What Arab traveler made in the tenth century. journey to the Volga Bulgaria and then compiled a description of the life of the peoples of Eastern Europe?

1. Avicenna
2. Rashid al-Din
3. Ibn Fadlan
4. Ibn Battuta

Task 2

In what year did the following events take place?

“A nationwide struggle unfolded against the invaders. Patriotic journalism was spreading throughout the country (“The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Tsardom”, etc.). In early spring, a militia was created. Its core was the detachments of the Ryazan nobles, headed by P. Lyapunov. The militia also included nobles, townspeople and peasants of the Volga region and the north-east of the country.

1. 1604
2. 1611
3. 1612
4. 1617

Task 3

The emergence of which city is associated with a metallurgical plant built on the orders of Peter I?

1. Bryansk
2. Irkutsk
3. Magnitogorsk
4. Lipetsk

Answer

1	2	3
3	2	4

1 point for each correct answer.

Total 3 points for tasks 1-3

In tasks 4-6, select several correct answers from the suggested ones.

Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

Task 4

Indicate the names of historical figures who were contemporaries of Alexander I.

1. Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn
2. Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin
3. Pyotr Alekseevich Palen
4. Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov
5. Alexey Alexandrovich Kurbatov
6. Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky

Task 5

Which of the following terms are related to architecture?

1. zakomara
2. filigree
3. scapula
4. cinnabar
5. portal
6. liturgy

Task 6

Which of the names are related to the Cossack troops that existed in Russia?

1. Nizhny Novgorod
2. Don
3. Astrakhan
4. Yakutsk
5. Semirechenskoe
6. Buzuluk

Answer

4	5	6
134	135	235

2 points for a completely correct answer for each task; 1 point for an answer with one error (one of the correct answers is not indicated or one incorrect answer is given along with all the indicated correct answers).

Total 6 points for tasks 4-6.

Task 7

The list below presents legislative acts adopted under various rulers of Russia in the 18th–19th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the form of the work, and the serial numbers of the legislative acts that appeared under the corresponding ruler in the bottom line.

1. Complaint to the nobility
2. Establishment for the management of a large active army
3. statute of the Order of St. George the Victorious
4. Table of ranks
5. Decree establishing the Governing Senate
6. Decree on liquidation of the Secret Expedition
7. decree of unanimity
8. decree on the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium instead of the hetman's rule in Little Russia
9. manifesto on the formation of the Council of State

Answer

Only 9 points.

Task 8

The list below shows the names of cities and territories annexed to the Moscow Principality ( Russian state) under various rulers in the 15th–16th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the form of the work, and the serial numbers of cities and territories annexed under the corresponding ruler in the bottom line.

1. Kazan Khanate
2. Yugra land
3. Smolensk
4. Bashkiria
5. Pskov
6. Novgorod
7. Ryazan
8. Tver
9. Astrakhan Khanate

Answer

1 point for indicating the name of the ruler. (If the name is incorrect, the answer in this column is not accepted.) 2 points for a completely correct match; 1 point for matching with one mistake.

Only 9 points.

Task 9

On what basis are the rows formed? Give the most accurate answer.

1. Grengam, Noteburg, Gangut, Helsingfors.

2. IN. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov, N.I. Kostomarov, N.M. Karamzin.

Answer

• 1. Battlefields of the Great Northern War.
• 2. Russian scientists-historians.

2 points for each correct answer.

Only 4 points.

Task 10

Arrange in chronological order historical events. Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

• A) the creation of the Kyiv Metropolis
• B) the final victory of Yaroslav the Wise over Svyatopolk
• C) acceptance of the Truth of the Yaroslavichs
• D) reform of pagan cults
• D) the death of Prince Boris
• E) appointment of Hilarion as metropolitan

Answer

1	2	3	4	5	6
G	A	D	B	E	IN

Only 4 points.

Task 11

Arrange the terms in chronological order of their appearance. Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

• A) military districts
• B) provinces
• B) life guard
• D) boyars
• D) military settlements
• E) shooters

Answer

1	2	3	4	5	6
G	E	IN	B	D	A

4 points for a completely correct sequence; 2 points for a sequence with one error (i.e. the correct sequence is restored by rearranging any two characters); 0 points if more than 1 error is made.

Only 4 points.

Task 12

Establish a correspondence between the names of artists and the titles of their works. Write down in the table in the form of work the selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

Answer

Answer

A	B	IN	G	D
2	4	5	6	1

1 point for each correct match. Only 5 points.

Task 14

Fill in the gaps in the text. If necessary, with serial numbers, explanations are given about the nature of the required insertion. Enter the necessary words, names, dates under the appropriate numbers in the table placed in the work sheet.

In 1735 Russia decided to transfer (1 - country name) its Caspian provinces, conquered by Peter I during (2 - title) campaign of 1722-1723. These provinces did not bring any income, and the maintenance of the army and fortresses there burdened the treasury. Türkiye by (3 - name) the treaty of 1724 recognized these provinces as Russian, but she did not want to put up with the success of her main competitor in the Transcaucasus – (1). Therefore, the troops of vassal Turkey (4 - state name) went to the Caucasus, violating the borders of Russia. In reply Russian empire declared war on Turkey. Russia's ally in this war was (5) .

In the autumn of 1735, the corps under the leadership of General M.I. Leontief tried to enter the territory (4) , but impassability and poor supply of the troops did not allow this.

The following year, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal (6 - surname) passed (7) - the isthmus that separates the peninsula from the mainland - and captured the capital (4) - city (8) . Then, for fear of being locked in (4) returning from Transcaucasia Tatar army, (6) left the Crimean territory. In the summer of the same year, the Russians occupied the fortress (9) , and next year - a fortress (10) .

