issues that arose in the public life of Russia. early XVIII V. An ardent supporter of the transformation and development of domestic industry, I. T. Pososhkov firmly believed in the great opportunities of his people. He is the author of such works as “A Letter on the Money Matter”, “On Military Conduct”, “The Obvious Mirror”, “Paternal Testament to His Son”, “The Book of Poverty and Wealth”. The last work contains a project of reforms aimed at turning Russia into an independent, strong, cultural and wealthy country. The issues of education and upbringing in I. T. Pososhkov are integral part his socio-economic projects.

The legacy of the great German teacher, original philosopher, psychologist Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776 - 1841) in the Soviet historical and pedagogical literature was assessed ambiguously. His significant contribution to the development of pedagogy was recognized as scientific discipline, the profound influence of his ideas on the development of pedagogical thought in the 19th century, on the improvement of general secondary education. At the same time, the "bourgeois-class" character, "reactionary", "conservatism", "authoritarianism" of his pedagogical system were emphasized. Meanwhile, it was Herbart who in the 19th century was a worthy successor to the humanistic pedagogical tradition, orienting the theory of general education towards the development of a cultural moral personality, individuality.
Having become acquainted with the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, Herbart visited the Burdorf Institute (1800), which was led by a Swiss teacher and for a long time remained impressed by what he saw. He devoted his first pedagogical work to Pestalozzi, however, he solved many issues of his pedagogical theory differently.
Herbart's pedagogical activity began in his youth, when he became a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. After graduating from the University of Jena in 1802, he worked as a teacher at the University of Göttingen and Königsberg as a professor, lectured on pedagogy and psychology, led a teacher's seminary and taught mathematics there.
Herbart's worldview was formed in line with the German Enlightenment and classical German philosophy (Lessing, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Kant, Fichte, Hegel, etc.).
The German teacher made an attempt to develop a system of pedagogical science based on idealistic philosophy, mainly ethics and psychology. In his worldview, he was a metaphysician and argued that the world consists of an infinite number of eternal entities - reals that are inaccessible to human knowledge.
The main pedagogical ideas of Herbart are presented in his works: “General Pedagogy Derived from the Purposes of Education” (1806), “Textbook of Psychology” (1816), “Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy” (1831), “Essay on Lectures on Pedagogy” (1835). ). His works are distinguished by the thoroughness of the study of the issues under study, rationality and fundamentality. He sought to turn pedagogy into a science and give it the most rigorous character. “It would be better,” wrote Herbart, if pedagogy developed its own concepts as accurately as possible and encouraged independent thinking more in order to become the center of a separate field of thinking and not be on the margins of other sciences.
Pedagogy as a science depended for Herbart on practical philosophy, that is, ethics and psychology. The first indicates the goal of education, the second - the way and means of achieving it, and also warns of possible obstacles in moving towards the goal.
Pedagogy Herbart understood as the science of the art of education, which should strengthen and defend the existing system. Herbart had a negative attitude towards the French bourgeois revolution and dreamed that upheavals and turmoil would be replaced by "a stable order and a measured and orderly life."
Following Pestalozzi, who sought to find elements in every complex phenomenon, Herbart decomposed human mental activity into its component parts and tried to isolate the element that is the simplest, primary. Herbart considered representation to be such a simple element. He believed that all mental functions (emotions, will, thinking, imagination, etc.) are modified representations.
Feelings, according to Herbart, are nothing like delayed ideas. When there is a harmony of ideas in the soul, a feeling of pleasant arises, and when ideas are inharmonious with each other, a feeling of unpleasant arises. Therefore, by influencing the child's ideas, it is possible to exert a corresponding influence on the formation of his consciousness, feelings, will, that is, properly delivered training has an educative character.
Herbarn proposed two terms that have become firmly established in modern psychology: association (reciprocal occurrence of one or more mental processes on the appearance of the other associated with it) and apperception (conditionality of the content of new ideas by the supply of existing ones). He also singled out involuntary attention and voluntary attention.
Herbart understands the process of education as a whole broadly and divides it into three sections: management, training and moral education.
Management has as its goal not the future of the child, but only the maintenance of order at the present time and distracting them from pranks and stupidities. It is designed to suppress the "wild playfulness of the child." The main means of control are: threat, supervision, orders, prohibitions, punishments up to the use of corporal punishment. Herbart considered authority and love as auxiliary means of control.
In order for children who violate the established rules of behavior not to be left without punishment, Herbart proposed introducing the so-called penalty book, where all the types of punishments used were detailed and developed in detail. Soon this book became widespread and began to be used in many countries of the world, including Russia.
The limitations of Herbart's views lay in the fact that he tore management away from moral education and considered management only as a condition of education. He considered discipline only as a means of putting things in order, while in fact discipline is not only a means, but the result of education.
In learning theory, Herbart sought to develop the ideas of Pestalozzi. He wanted to find some specific sequence educational process and divide it into elementary parts. Thus, the division of the learning process into teaching and learning, the development of formal levels of education represented a certain stage in the development of didactics.
The learning process according to Herbart must necessarily go through deepening into the material being studied, understanding it by students, on the basis of multilateral interest. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of education is to excite students' interest in learning, which appears as a result of studying ancient history, literature, ancient languages, is the most important condition and means of successful learning. The German teacher gave many recommendations and didactic advice on how to keep students interested and attentive to learning.
Herbart identified six main types of interests. According to Herbart, some of them are aimed at understanding the surrounding reality, others - public life.
1. Empirical interest answers the question - "What is it?" and develops the desire for observation.
2. Speculative interest answers the question "Why is this so?" and leads to reflection.
3. Aesthetic interest provides an artistic assessment of phenomena.
4. Sympathetic interest is directed to members of his family and the closest circle of acquaintances.
5. Social interest is aimed at society, its people and all of humanity.
6. Religious interest is directed to communion with God.
One of the key points of Herbart's pedagogical theory is the theory of learning stages he proposed.
The learning process according to Herbart necessarily goes through two stages - deepening into the material and awareness of the material being studied. Due to the state in which these stages are carried out (the state of peace of the soul, or the state of movement of the soul), Herbart proposed four stages of learning: clarity, association, system and method.
At the first stage, which is called "clarity", the initial acquaintance of students with new material is carried out, based on the widespread use of visualization. (This is a recess in the resting state of the soul).
At the second stage, which is called "association", students establish a connection between new ideas and existing ideas. (This is a recess in the state of movement of the soul).
At the third stage, which is called the “system”, studying new material, students, under the guidance of a teacher, highlight the main provisions, formulate rules and laws. (This is awareness in the state of rest of the soul).
At the fourth stage, which is called the "method", in the process of performing exercises to consolidate the material, students develop certain skills and abilities, and the knowledge gained is firmly assimilated and applied in practice. (This is awareness in motion).
Herbart was a proponent of classical education. He believed that the study of classical languages, mathematics, history and literature develops the thinking of students. This idea was the basis of education in the classical educational institutions of Europe in the 19th century.
Herbart's great merit in the history of pedagogical thought is his development of the theory of educative education. According to the teacher, "education without moral education is a means without an end, and moral education ... without education is an end devoid of means."
Herbart proposed an original system of moral education. The purpose of moral education is the formation of the will and character of the future member of society. Moral education, according to Herbart, is based on five moral ideas:
- the idea of ​​inner freedom, which makes a person whole;
- the idea of ​​perfection, giving inner harmony;
- the idea of ​​benevolence, which consists in coordinating the will of one person with the will of other people;
- the idea of ​​law applied in case of conflict of several positions;
- the idea of ​​justice, which serves as a guide for punishment or encouragement.
A person, according to the German teacher, who has absorbed these ideas and is guided by them in life, will never come into conflict with the outside world and himself.
Religion plays a decisive role in moral education. Herbart recommended awakening religious interest in children from early childhood. He believed that religion can be a kind of deterrent and inspire the individual with a sense of dependence and subordination from "higher" forces.
In the system of moral education, Herbart puts forward the following tasks:
- set clear boundaries for children's behavior;
- to form the child's own experience, which will not allow to behave immorally;
- formulate clear rules of conduct;
- not to give the pupil a reason for him to doubt the truth, to maintain peace and clarity in his soul;
- "excite" the soul of the child with approval and censure;
- to exhort the pupil, pointing out his mistakes and correct them.
The educator must necessarily find in the pupil even a neglected positive features and cultivate them as, Herbart believed, "even one spark can ignite another."
The pedagogical views of Johann Friedrich Herbart became widespread after his death. The followers of Herbart formed a whole scientific direction in pedagogy - "Herbartianism", and his theory largely determined the further development of the Western European school and pedagogy.