At the initiative of the Turks in the summer of 1737, tripartite peace negotiations began in Nemirov, but they soon reached an impasse, and the war continued. Russian troops won small victories. Most major battle they won in August 1739 under (11 - name), after which two days later they occupied the fortress (12) . This event made such a deep impression on contemporaries that (13 - surname) wrote his famous "Ode to the Taking (12) ". In the same year in (14 - city name) A peace treaty was signed that ended the war. Unfortunately, it was unprofitable for Russia, since under its terms it did not get access to (15 - geographical feature).

Answer

1	Iran
2	Persian
3	Constantinople
4	Crimean Khanate
5	Holy Roman Empire (Austria)
6	B.K. Minich
7	Perekop
8	Bakhchisaray
9	Azov
10	Ochakov
11	Stavuchany
12	Khotyn
13	M.V. Lomonosov
14	Belgrade
15	Black Sea

• 15 correct inserts - 9 points.
• 14 correct inserts - 8 points.
• 12-13 correct inserts - 7 points.
• 10-11 correct inserts - 6 points.
• 8-9 correct inserts - 5 points.
• 6-7 correct inserts - 4 points.
• 4-5 correct inserts - 3 points.
• 2-3 correct inserts - 2 points.
• 1 correct insert - 1 point.

Only 9 points.

Task 15

Look at the map carefully and complete the tasks below.

15.1 Write who was an ally of the Russian troops in the battle that took place south of all the battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Polovtsy (1 point).

15.2 Write the number that indicates the city, which withstood the siege of the Mongol troops for several weeks.

Answer

1 (1 point).

15.3 Write a name historical figure, who defended the city indicated by the number 8, winning the two battles indicated on the map.

Answer

Alexander Nevskiy (1 point).

15.4 Write the name of the Mongol commander who participated in the campaigns of the 1220s–1230s shown on the map.

Answer

subday (1 point).

15.5 Are the following statements (yes/no) correct? Enter your answers in the table.

• A) The defense of the city, indicated by the number 6, was led by the governor Dmitry.
• B) In one of the battles marked on the map, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky died.
• C) The name of the state is signed on the map, the capital of which in the XV century. became Königsberg.
• D) Vladimir troops took part in the battle near the city marked with the number 5.
• E) A contemporary of all the events reflected on the map was the son of Genghis Khan Jochi.

Answer

A	B	IN	G	D
No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No

2 points for each correct answer. Only 10 points.

Total 14 points for task 15.

Task 16

Compare the images below with the characteristics of Russian princes given by various Russian historians, with whom these images are associated in meaning. Write the names of these figures in the table.

In the appropriate columns, indicate the serial number of the fragment of the description of the historical figure and the digital designation of the event world history of which he was a contemporary.

Characteristics of domestic historians

1. “Modern researchers, in general, are unanimous in their assessment of its role in the creation of a new political system Russian state, based on the "paternal" ownership of land. But this is only one of the two components of the political program of the prince ... In his understanding ... the most important basis for the political structure of society was to be “the fear of God” - the sense of responsibility of the princes ... before God, before which each of the living on earth had to answer at the Last Judgment "( A.Yu. Karpov).
2. “He was a man of strong temper, cold, reasonable, with a callous heart, power-hungry, unswerving in pursuit of his chosen goal, hidden, extremely cautious; in all his actions one can see gradualness, even slowness; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to use circumstances admirably; he never got carried away, but he acted decisively when he saw that the matter was ripe to the point that success was undoubted. The taking of lands and, possibly, their permanent connection to the Muscovite state was the cherished goal of his political activity; following his forefathers in this matter, he surpassed all of them and left an example of imitation for descendants for a long time ”( N.I. Kostomarov).
3. “He acted as an imperious prince-patrimony, steadily striving to expand the territory of his principality and to subordinate other Russian princes to his authority. There were no motives for the national liberation struggle in his activities. The prince did not fight against the oppression of the Golden Horde, but paid off the khan with the regular payment of the “exit”, giving Rus' some respite from the Tatar raids ... "( L.V. Cherepnin).
4. “With his cautious prudent policy, he saved Rus' from the final ruin of the armies of nomads. With armed struggle, trade policy, selective diplomacy, he avoided new wars in the North and West, a possible, but disastrous for Rus', alliance with the papacy and the rapprochement of the curia and crusaders with the Horde. He bought time, allowing Rus' to get stronger and recover from the terrible ruin. He is the founder of the policy of the Moscow princes, the policy of the revival of Russia" ( V.T. Pashuto).

World History Events

I. Convocation of the Estates General in France

II. Excommunication of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II from the Church.

III. Unification of Castile and Aragon into a single kingdom

IV. Walking to Canossa

Answer

1 point for each correct answer item.

Total 12 points.