N.A. Konstantinov, E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva

Biographical information.

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was born in Germany, which at that time was a backward, fragmented state, a stronghold of reaction against bourgeois revolutions.

“In Prussia, and in Germany in general, the landowner did not let go of hegemony during all the time of the bourgeois revolutions, and he “educated” the bourgeoisie in his own image and likeness,” wrote V. I. Lenin.

Herbart was educated first at a Latin classical school and then at the University of Jena. He got acquainted with the teachings of the representatives of the German classical philosophy of Kant, Fichte, but the teaching of the ancient philosopher Parmenides that everything in the world is one and unchanging had a great influence on him.

After graduating from university, Herbart became a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. In 1800 he visited the Burgdorf Pestalozzi Institute. However, the democratic orientation of the views of the great teacher was not mastered by him.

Since 1802, Herbart worked at the University of Göttingen and Königsberg as a professor. In them, he launched a broad pedagogical activity: he lectured on psychology and pedagogy, led a seminary for the training of teachers.

At the seminary, he created an experimental school in which he himself taught mathematics to students.

Herbart's pedagogical ideas were developed in his books: "General Pedagogy Deduced from the Purposes of Education" (1806), "Textbook of Psychology" (1816), "Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy" (1831), "Essay on Lectures on Pedagogy" (1835). ).

Philosophical and psychological foundations of Herbart's pedagogy.

Herbart made an attempt to develop a system of pedagogical science based on idealistic philosophy, mainly ethics and psychology. In his worldview, Herbart was a metaphysician. He argued that the world consists of an infinite number of eternal entities - reals, which are inaccessible to human knowledge. The idea of ​​people about the variability of the world, he said, is illusory, being, the essence of being are unchanged.

Herbart had a negative attitude towards the French bourgeois revolution and the progressive movement that arose under its influence in the advanced strata of German society. He dreamed of the time when the upheavals and changes would end, they would be replaced by "a stable order and a measured and orderly life." He sought through his activities in the field of philosophical sciences (he included psychology, ethics and pedagogy) to contribute to the establishment of such a stable life order.

Herbart derived his understanding of the essence of education from idealistic philosophy, and the goal of education from ethics. Herbart developed an extremely metaphysical ethical theory. Public and personal morality rests, according to him, on eternal and unchanging moral ideas. These ideas constitute, according to Herbart, the basis of a non-class, universal morality, which was supposed to strengthen the social relations and moral norms that dominated the Prussian monarchy. The psychological doctrine of Herbart, based on idealistic and metaphysical philosophy, is generally anti-scientific, but some of his statements in the field of psychology are of a certain scientific interest.