Task 17

One of the most important aspects of the activity of a historian is the analysis of a source, the ability to extract the necessary information from it. Before you is a fragment of "Notes on the ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations”, compiled by N.M. Karamzin. Write on its basis a short work "Criticism of the liberal transformations of Alexander I by his contemporaries." “The main mistake of the legislators of this reign is an excessive respect for the forms state activities: because - the invention of various ministries, the establishment of the Council, and so on. Things are no better done - only in places and officials of a different name. Let's follow a different rule and say that it is not forms, but people that are important. Let the ministries and the Council exist: they will be useful if in the ministry and in the Council we see only men famous for reason and honor. So, our first good desire is, may God help Alexander in the happy election of people! Such an election, and not the establishment of the Senate with colleges, marked the greatness of the reign of Peter internal affairs empire. This monarch had a passion for capable people, looked for them in the cells of the monastery and in dark cabins: there he found Feofan and Osterman, glorious in our state history. Other circumstances and modest, quiet properties of the soul distinguish Alexander from Peter, who was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone and took upon himself one word at a time, at one glance to decide the dignity of a person; but let there be the same rule: look for people! Whoever has the Sovereign's power of attorney, let them notice them in the distance for the very first places. Not only in republics, but also in monarchies, candidates must be appointed solely according to their ability. The almighty hand of the sovereign leads one, the other rushes to the heights; slow gradualness is a law for many, and not for all. Whoever has the mind of a minister should not become gray-haired as head clerks or secretaries. Ranks are humiliated not by their quick acquisition, but by the stupidity or dishonor of dignitaries; envy is aroused, but soon falls silent in the face of the worthy. You do not form a useful ministry by composing an Instruction—then you form it when you have prepared good ministers. The Council is considering their proposal, but are you sure of the wisdom of its members? General wisdom is born only from particular. In a word, people are most needed now!”

Work plan

1. Characteristics of the document. Based on your knowledge of the history course, answer the questions. What is the author of the Notes famous for? When was the document created? Who was it for?
2. Description of the circumstances of the creation of the document. What problem is addressed in the "Note"? What transformations were carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander I? Which statesman was negatively perceived by Karamzin as the author of transformations that were not necessary for the country?
3. What arguments does the author give to substantiate his point of view, carefully criticizing innovations? What dignity did he find in the state system, of which he was an opponent? Give three positions.
4. Conclusions: what current of social thought did the author belong to? What did he first of all draw the attention of the addressee of the Note to? Give two positions.

Answer

1. The author of the "Notes" N.M. Karamzin is a historian, author of the "History of the Russian State", court historiographer of Alexander I, writer (the story "Poor Lisa"), publisher of magazines ("Moscow Journal", "Bulletin of Europe"). "Note" was created in 1811. It was intended for Emperor Alexander I.
2. Karamzin considers the problem of the liberal policy of Alexander I, changes in the system government controlled. At the time of writing the Notes, Alexander I established ministries and the State Council. Karamzin had a negative attitude towards M.M. Speransky, who developed a system of liberal transformations of the state apparatus. (2 points for each position. 6 points in total.)
3. The following statements can be made.
   • Karamzin says that great importance has not the form of state institutions, but the content of their activities. The author of the Note sees the main problem in finding people worthy of occupying the highest positions in the administrative apparatus. The main criterion in this case should be the ability of a person.
   • The author speaks about the personal qualities of Alexander I (“modest, quiet qualities of the soul”), setting Peter I as an example (“he was everywhere himself, talked to everyone, listened to everyone”, “had a passion for capable people”). He names the names of prominent figures whom Peter attracted to govern the state.
   • Karamzin notes that in the republics, candidates for public office are appointed "only according to their abilities." The same should be true in a monarchy. (2 points for each position. 6 points in total.)
4. N.M. Karamzin belonged to the current of conservatives (1 point). It is no coincidence that the Note is called the first manifesto of Russian conservatism. Karamzin urges to be wary of innovations in the system of public administration, emphasizing that the whole point is not in institutions, but in the personal qualities of the monarch and other leaders of the state. Karamzin notes the possibilities of the "almighty hand of the sovereign" (autocrat) for the construction of the state. (1 point for each position.)

Only 3 points.

Total 21 points.

Task 18

You have to work with the statements of historians and contemporaries about events and figures national history. Choose one of them that will be the topic of your essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to this statement and substantiate it with the arguments that seem to you the most significant. When choosing a topic, proceed from the fact that you:

1. clearly understand the meaning of the statement (it is not necessary to fully or even partially agree with the author, but it is necessary to understand what exactly he claims);
2. you can express your attitude to the statement (arguably agree with the author or completely or partially refute his statement);
3. have specific knowledge (facts, statistics, examples) on the topic;
4. know the terms necessary for a competent presentation of your point of view.

Themes

1. “Under Vladimir Monomakh, Rus' defeated the Polovtsy, and for a while they ceased to be a constant threat. The power of the Kyiv prince extended to all the lands inhabited by the ancient Russian people. The strife of petty princes was resolutely suppressed by the heavy hand of the Grand Duke. Kyiv was really the capital of a huge, the largest state in Europe" (B.A. Rybakov).
2. Let us now look at a map of medieval Europe and try to outline international position Russia. For residents Western Europe the then Russian lands were little known. But this does not mean that Russia lived some kind of closed life. It was connected by busy trade routes with the countries of the West, the East and the Mediterranean. (M.N. Tikhomirov).
3. “The heyday of ancient Russian art, with which the name of Rublev is inextricably linked, is simultaneous with the early Italian Renaissance (in other words, Proto-Renaissance, or Pre-Renaissance). But should we draw a parallel between these flowerings of the arts? And is it even possible to apply the terms "Renaissance" and "Pre-Renaissance" to Old Russian artistic creativity?» (L.D. Lyubimov).
4. “Tsar Boris had no doubt that the impostor was prepared by seditious boyars. One of the royal bodyguards, K. Bussov, reports that Godunov, at the very first news of the success of the impostor, said to his boyars in the face that this was their work and it was conceived to overthrow him, in which he was not mistaken, Bussov added from himself " (R.G. Skrynnikov).
5. “In the ideology of the time of Peter the Great, the image of a school that the whole country graduated from, “planted” by a formidable “teacher”, was popular. But for the reformer tsar, this was not only a vivid image, but also a real state task» (E.V. Anisimov).
6. “For Nikolai Pavlovich, the fight against the revolution was not only a tradition bequeathed to him by his elder brother, and not only a matter of personal taste: although for this sovereign, who loved military divorce more than anything in the world, hardly anything could be more disgusting popular movements who violated any "order" and any subordination. It was largely a matter of self-preservation for him." (M.N. Pokrovsky).
7. “All the reforms at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II are undoubtedly in close connection with each other and are a reflection of the public upsurge of energy and creativity that replaced the involuntary thirty years of stagnation and silence. The most obvious is the indicated connection, if we turn to the reform of the judiciary ... " (M.P. Chubinsky).