Following Pestolozzi, who sought to find its elements in any complex phenomenon, Herbart decomposed human mental activity into its component parts and tried to isolate the element that is the simplest, primary. Herbart considered representation to be such a simple element. He incorrectly asserted that all human mental functions: emotion, will, thinking, imagination, etc., are modified representations.

Herbart considered psychology to be the science of representations, their appearance, combinations, and disappearance. He believed that the human soul does not initially have any properties. The content of human consciousness is determined by the formation and further movement of ideas that enter into certain relationships according to the laws of association. The concepts of association and apperception introduced by Herbart have survived in modern psychology.

A mass of ideas, as it were, crowds in the soul of a person, trying to break into the field of consciousness. Those representations that are related to those existing in the field of consciousness penetrate there, those that are not supported by them weaken, become invisible and are pushed beyond the threshold of consciousness.

The whole mental life of a person depends, according to Herbart, on initial ideas, reinforced by experience, communication, and education. Thus, understanding is determined by the relationship of representations. A person understands when an object or word evokes a certain circle of ideas in his mind. If no representations arise in response to them, they remain incomprehensible.

The relationship of representations explains all the phenomena of the emotional sphere of the psyche, as well as the area of ​​volitional manifestations. Feelings, according to Herbart, are nothing but delayed representations. When there is a harmony of ideas in the soul, a pleasant feeling arises, and if the ideas are not in harmony with each other, then a feeling of unpleasantness arises.

Desire, like feeling, is again a reflection of the relationship between representations. Will is a desire, to which the idea of ​​​​achieving the goal is attached.

So, Herbart ignores the uniqueness of the various properties of the human psyche. He unjustifiably reduces the complex and diverse, deeply dialectical process of mental activity to mechanical combinations of ideas. By influencing the child's ideas, he expects thereby to exert a corresponding influence on the formation of his consciousness, feelings, and will. From this it followed from Herbart that properly delivered training has an educative character.

The essence of education, its goals and objectives.

Herbart constantly emphasized that pedagogical work is carried out more successfully if it is preceded by the mastery of pedagogical theory. He said that the teacher needs wide philosophical views so that everyday painstaking work and limited individual experience do not narrow his horizon.

The art of education is acquired by the teacher in everyday pedagogical activity, and the faster, the deeper and more thoroughly he mastered the theory of education, Herbart believed.

Studying pedagogical theory, the educator cannot, of course, arm himself for the future with ready-made recipes for various situations, he prepares himself for the correct perception, understanding and evaluation of the phenomena that he will meet in his pedagogical work. Mastering pedagogical theory gives the teacher the opportunity to avoid mistakes in assessing pupils, incentives and motives for their behavior, the meaning and essence of their actions; his pupils will then not be able to "amaze and intimidate their tutor with amazing riddles."

Herbart attached great importance establishing the goal of education, depending on which educational means should be determined. In accordance with his ethical theory, the basis of which is, as mentioned above, moral eternal ideas, Herbart believed that the goal of education is to form a virtuous person. Considering this goal as eternal and unchanging, he had in mind to educate people who are able to adapt to existing relationships, respect the established legal order, and obey it.

The teacher must set for the pupil those goals that he will set for himself when he becomes an adult. These future goals can be subdivided into: 1) possible goals, 2) necessary goals.

Possible goals are those that a person can someday set for himself in the field of a certain specialty.

Necessary goals are those that a person needs in any area of ​​\u200b\u200bhis activity.

Providing possible goals, education should develop in a person a diverse, versatile susceptibility, make the range of his interests wider and more complete, which will correspond to the idea of ​​\u200b\u200binternal freedom and the idea of ​​​​perfection. With regard to the necessary goals, education is obliged to form the morality of the future actor on the basis of ideas of goodwill, law and justice, or, as Herbart puts it, to develop in him an integral moral character. Seeing the essence of education in enriching the soul of the child with ideas, Herbart wants to instill in it the ideas and motives of virtuous behavior and develop a moral character in the pupil.

Herbart divides the process of education into three sections: management, training and moral education.

Management has as its task not the future of the child, but only the maintenance of order at the present time, that is, in the process of education itself. It is designed to suppress the "wild playfulness", which, according to Herbart, is characteristic of children. By maintaining external order, management creates the prerequisites for the implementation of the process of education. But it does not educate, but is, as it were, a temporary, but indispensable condition for education.

The first means of control is the threat. But the threat does not always achieve the desired effect. Strong children put the threat into nothing and "dare at everything", weak natures are not imbued with the threat and continue to act as their desires tell them. Therefore, the threat must be supplemented by surveillance, which, according to Herbart, is very effective in early years. However, even the strictest supervision may not desired result: the supervised is constantly looking for loopholes to avoid supervision. As oversight increases, the need for loopholes increases.

It is necessary to apply a variety of commands and prohibitions, which must be precise and specific. For children who violate the established rules, a penalty book should be kept at the school. Herbart believes that in home education, keeping such a book is sometimes useful. And finally, Herbart assigns a large place among the means of controlling children to punishments, including corporal ones. The system of various punishments was developed in detail by Herbart, it was widely used in German and Russian gymnasiums, French lyceums and secondary educational institutions in other countries. The reactionary Arakcheev, known for his cruelty, while developing regulations on schools in military settlements, also studied the system of managing children recommended by Herbart, in particular punishments.

Kazan Pedagogical State University

Test work (abstract) on the course "History of Education and Pedagogical Thought"

on the topic« Herbart's pedagogical system»

INTRODUCTION

In modern times (XVII-XIX centuries) in all spheres of socio-cultural life Western Europe significant changes began to take place: the authority of reason, a rational attitude to economic and political life. Religious pluralism became legal, which paved the way for freethinking, democracy, scientific research and forced to seriously address the problems of cognition. If in medieval philosophy the central place was given to the doctrine of being, then from the time of the Reformation epistemology comes to the fore. Along with a new philosophical understanding of epistemological problems in Western European education of that period, they are beginning to be intensively developed theoretical basis learning process.