Criteria for evaluating an essay

1. The validity of the choice of topic (an explanation of the choice of topic and the tasks that the participant sets for himself in his work).
2. The creative nature of the perception of the topic, its comprehension.
3. Literacy of use historical facts and terms.
4. Clarity and evidence of the main provisions of the work.
5. Knowledge of different points of view on the topic under consideration.

Up to 5 points for each criterion.

Total for work 130 points.

310 years ago, on June 4, 1705, Tsar Peter Alekseevich allowed Nikita Demidov to build metallurgical plants in the Kungur region in the Urals. Since that time, the rise of the Demidov family, famous industrialists and landowners, began. The Demidovs became one of the founders of the mining and metallurgical industry in Russia.

From Russian metallurgy

The production of iron in Rus' has been known since ancient times. Archaeologists have found in the areas adjacent to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Murom, Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities, as well as Lake Ladoga and other areas, hundreds of places with the remains of melting pots, raw furnaces (the so-called . "wolf pits") and the corresponding tools for the production of metallurgy.

Developed metallurgy was also in Scythia, the direct successor of which was Rus'. In one of the "wolf pits" dug out for metal smelting near the village of Podmokly in the southern part of the Moscow region coal basin, a coin was found dated to the beginning of the 9th century. That is, metallurgy in Rus' existed even before the introduction of Christianity. The surnames of the Russian people also speak of the widespread distribution of metallurgy in Rus': Koval, Kovalenko, Kovalchuk, Kovalev, Kuznetsov. The mythology and folklore of the Russian people, where the blacksmith is one of the central figures fighting evil and representing the heavenly powers, also confirm the development of metallurgy in Ancient Rus'.

For the production of metal, two main factors are needed: fuel and raw materials. The main fuel at that time was charcoal. The highest quality charcoal was obtained from relatively rare and hardwood species - oak, beech and hornbeam, as well as birch. The smelting of iron required a huge amount of wood: it took almost 40 cubic meters of wood to process one ton of ore. A more technologically advanced replacement for charcoal, coke, appeared relatively recently (two hundred years). An interesting fact is that initially it was the absence of significant forests that prevented England from becoming the main metal producer in Europe. The increase in iron smelting in England brought to naught almost all large tracts of forests.

There was fuel in Rus'. Wood has been the main fuel and building material on our land. But there were problems with iron. There is no affordable high-quality iron ore on the Russian Plain. The Kursk magnetic anomaly was discovered only in the 20th century and the depth of occurrence there is 200-600 meters. The technologies of that time did not allow the development of such deposits. Mankind knows: magnetic iron ore (more than 70% iron), red iron ore (55-60%), brown iron ore (limonite, 35-55%) and spar iron ore (40%). Magnetite and hematite lie deep on the Russian platform, and there is no spar iron ore at all. Therefore, only brown iron ore remained. The raw material is bad, but its plus is that it was almost everywhere. "Swamp iron" (limonite) was mined in peat bogs. And the swamps were located among the then mighty forests of Rus'. Thus, metallurgy could be developed everywhere.

True, the Europeans were more fortunate. There were rich deposits of iron and other metals in the mountains in Germany and the Czech Republic. The mass extraction of metal ores by the mine method in the German lands began already in the 13th century. By the beginning of the 16th century, there was a powerful metallurgical industry in Germany, which produced basic metals (iron, copper, silver and gold). In the 16th century, massive exports of iron and copper from Sweden began. Sweden possessed rich deposits of iron ores and for two centuries firmly occupied the first place in the supply of iron and copper. So far, thanks to the Urals, Russia has not outstripped it.

"Swamp iron" is formed almost everywhere where there is a transition from oxygen-containing soils to an anoxic layer (at the junction of two layers). In swamps, this boundary is located very close to the surface; iron nodules can be dug with a shovel, removing a thin layer of vegetation and earth. The deposits of such iron are classic placers and can be mined with a minimum of effort.

For the cheese-making process, which was used by the metallurgists of Ancient Rus', iron-rich ore was required. And limonite is a poor ore. Therefore, swamp ore going into smelting was necessarily enriched. Among the methods of ore beneficiation were: drying, roasting, crushing, washing and screening. Thus, the availability of fuel and raw materials, as well as enrichment technologies, led to the fact that Rus' has been a country of gunsmiths since ancient times. We can safely say that Russian metallurgy allowed Rus' to survive hundreds of wars of varying intensity for a thousand years, from local conflicts to full-scale regional wars. Military production has been the backbone of the Russian state since ancient times.

"Swamp iron" was the basis of the metallurgy of Rus' until the 17th century. At the end of existence Old Russian state there were entire areas that specialized in the production of iron. In the modern Kursk region, iron was produced in the city of Rimov. One of the largest centers of metallurgy was in Novgorod land. Iron was produced in Ustyug Zhelezny (Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya). Swamp iron was mined in the area of ​​Yam, Koporye, Oreshka, and brought to Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod also bought iron through Hanseatic merchants in Germany and Sweden. In the 16th century, Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya remained the largest center of metalworking and weaponry in Muscovite Rus'; iron was also produced in Tula, Tikhvin, Olonets and Zaonezhye.