In Germany during this period, the doctrine of the unconscious dynamics of mental representations became the most popular. Its author was I. Herbart.

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) - German philosopher, psychologist and teacher, founder of the school in German pedagogy of the 19th century. The founder of the so-called formal aesthetics (the source of beauty is symmetry, proportion, rhythm, etc.) tried to build psychology as a systematic science based on metaphysics, experience and mathematics. The founder of empirical psychology in Germany. He considered representations as elements of consciousness. To explain their statics and dynamics, in particular their strength, clarity, he spoke of the need to apply mathematics. According to Herbart, three areas can be distinguished in consciousness: clear consciousness, simple consciousness and the unconscious, between which there are transitions (thresholds). Thus, the transition of representations from the unconscious to consciousness is possible due to the strength of the representation itself and the number of connections of this representation with past experience, as well as the reverse transition of the representation to the area of ​​the unconscious, called repression.

Herbart's views, reflected in his pedagogical system, were formed under the influence of representatives of ancient (Parmenides, Plato) and German classical (J. Kant, J. G. Fichte, F. W. Schelling) philosophy and some pedagogical ideas of J. G. Pestalozzi.

Being both a philosopher and a psychologist, Herbart tried to substantiate pedagogy with the help of these two sciences: from philosophy he derived the goals of education, with the help of psychology he pointed out ways to achieve these goals.

Considering, like all associateists, that there is nothing original in the soul, that it arises from primary elements, he called them not ideas, but representations. If ideas were considered facts of consciousness, then ideas, according to Herbart, being forced out of consciousness, form a huge mass of elements of the unconscious psyche. This mass was called apperceptive (“apperception” from Latin “ad” - to, “perceptio” - perception). Each new performance is under the pressure of this mass and is held by it.

The unfamiliar is brought into the mind by means of the already familiar. Herbart put this postulate as the basis of his pedagogical system, which found many supporters. In addition, he made an attempt to derive mathematical formulas, according to which representations push each other, are pushed out of consciousness and again capture it. Based on this doctrine of "statics and dynamics of ideas", he hoped to give psychology the character of an exact, experimental science. His main work was called "Psychology, based in a new way on metaphysics, experience and mathematics." A number of Herbart's attitudes - a return to the concept of the unconscious psyche (it was first proposed by Leibniz), its correlation with the apperceptive mass, which determines the success of ideas in the struggle for the "living space" of consciousness, as well as the confidence that mathematics is applicable to psychology - were an attempt to translate principles like associationism into a new language.

Not mechanics, not chemistry, but mathematics, which generalizes the dynamics of mental elements, is capable, according to Herbart, of explaining how an individual's experience is made up of these elements. Meanwhile, profound changes in the style of scientific thinking led to a further transformation of associationism.

The theory of stages of learning developed by Herbart was widely known.

HERBART'S PEDAGOGICAL HERITAGE

The first pedagogical work of Herbart is devoted to the work of Pestalozzi. The main works of Herbart ("General pedagogy, derived from the goals of education" (1806), "Textbook of psychology" (1816; Russian translation 1875), "Psychology as a science based on experience, metaphysics and mathematics" (vols. 1-2 , 1824-25), "Essay on lectures on pedagogy" (1835)) are distinguished by rationality - Herbart saw in pedagogy as a science, first of all, methodological tools. As a result, he sought to identify "theses and fundamentals", as well as the fundamental conditions for the effectiveness of the educational process.

Herbart rejected the extremes of both empirical and philosophical pedagogy, whose representatives proceeded either from facts or from philosophy. Accordingly, he insisted on the sovereignty of pedagogical science: “It would be better if pedagogy developed its own concepts as accurately as possible and encouraged independent thinking more so as to become the center of a separate field of thinking and not be on the margins of other sciences.”

Herbart constantly emphasized that pedagogical work is carried out more successfully if it is preceded by the mastery of pedagogical theory. He said that a teacher needs broad philosophical views so that everyday painstaking work and limited individual experience do not narrow his horizon.

Herbart considered pedagogy not only a science, but also an art, mastering which the teacher in each case acts in accordance with the fact that "provided him with practical experience." Pedagogy, according to Herbart, being an independent science, is based on the so-called practical philosophy (ethics and psychology). With the help of ethics, pedagogical goals are outlined, with the help of psychology, the ways of their implementation. The will of the individual was placed at the forefront of the upbringing process.

This moral process should ideally meet five main criteria:

inner freedom,

perfection

benevolence,

legality

Justice.

The art of the educator is acquired by the teacher in everyday pedagogical activity, and the faster, the deeper and more thoroughly the theory of education is arranged by him, Herbart believed.

Studying pedagogical theory, the educator cannot, of course, arm himself for the future with ready-made recipes for various situations, he prepares himself for the correct perception, understanding and evaluation of the phenomena that he will encounter in pedagogical work. Mastering pedagogical theory gives the teacher the opportunity to avoid mistakes in assessing pupils, incentives and motives for their behavior, the meaning and essence of their actions; his pupils will then not be able to "amaze and intimidate their tutor with amazing riddles."

Herbart attached great importance to establishing the goal of education, depending on which educational means should be determined. In accordance with his ethical theory, the basis of which is, as mentioned above, moral ideas, Herbart believed that the goal of education is to form a virtuous person. Considering this goal as eternal and unchanging, he had in mind to educate people who are able to adapt to existing relationships, respect the established legal order, and obey it.