The extraction of non-ferrous metals on the territory of Rus' until the 18th century was virtually absent. Small sources of copper were in the Olonets region and Pechora, but they could not saturate the domestic market. In Novgorod, they knew about the sources of silver in the Urals, but then it was not possible to create production. Therefore, the bulk of non-ferrous metals came to Rus' from Europe. Not only iron came through Novgorod, but also the bulk of lead, tin and copper.

It is clear that this affected the military-strategic position of Rus'. Iron and copper were the metals of war. As the country developed, more and more metal was required. The Western opponents of Rus' - Sweden and Poland, took advantage of the fact that the main flow of metal went through them in Russian state and periodically, with the aim of political pressure and the military weakening of Moscow, they limited imports. Therefore, the attempts of the Russian government, starting with Ivan the Terrible and continuing with Pyotr Alekseevich, to “cut a window to Europe”, that is, to put part of the Baltic under its control, were associated with the desire to achieve free trade in the Baltic.

When the British first appeared in the Russian North under Ivan Vasilievich, Moscow was primarily interested in the possibility of supplying iron and other metals and bypassing the traditional sea route along the Baltic Sea and the land route through Poland. The British then did not see a threat from Russia, they were interested in Russian goods and passage to Persia along the Volga route, so the merchants of the Moscow Campaign began to actively sell non-ferrous metals and weapons to Moscow. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Arkhangelsk was still an important center for the supply of metal to Russia. They were supplied by English and Dutch merchants.

Under the first Romanovs, Moscow actively bought high-quality steel and non-ferrous metals, as well as ready-made cannons and gun barrels. However, this was not beneficial to Russia. Foreign iron was expensive. If at the beginning of the 17th century one pood (16 kg) of Russian iron cost the manufacturer about 60 kopecks, then the cost of a pood of Swedish iron reached 1 ruble. 30 kop. A pood of imported iron wire cost even more - up to 3 rubles. For comparison. An ordinary horse then cost about 2 rubles, and a serf could be bought for 3-5 rubles. "Damask strip" (they were used for the production of sabers) cost about 3 rubles, they were imported from Holland and Persia. Copper was brought by English, Dutch, Danish and Swedish merchants. Its cost was 1.5-3 rubles, and roofing copper (for church domes) - 6 rubles. Silver and gold were also imported. Silver at the beginning of the 17th century cost about 450 rubles. pood, gold - about 3300 rubles. Tin, lead and copper were brought from Germany.

However, Sweden was the main supplier of high-quality iron for Russia at that time. Russia in Sweden bought practically only metals. It is clear that as relations between Russia and Sweden worsened, the situation became more and more dangerous. The Swedes captured the Russian lands in the Baltic, pushed back the Poles, turning the Baltic Sea into the "Swedish Lake". Powerful metallurgical base made Sweden powerful military power which threatened the future of Russia.

"Swamp Iron"

The development of metallurgy under the Romanovs

As soon as Russia recovered from the Time of Troubles, the Russian government tried to create its own metallurgy. In 1632, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich gave the Dutch merchant Vinius a letter of commendation for the construction of an ironworks in the Tula region. Production was based on the basis of the Didilovsky mines. It was no longer "marsh iron", but deposits of high-quality iron ore near the village of Didilovo. Question from labor force decided by assigning an entire volost to the enterprise, so the category of ascribed peasants began to arise. In addition, “eager people”, that is, civilian employees, also worked at the enterprise. Vinius' enterprise became a real manufactory using machines.

Vinius was soon joined by the Dutch merchant Filimon Akema and a Dane from Hamburg, Peter Marselis. They built three more manufactories in the Tula region (“Gorodishchensky factories”). Not only Russians worked at the enterprises, but also masters invited from Europe. Marselis and Akema built several more iron-working manufactories on the Skniga River (“Kashirskiye Zavody”). These iron enterprises became the core of metallurgy in Russia. However, the attempt to launch copper production in Karelia and get rid of expensive imported metal failed. Due to the small reserves of copper, the high labor intensity of the work and the significant costs associated with this, the plant was recognized as unprofitable and closed. True, they were able to open five metallurgical manufactories on water energy in the 1680s in Karelia (“Olonets Plants”). Under Peter, these enterprises began to specialize in the interests Baltic Fleet.

Andrei Denisovich Vinius, engraving by Cornelius Vishera, 1650

Since 1693, the first iron-smelting plant with the use of water energy has been operating in the south of Russia. Metal from the Lipetsk plant was delivered to Voronezh, where Peter built the Azov flotilla. In 1703-1705. production was expanded here, the Lipsky Iron Works arose. They became the metallurgical base of the Azov Flotilla and in the first years of the Northern War gave the country half of the metal needed for military production.

However, this was not enough to create a metallurgical base capable of making Russia an advanced European power. "Bolotny metal" and rare surface deposits of iron ore on the Russian Plain could not provide sufficient production. A qualitative leap was needed. And only the Urals could provide it. Even in ancient times, the Urals was the center of metallurgy. Novgorodians have long discovered "Chudsky mines" on its slopes.

The first developments in the Urals began in XVII century. But the remoteness of the region from the main Russian urban centers and the small size of the Russian population prevented the development of the Urals. Only at the end of this century, Tsar Peter Alekseevich ordered to start regular geological surveys in the Urals. In 1700, the Nevyansk blast furnace and ironworks were built on the Neiva River. Then an iron plant was erected on the site of the present city of Kamensk-Uralsky and a metallurgical plant in Alapaevsk. In 1723, the Yekaterinburg State Plant was founded.