1) possible goals,

2) the goals are necessary.

Possible goals are those that a person can set for himself in the field of a particular specialty.

Necessary goals are those that he needs in any area of ​​\u200b\u200bhis activity.

Providing possible goals, education should develop in a person a diverse, many-sided susceptibility, make the circle of his interests wider and more complete, which will correspond to the idea of ​​inner freedom and the idea of ​​perfection. With regard to the necessary goals, education is obliged to form the morality of the future actor on the basis of ideas of goodwill, law and justice, or, as Herbart puts it, to develop in him an integral, moral character. Seeing the essence of education in enriching the soul of the child with ideas, Herbart wants to instill in it the ideas and motives of virtuous behavior and develop a moral character in the pupil.

According to the Herbart Line, the teacher must fully regulate and control the activities of students, approach them with the same requirements, correspond to the image of a leader, stimulate their efforts with the help of rewards and punishments, evaluate all aspects of their behavior. Student discipline is one of the most important values ​​of this strategy.

The will of the individual was placed at the forefront of the upbringing process. Education should create harmony between the expression of will and the development of multilateral interests. Ways to achieve such harmony - management, training and moral education.

Management has as its task not the future of the child, but only the maintenance of order at the present time, i.e. in the process of education itself. Management maintains order and destroys the natural, primitive wildness, through this the pet enters the sphere of reasonable human freedom. By maintaining external order, management creates the prerequisites for the implementation of the process of education. But it does not educate, but is, as it were, a temporary, but indispensable condition for education. Management measures are: threat, supervision, orders, prohibitions, authority. Herbart insisted on the need to occupy the pupil so much that he did not have free time.

The first means of control is threat. But the threat does not always achieve the desired effect. Strong children put the threat into nothing and "dare at everything", weak natures are not imbued with the threat and continue to act as their desires tell them. Therefore, the threat must be supplemented by supervision, which, according to Herbart, is very effective in the early years. However, even the strictest supervision may not give the desired result; the supervised is constantly looking for loopholes to avoid supervision. As oversight increases, the need for loopholes increases.

It is necessary to apply a variety of commands and prohibitions, which must be precise and specific. For children who violate the established rules, a penalty book should be kept at the school. Herbart believes that in home education, keeping such a book is sometimes useful.

And, finally, a large place among the management of children is given to punishment, including corporal punishment. The system of various punishments was developed in detail by Herbart, it was widely used in German and Russian gymnasiums, French lyceums and secondary educational institutions in other countries.

Herbart considered authority and love as auxiliary means of control. He says these funds are out of control. The spirit of the child bows before the authority, which directs the nascent will of the pupil to the good, turning away from the bad. But the educator must go his own way and not worry about the approval or disapproval of his actions from the weaker side, i.e. childish, will.

Management should take the child's time. When entertaining children, it is important to distract them from all sorts of pranks.

The entire system of managing children, which has the task of distracting them from disorder and violations of discipline, is built by Herbart on violence, on training and drill. He believed that a child does not have consciousness until it acquires a certain range of ideas through systematic training.

The most developed in Herbart's pedagogical system is the theory of learning. Herbart attached great importance to mental education in the matter of education. He considered education the most important and fundamental means of education: he introduced the term educative education into pedagogy. He said that there is no pupil without education, that he does not recognize education that does not educate. However, developing the valuable idea of ​​previous teachers, in particular Pestalozzi, about educative education, Herbart gave it a one-sided interpretation. Herbart replaced the complex process of education with education, not taking into account the influence of the social environment and the importance of emotion in moral education. He believed that feelings and will are not independent manifestations of the human psyche, but only modifications of ideas.

Education should not only provide a certain amount of knowledge, but mainly contribute to the improvement of the entire subject. Teaching is a deliberate, systematic education and development of ideas that make up mental life for all-round perfection.

Herbart noted that, having mastered knowledge in a certain system, the student should be able to use this knowledge so that he could "direct thoughts from any point to any other forward, backward or to the side," so that he could regroup knowledge from different points of view and apply them to the discussion of new cases, to the solution of relevant practical problems.

Herbart owns the capital development of the idea of ​​educative education, the main task of which he saw in the development of a comprehensive interest. He considered education to be the main means of education, on the basis of which six types of so-called multilateral interest develop, each of which, from the point of view of the modern local history approach, can be considered as elements of an adaptation mechanism in education.

Some of them are aimed at the knowledge of the surrounding reality, others - social life.

Herbart distinguishes six independent types of different interests.

The interests of the first group he refers to the interests of:

Empirical, which, as it were, answers the question of what it is, and arouses interest in all living things, in the world around us, the desire for observation;

Speculative, which answers questions about why this is so and insists on reflection;

Aesthetic - provides an artistic assessment of phenomena, arouses interest in beauty.

The second group of interests includes:

Sympathetic, directed at members of one's family and closest circle of acquaintances,

Social - to a wider circle of people, to society, its people and all of humanity.

Religious interest aimed at communion with God, with the church, with higher spiritual powers.

One of the most important tasks of education for Herbart is to arouse multilateral interest. Herbart hoped to solve it by creating diverse and mobile groups of ideas among pupils through the study of various educational subjects. He suggested starting the study from the most ancient periods of history, believing that the life of primitive people and ancient peoples is the best material for children. He explained that humanity showed in its youth the same interests that are characteristic of children and young men. Therefore, students should, in his opinion, be given an increasingly complex range of humanitarian knowledge, concentrated around the philosophy and history of ancient peoples.

Herbart highly valued ancient languages ​​and mathematics, and mathematics mainly as a means of developing thinking, "strong gymnastics of the spirit."