Thus, under Peter, they created the basis of an industrial base in the Urals. Then the Urals will become the most important economic region of the Russian Empire for a long time. The region was an excellent place for the development of metallurgy. There were rich deposits of high-quality ores quite close to the surface, forests for harvesting charcoal and numerous rivers that made it possible to use the energy of water for the operation of machines. Back to top XVIII century The Urals have already been settled, providing the factories with labor. Already in 1750, Russia had 72 "iron" and 29 copper smelters. In the XVIII century, the Ural industrial region will produce more than 80% of all iron and 95% of copper in all of Russia. Thanks to the Ural factories, Russia got rid of external dependence and itself became a major supplier of metal. The export of Russian metal began already under Peter I, and in the 1770s Russia supplied iron to England more than Sweden. For most of the century, the Russian Empire was the largest metal producer on the planet and its leading exporter in Western Europe. A powerful metallurgical base became one of the prerequisites for Russia's military and political success in the 18th century.

Monument to Nikita Demidov and Peter I in Nevyansk

"ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD OF SCHOOLCHILDREN IN HISTORY 2016-2017 ac. d. MUNICIPAL STAGE Grade 9 In tasks 1-3, give one correct answer. Answer..."

ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN

IN HISTORY 2016–2017 academic year G.

MUNICIPAL STAGE

In tasks 1-3, give one correct answer. Enter your answer in the table

on the worksheet.

1. What Arab traveler did in the tenth century. journey

to the Volga Bulgaria and then compiled a description of the life of the peoples of Eastern

1) Avicenna 3) Ibn Fadlan

2) Rashid ad-Din 4) Ibn Battuta

2. In what year did the events described below take place?

“A nationwide struggle unfolded against the invaders. Patriotic journalism was spreading throughout the country (“The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Tsardom”, etc.). In early spring, a militia was created. Its core was the detachments of the Ryazan nobles, headed by P. Lyapunov. The militia also included nobles, townspeople and peasants of the Volga region and the north-east of the country.

1) 1604 3) 1612 2) 1611 4) 1617

3. The emergence of which city is associated with a metallurgical plant built on the orders of Peter I?

1) Bryansk 3) Magnitogorsk

2) Irkutsk 4) Lipetsk Total 3 points for tasks 1–3.

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municipal stage. Grade 9 In tasks 4-6, select several correct answers from those offered.

Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

4. Indicate the names of historical figures who were contemporaries of Alexander I.

1) Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn

2) Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin

3) Pyotr Alekseevich Palen

4) Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov

5) Alexey Alexandrovich Kurbatov

6) Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky

5. Which of the following terms are related to architecture?

1) zakomara 4) cinnabar

2) scan 5) portal

3) shoulder blade 6) liturgy

6. Which of the names are related to the Cossack troops that existed in Russia?

1) Nizhny Novgorod 4) Yakut

2) Donskoye 5) Semirechenskoye

3) Astrakhan 6) Buzulukskoe Total 6 points for tasks 4–6.

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All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren in History 2016-2017 G.

municipal stage. Grade 9

7. The list below presents legislative acts adopted under various rulers of Russia in the 18th–19th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the form of the work, and the serial numbers of the legislative acts that appeared under the corresponding ruler in the bottom line.

1) A charter to the nobility

2) Establishment for the management of a large active army

3) the statute of the Order of St. George the Victorious

4) Table of ranks

5) decree on the creation of the Governing Senate

6) decree on the liquidation of the Secret Expedition

7) decree on single inheritance

8) decree on the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium instead of the hetman's board in Little Russia

9) manifesto on the formation of the State Council Total 9 points.

8. The list below presents the names of cities and territories annexed to the Moscow principality (Russian state) under various rulers in the 15th-16th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the form of the work, and the serial numbers of cities and territories annexed under the corresponding ruler in the bottom line.

1) Kazan Khanate

2) Yugra land

3) Smolensk

4) Bashkiria

6) Novgorod

9) Astrakhan Khanate Total 9 points.

–  –  –

9. By what principle are the rows formed? Give the most accurate answer.

9.1. Grengam, Noteburg, Gangut, Helsingfors.

9.2. IN. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov, N.I. Kostomarov, N.M. Karamzin.

Only 4 points.

10. Arrange historical events in chronological order. Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

A) the creation of the Kyiv Metropolis

B) the final victory of Yaroslav the Wise over Svyatopolk

C) acceptance of the Truth of the Yaroslavichs

D) reform of pagan cults

D) the death of Prince Boris

E) appointment of Hilarion as metropolitan Total 4 points.

11. Arrange the terms in the chronological order of their appearance. Enter your answers in the table on the worksheet.

A) military districts

B) provinces

B) life guard

D) military settlements

E) archers Total 4 points.

–  –  –

14. Fill in the gaps in the text. If necessary, with serial numbers, explanations are given about the nature of the required insertion. Enter the necessary words, names, dates under the appropriate numbers in the table placed in the work sheet.

In 1735, Russia decided to transfer (1 - the name of the country) its Caspian provinces conquered by Peter I during the (2 - name) campaign of 1722-1723. These provinces did not bring any income, and the maintenance of the army and fortresses there burdened the treasury. Turkey, according to the (3 - name) agreement of 1724, recognized these provinces as Russian, but she did not want to put up with the success of her main competitor in the Transcaucasus - (1). Therefore, the troops of vassal Turkey (4 - the name of the state) went to the Caucasus, violating the borders of Russia. In response, the Russian Empire declared war on Turkey. Russia's ally in this war was (5).