The question of the school system was decided by Herbart in accordance with his conservative social views. He proposed to create the following types of schools: elementary, city and gymnasium. There was no continuity between them, each of these types of schools existed independently: from the first two, you can only enter special schools, and from the gymnasium - to higher educational institutions. As can be seen from this, Herbart was an opponent of a unified education system. He was a supporter of the already obsolete classical education. In a real school, in his opinion, those who will be engaged in trade, industry, crafts and other types of practical activity should study. For those who were destined for intellectual pursuits, leadership and management, for the elite, Herbart recommended a classical education.

Herbart paid much attention to the problem of interest, as essential condition and means of successful learning.

Herbart considered it necessary to conduct teaching in such a way that, to meet new impressions communicated by the teacher, in the soul of the student, the ideas he already had were raised in a string. The assimilation of new ideas on the basis of previous experience already available to students, he called apperception. He gave her great importance in the learning process and closely connected interest and attention with her.

Herbart distinguished the following types of attention. Children initially have primitive attention, which is the first kind involuntary attention. It is directed to an object regardless of the will of the person, thanks to the strength of the impression, the brightness of the color or the loudness of the sound.

The second type of involuntary attention is apperceptive attention, which, as it were, sends out suitable representations necessary for the assimilation and consolidation of new ones.

From involuntary attention he distinguished voluntary attention, which depends on a preconceived intention, on the efforts of the student himself. Herbart points out that the development of voluntary attention in the student, the desire to focus serious efforts on what needs to be learned, is a task not only of teaching, but also of management and moral education.

Herbart gave much valuable advice on how to develop and maintain students' interest and attention. For example, even before school and at the initial stages of education, such representations should be created in children that help to assimilate subsequent educational material. Just before the teacher proceeds to explain the new, he must evoke in the minds of the students those ideas that are necessary for the assimilation of new material.

In teaching, visualization should be widely used: when it is impossible to show the object itself, it is necessary to demonstrate its image. However, one should not demonstrate the same thing for too long, since monotony is tiring.

In the presentation of the teacher, one should be connected with one another: untimely pauses and the introduction of extraneous elements disrupt the free flow of the apperceptive mechanism and break the series of ideas. Learning should not be too difficult, but being too light only hurts the cause.

Herbart also gave valuable advice on learning by heart. He pointed to the struggle with forgetting the studied material. He considered the most effective exercise for this by students through the constant application of the memorized material in practice in connection with what interests them, what attracts their attention.

"Multilateral education," Herbart wrote, "should be integral and unified, but not just a superficial and frivolous attitude to the matter."

Herbart developed the theory of the levels of education, which became widely known among teachers of all countries. He made an attempt to bring learning into line with the laws of the child's mental activity, which he understood as the mechanism of the activity of the apperceptive process.

The learning process according to Herbart necessarily goes through a deepening into the material being studied (deepening) and a deepening of the student into himself (realization). In turn, these two moments can be realized either in the state of rest of the soul, or in the state of its movement.

From this follow the four stages of learning, which Herbart called:

1. Clarity

2. Association

3. System

The first stage, clarity, is a deepening in a state of rest. What is being studied stands out from everything with which it is connected, and is considered in depth. Psychologically, it requires mobilizing attention. In the didactic - the teacher's presentation of new material, the use of visualization.

The second stage - association - is a deepening in a state of movement. new material enters into connection with the ideas already available to the student, previously received in the classroom, when reading books, from life. Since students do not yet know what will happen as a result of linking the new with the old, Herbart believed that psychologically there is an expectation. In didactic terms, it is best to conduct conversations, a casual conversation between a teacher and students.

The third step, the system, is awareness at rest. The search for students under the guidance of a teacher of conclusions, definitions, laws based on new knowledge associated with old ideas. Mentally, this step corresponds, according to Herbart, to "searching."

The fourth stage - the method - is awareness in a state of movement, the application of the acquired knowledge to new facts, phenomena, events. Psychologically, this step requires action. In the field of didactics, this is a kind of training exercise that requires students to widely use the acquired knowledge, the ability to think logically and creatively.

These steps determine, according to Herbart, the sequence of learning. They are formal because they do not depend on specific content educational material, age of students, didactic task of the lesson.

Herbart defined three universal teaching methods:

descriptive method.

Analytical. Includes an analysis of the properties and characteristics of the subject.

synthetic method. It is based on the connection of previously learned, perceived and new ideas.

All these methods should be applied in combination.

The universal scheme of the course of learning, established by Herbart, was later turned by his followers into the scheme of any lesson. Scientific pedagogy rejects such a solution to the problem and believes that the course of the lesson is determined by a number of circumstances: the age and level of development of students, the specifics of the educational material, the didactic task of this lesson, etc.

HERBART'S CONCEPT OF ABILITY DEVELOPMENT

Formation moral person- the core of the idea of ​​the harmonious development of all abilities. He believed that education without moral education is a means without an end.

Moral education (discipline) is any direct influence on the character of the pupil with the aim of ennobling his character and bringing him to morality. Discipline deals with character, which is formed from the combination of various inclinations and is expressed in will - the transition of desire into action. Morally developing character means giving the pet the right to accept good and reject evil, thus, through activity, rise to a self-conscious personality.

Herbart developed such a system of moral education, which is characterized by extreme intellectualism. The main place in his system is occupied by the activity of the teacher in introducing moral concepts into the mind of the student by means of teaching.

At the heart of his system, I.F. Herbart saw the solution of ethical problems, based on moral ideas:

1. the idea of ​​inner freedom, which makes a person whole

2. the idea of ​​perfection, combining the strength and energy of the will, giving inner harmony;

3. the idea of ​​benevolence, which consists in coordinating the will of one person with the will of other people;

4. the idea of ​​law (legality), applied in the event of a conflict of two or more wills

5. the idea of ​​justice, which serves as a guiding principle in judging the reward of those who provide services to society, and the punishment of those who violate its laws.