In the autumn of 1735, the corps under the leadership of General M.I. Leontiev tried to enter the territory (4), but the impassability and poor supply of the troops did not allow him to do so.

The following year, the Russian army under the command of a field marshal (6 - surname) passed (7) - the isthmus that separates the peninsula from the mainland - and captured the capital (4) - the city (8). Then, fearing to be locked in (4) by the Tatar army returning from Transcaucasia, (6) left the Crimean territory. In the summer of the same year, the Russians occupied the fortress (9), and the next year - the fortress (10).

At the initiative of the Turks in the summer of 1737, tripartite peace negotiations began in Nemirov, but they soon reached an impasse, and the war continued. Russian troops won small victories. They won the largest battle in August 1739 under (11 - name), after which two days later they occupied the fortress (12). This event made such a deep impression on contemporaries that (13 - surname) wrote his famous "Ode to the capture (12)". In the same year in (14 - the name of the city) a peace treaty was concluded that ended this war. Unfortunately, it was unprofitable for Russia, since under its terms it did not get access to (15 - a geographical object).

Only 9 points.

–  –  –

15. Carefully examine the map and complete the tasks below.

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All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren in History 2016-2017 G.

municipal stage. Grade 9

1. Write who was an ally of the Russian troops in the battle that took place south of all the battles indicated on the map.

2. Write the number that indicates the city, which withstood the siege of the Mongol troops for several weeks.

3. Write the name of the historical figure who defended the city indicated by the number 8, winning the two battles indicated on the map.

4. Write the name of the Mongol commander who participated in the campaigns of the 1220s–1230s shown on the map.

5. Are the statements below correct (“yes” - “no”)? Enter your answers in the table.

A) The defense of the city, indicated by the number 6, was led by the governor Dmitry.

B) In one of the battles marked on the map, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky died.

C) The name of the state is signed on the map, the capital of which in the XV century. became Königsberg.

D) Vladimir troops took part in the battle near the city marked with the number 5.

E) A contemporary of all the events reflected on the map was the son of Genghis Khan Jochi.

Total 14 points for task 15.

–  –  –

16. Compare the images below with the characteristics of Russian princes given by various domestic historians, with whom these images are associated in meaning. Write the names of these figures in the table.

In the appropriate columns, indicate the serial number of the fragment of the description of the historical figure and the numerical designation of the world history event, of which he was a contemporary.

–  –  –

D) Characteristics of Russian historians 1. “Modern researchers, in general, are unanimous in their assessment of his role in the creation of a new political system of the Russian state, based on “paternal” ownership of lands. But this is only one of the two components of the political program of the prince ... In his understanding ... the most important basis for the political structure of society was to be “the fear of God” - the sense of responsibility of the princes ... before God, before which each of the living on earth had to answer at the Last Judgment "( A.Yu. Karpov).

2. “He was a man of strong temper, cold, reasonable, with a callous heart, power-hungry, unswerving in pursuit of his chosen goal, hidden, extremely cautious; in all his actions one can see gradualness, even slowness; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to use circumstances admirably; he never got carried away, but he acted decisively when he saw that the matter was ripe to the point that success was undoubted. The taking of lands and, perhaps, their permanent attachment to the Muscovite state was the cherished goal of his political activity; following his forefathers in this matter, he surpassed all of them and left an example of imitation to his descendants for a long time.

(N.I. Kostomarov).

3. “He acted as an imperious prince-patrimony, steadily striving to expand the territory of his principality and to subordinate other Russian princes to his authority. There were no motives for the national liberation struggle in his activities. The prince did not fight against the oppression of the Golden Horde, but paid off the khan with the regular payment of the “exit”, giving Rus' some respite from the Tatar raids ... "

(L.V. Cherepnin).

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All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren in History 2016-2017 G.

municipal stage. Grade 9 4. “With his cautious prudent policy, he saved Rus' from the final ruin of the armies of nomads. With armed struggle, trade policy, selective diplomacy, he avoided new wars in the North and West, a possible, but disastrous for Rus', alliance with the papacy and the rapprochement of the curia and crusaders with the Horde. He bought time, allowing Rus' to get stronger and recover from the terrible ruin. He is the founder of the policy of the Moscow princes, the policy of the revival of Russia ”(V.T. Pashuto).

Events of world history I. Convocation of the Estates General in France II. Excommunication of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II from the Church.

III. Unification of Castile and Aragon into a single kingdom IV. Walking to Canossa Total 12 points.

17. One of the most important aspects of the activity of a historian is the analysis of a source, the ability to extract the necessary information from it. Before you is a fragment of "Notes on ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations", compiled by N.M. Karamzin. Write on its basis a short work "Criticism of the liberal transformations of Alexander I by his contemporaries."

“The main mistake of the legislators of this reign is the excessive respect for the forms of state activity: hence the invention of various ministries, the establishment of the Council, and so on. Things are no better done - only in places and officials of a different name. Let's follow a different rule and say that it is not forms, but people that are important. Let the ministries and the Council exist: they will be useful if in the ministry and in the Council we see only men famous for reason and honor. So, our first good desire is, may God help Alexander in the happy election of people!

Such an election, and not the establishment of the Senate with colleges, marked the greatness of the reign of Peter in the internal affairs of the empire. This monarch had a passion for capable people, he looked for them in the cells of the monastery and in dark cabins: there he found Feofan and Osterman, glorious in our state history.