Moral education lies in the fact that the mentor must take into account the individuality of the individual, find the good in the child's soul and rely on it, form the will and character of the future member of society.

Herbart separated management from moral education. He tried to find the fundamental difference between moral education and management, designed to establish order only for the present, but he failed to do this so convincingly, and it was impossible. After all, discipline is both a condition and a result of education.

He insisted that religious interest should be aroused in children as early as possible and constantly developed, so that "in later years the soul may rest peacefully and serenely in its religion." Religion, according to Herbart, requires a "sense of humility" and is necessary as a deterrent. The teacher is obliged to call to order any student who would allow himself a critical attitude towards religion.

Unlike education, moral education directly affects the soul of the child, directing his feelings, desires, actions.

The principles of moral education in Herbart are opposite to the principles of management. There, manifestations of the will and consciousness of the child are suppressed. And in the system of moral education, all methods should be supported by the good that the pupil already has. Moral education should strive to "raise in the eyes of the pupil his own "I" through deeply penetrating approval." The educator is obliged to find good features in the pupil, even the spoiled one, and not to become discouraged if this is not immediately possible. In the system of moral education, "one spark can immediately ignite another."

To the means of moral education in the proper sense, Herbart attributed the following:

1. keep the pupil (this is the management of children, teaching them obedience). We need to set boundaries for children.

2. Determine the pupil, i.e. put the child in such conditions under which he, not only from the instructions of the educator, but also from his own experience, will understand that "disobedience leads to difficult experiences."

3. Establish clear rules of conduct.

4. Maintain “calmness and clarity” in the soul of the pupil, i.e. do not give grounds for "the pupil to doubt the truth."

5. "Excite" the soul of the child with approval and censure.

6. "Exhort" the pupil, point out his interference, correct them.

In moral education, one should also resort to punishments, but educational punishment, unlike disciplinary ones, should not be associated with the idea of ​​retribution, but should be presented to the pupil as benevolent warnings.

Since children do not have a strong will and the educator needs to create it, it is impossible, according to Herbart, to allow children to show their bad inclinations. This should be stopped by the most severe methods. It is important to create a simple, measured and permanent way of life, devoid of any dispersive changes. The school should support parents who provide children correct order life. It is very dangerous to allow the pupil to develop the consciousness that he is independent in his actions. It is necessary to be very careful about the stay of the pupil in society, "the stream of social life should not captivate the child and be stronger than education." Herbart demanded the establishment of the indisputable authority of the educator, believing that this authority always replaces the pupil's "general opinion", and therefore "it is essential that he has an overwhelming authority, next to which the pupil did not appreciate any other opinion." All these statements are a vivid expression of the conservative character of Herbartian theory.

To implement his pedagogical views, Herbart founded a special pedagogical seminary in Königsberg in 1810. The institution had the status of a closed educational institution with permanent teachers. No more than 30 boys were brought up here, who from the age of 8-10 began to translate the Odyssey and gradually study the elements of grammar. Then the students were offered historical stories or exercises in visual geometry. Analytical conversations were applied to lagging students. The students learned a lot. They studied arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, logarithms, statistics, mechanics, astronomy. Teachers could manage and teach students with different abilities.

The purpose of education: to educate a virtuous person in whom the harmony of will is combined with ethical ideals and the development of multilateral interests.

The formation of a multilateral interest was envisaged through the study of the history of the ancient world and ancient languages ​​(time), the study of geography and mathematics (space), as well as through moral education and religion (man).

The awareness of these ideas by each person ensures the conflict-free social life and the inviolability of the state system.

Herbart is the ancestor of formal classical school education, which includes orderliness, consistency, solidity. It connects philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, ethics, aesthetics, determines the structure of the lesson.

The teacher plays a huge role in this; teaching, educating, directing the activity of the student, correcting his behavior, activating his emotional and physical strength.

CONCLUSION

The central thesis of Herbart's reasoning is the formation of a moral person. This is the core of the idea of ​​the harmonious development of all faculties.

Ways to achieve such harmony - management, training and moral education.

Herbart assigned particular importance to educative education, during which a multifaceted interest (empirical, speculative, aesthetic, sympathetic, social and religious) should be developed, based on the excitation and maintenance of apperceptive and the development of voluntary attention.

They were assigned six practical ways moral education: restraining, guiding, normative, balanced, moralizing, admonishing.

Herbart believed that management should solve the problem of maintaining order. By itself, management does not educate, but only creates the prerequisites for education. A system of management techniques was proposed: threat, supervision, prohibition, order, involvement in activities, etc. Herbartian didactics covers the problems of education in the narrow sense of the word, as well as issues of education: “Education without moral education is a means without an end, and moral education ... without learning there is an end devoid of means.”

Herbart owns the capital development of the idea of ​​educative education, the main task of which he saw in the development of a comprehensive interest. Interest is defined as intellectual initiative, caused by learning and leading to the formation of the child's "own free mental states". Herbart tried to divide education into teaching and learning. He was looking for some kind of "natural sequence" of the educational process in the form of formal steps.

Four such steps were identified: two for deepening learning and two for making sense of learning. Deepening meant access to new knowledge, understanding the combination of this knowledge with existing ones. In the first two steps, teaching methods such as visualization and conversation are especially important. On the other two - independent work of the student and the word of the teacher. Herbart defined three universal teaching methods: descriptive, analytical and synthetic.

The leading role was given to the analytical method, in which it was necessary to systematize the knowledge of students. All three methods should be used in combination.

The object of his attention was gymnasium education.

Herbart identified four stages of the educational process:

1. introduction of new material

2. establishing a connection between the new and the already known

3. generalization and formulation of conclusions

4. practical application of acquired knowledge.

The most developed in Herbart's pedagogical system is the theory of learning.

The steps of learning in the system of I.F. Herbart are arranged in the following order: clarity, association, system, method.

Defined three universal teaching methods:

1. chief analytical,

2. descriptive,

3. synthetic (use in combination).

I.F. Herbart is one of the outstanding teachers of the 19th century, whose teaching and experience had a significant impact on the practice of education in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Herbart largely determined the development of Western pedagogy in the 19th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Great Soviet Encyclopedia / Pod. ed. Prokhorova A.M. vol. 6, ed. 3, M. 1998.

2. Ivanov E.V. History of education and pedagogical thought. Velikiy Novgorod. 2002.

3. History of Pedagogy. Part 2. From the 17th century. until the middle of the 20th century. / Ed. A.I. Piskunova. M., 1997.

4. Pedagogical Encyclopedia / Ed. Konrova I.I., M., 1964.

5. Reader on the history of foreign pedagogy. M., 1981.

6. Hilgenheger N. Johann Friedrich Herbart // Prospects: education issues. Thinkers of Education. Vol. 2, 1994. No. 1-2 (87-88).

7. School and pedagogical thought of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Modern times. M., 1991.

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was born into a lawyer's family in Oldenburg. He received excellent general education with a home teacher, then entered the penultimate class of the local gymnasium, where he showed a penchant for philosophy. In 1794 - 1797. studies at the University of Jena, where he is already seriously engaged in philosophy. In 1797 - 1800. Herbart works as a home teacher in the family of the Bernese aristocrat Steiger. His initial pedagogical views were reflected in the Reports to Mr. von Steiger. Herbart's subsequent life was connected with the University of Göttingen. Here he completed his education, defended his doctoral dissertation in philosophy, lectured on philosophy, pedagogy, and psychology.

Of the works published during these years, two deserve special mention: "The Aesthetic View of the World as the Main Task of Education", "General Pedagogy Derived from the Purpose of Education". Last work was the first attempt to construct a pedagogical theory. Thanks to his published works and brilliant lectures, the name of Herbart became widely known, and in 1809 he was invited to the University of Königsberg, where he took the chair of philosophy and pedagogy, which until 1804 was headed by I. Kant. For almost a quarter of a century, Herbart worked at the University of Königsberg. His activities there were very diverse. In addition to lecturing, Herbart achieved the opening of a pedagogical seminary with an experimental school at the university. The seminary was supposed to train teachers and at the same time serve as a laboratory for the development of general issues of pedagogy. During this period, he wrote such works as "On Education with Public Assistance", "Textbook on Psychology", "Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy", etc.

In 1833 Herbart returned to the University of Göttingen, where he worked last years life. Herbart's final work was "Essays of lectures on pedagogy" which have gained wide popularity.

Herbart distinguished between pedagogy as a science and pedagogy as an art. The content of pedagogy as a science was defined by him as a harmonious order, as a system of knowledge. Pedagogy as an art is a sum of skills that must be used to achieve a specific goal. Science requires philosophical thinking, philosophical substantiation of education; art requires constant activity, practice, but only in strict accordance with the requirements of science.

The properties of scientific pedagogy should be concentrated in the goal of education.

Thus, Herbart identified three sections of pedagogy: management, training, moral education.

A) Control has as its goal the maintenance of order immediately at this time, it precedes education.

b) Central issue learning Herbart considered the issue about the role of interest in the process of learning. The function of interest, according to Herbart, is to arouse the desire for further studies, for further learning. By content, Herbart divided interests into 2 groups, which included 6 varieties.

1 group interests directed at the external nature. These are cognitive and experiential interests. Their varieties: empirical, speculative, aesthetic interest. 2 group– interests focused on participation and emotional attitude towards a person included in social communication. Their varieties are sympathetic, social and religious interest.

In addition, Herbart introduced the concept of “educational education” into pedagogy. He believed that teaching should lead in 2 directions: “upward”, revealed to the pupil “the most beautiful and worthy”, and in the opposite direction, the direction of reality - with its shortcomings and needs to prepare the child to meet them.

V) The main task of education is moral education. But it is impossible without discipline of the pupil. Discipline is a kind of prologue to moral education. Means of discipline: fundamental - threat, supervision, coercion. But all this should be softened by love and condescension towards children. The center of gravity of education is the development of character. In the moral development of a child, Herbart identified 4 stages:

1 - "memory of the will" - the development of a firm character in relation to external conditions;

2 - "choice" - understanding the positive and negative sides what the child aspires to, taking into account the conditions necessary to achieve the desired;

3 - "principle" - is associated with the activity of the intellect, leading to the development of self-consciousness, the development of principles underlying the motives of behavior takes place.

4 - "struggle" - a moral consciousness is formed, manifested in the meaningful adoption of certain decisions, self-coercion and self-control.

In the organization of the learning process, Herbart singled out several stages: "Clarity", "association", "System", "method". These steps must strictly follow one after the other.

Among the main forms of teaching Herbart called descriptive, analytical, synthetic.

Analytical teaching has as its goal the selection of the studied individual parts, features, as well as finding a common thing.

Synthetic teaching provides elements of new knowledge: the teacher himself determines the combination of elements of the new, synthesis consists in the conscious compilation of a whole from new, unfamiliar elements.

descriptive (pictorial) teaching. Its goal is to expand the horizons of the child, the fullness of his experience, the scope of communication with people.