Other circumstances and modest, quiet properties of the soul distinguish Alexander from Peter, who was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone and took upon himself one word at a time, at one glance to decide the dignity of a person; but let there be the same rule: look for people! Whoever has the Sovereign's power of attorney, let them notice them in the distance for the very first places. Not only in republics, but also in monarchies, candidates must be appointed solely according to their ability. The almighty hand of the sovereign alone leads, © GAOU DPO CPM. Publication on the Internet or print media without the written consent of GAOU DPO CPM is prohibited.

All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren in History 2016-2017 G.

municipal stage.

9th grade another rushes to the heights; slow gradualness is a law for many, and not for all. Whoever has the mind of a minister should not become gray-haired as head clerks or secretaries. Ranks are humiliated not by their quick acquisition, but by the stupidity or dishonor of dignitaries; envy is aroused, but soon falls silent in the face of the worthy. You do not form a useful ministry by composing an Instruction—then you form it when you have prepared good ministers. The Council is considering their proposal, but are you sure of the wisdom of its members?

General wisdom is born only from particular. In a word, people are most needed now!”

Work plan

1. Characteristics of the document. Based on your knowledge of the history course, answer the questions. What is the author of the Notes famous for? When was the document created? Who was it for?

2. Characteristics of the circumstances of the creation of the document. What problem is addressed in the "Note"? What transformations were carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander I? Which statesman was negatively perceived by Karamzin as the author of transformations that were not necessary for the country?

4. Conclusions: what current of social thought did the author belong to? What did he first of all draw the attention of the addressee of the Note to? Give two positions.

Total 21 points.

–  –  –

18. You have to work with the statements of historians and contemporaries about the events and figures of national history. Choose one of them that will be the topic of your essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to this statement and substantiate it with the arguments that seem to you the most significant. When choosing a topic, proceed from the fact that you:

1) clearly understand the meaning of the statement (it is not necessary to fully or even partially agree with the author, but it is necessary to understand what exactly he claims);

2) you can express your attitude to the statement (arguably agree with the author or completely or partially refute his statement);

3) have specific knowledge (facts, statistics, examples) on the topic;

4) you know the terms necessary for a competent presentation of your point of view.

Topics 1. “Under Vladimir Monomakh, Rus' defeated the Polovtsy, and for a while they ceased to be a constant threat.

The power of the Kyiv prince extended to all the lands inhabited by the ancient Russian people. The strife of petty princes was resolutely suppressed by the heavy hand of the Grand Duke. Kyiv was really the capital of a huge, the largest state in Europe"

(B.A. Rybakov).

2. “Now let's take a look at the map of medieval Europe and try to outline the international position of Russia. For the inhabitants of Western Europe, the then Russian lands were little known. But this does not mean that Russia lived some kind of closed life. It was connected by busy trade routes with the countries of the West, the East and the Mediterranean” (M.N. Tikhomirov).

3. “The flowering of ancient Russian art, with which the name of Rublev is inextricably linked, is simultaneous with the early Italian Renaissance (in other words, Proto-Renaissance, or Pre-Renaissance). But should we draw a parallel between these flowerings of the arts? And is it even possible to apply the terms "Renaissance" and "Pre-Renaissance" to ancient Russian artistic creativity? (L.D. Lyubimov).

4. “Tsar Boris had no doubt that the impostor was prepared by seditious boyars. One of the tsar's bodyguards, K. Bussov, reports that Godunov, at the very first news of the success of the impostor, said to his boyars in the face that this was their work and it was conceived to overthrow him, in which he was not mistaken, Bussov added from himself ”( R.G. Skrynnikov).

–  –  –

5. “In the ideology of the time of Peter the Great, the image of a school, which the whole country graduated from, “planted” by a formidable “teacher”, was popular. But for the reformer tsar, this was not only a vivid image, but also a real state task ”(E.V. Anisimov).

6. “For Nikolai Pavlovich, the fight against the revolution was not only a tradition bequeathed to him by his elder brother, and not only a matter of personal taste:

although for this sovereign, who loved military divorce more than anything in the world, hardly anything could be more disgusting than popular movements that violated any “order” and any subordination. To a large extent, it was a matter of self-preservation for him” (M.N. Pokrovsky).

7. “All the reforms of the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II, of course, are in close connection with each other and are a reflection of the public upsurge of energy and creativity that replaced the involuntary thirty years of stagnation and silence. The most obvious is the indicated connection, if we turn to the reform of the judiciary ... "

Demidovs: A century of victories Yurkin Igor Nikolaevich

The first metallurgical manufactories of the Tula region

The first metallurgical manufactories of the Tula region

The described technology was simple and cheap, thanks to which it was widely used and used in Russia for a very long time - until the 18th century inclusive.

Meanwhile, in Europe, back in the 12th century, they learned how to obtain a fundamentally different, high-carbon alloy, cast iron, from iron ore. Restoration with the new technology was carried out in significantly larger furnaces (ancestors of modern blast furnaces) and, due to more intense blast, at a higher temperature. Having disadvantages (in particular, increased brittleness in comparison with iron), cast iron also had valuable qualities - first of all, good casting properties. Over time, a method was developed to reduce the carbon content in the alloy, due to which it turned into ordinary low-carbon iron. Thus, a fundamentally new technology for processing iron ore was born: in contrast to the previously existing one-stage (ore - iron) - two-stage (ore - cast iron - iron). More complex than the former, it had many advantages. There were two most important ones: the immeasurably greater productivity of the process and the greater homogeneity of the metal, which made it possible to ensure its more stable quality. The blast furnace had all the hallmarks of a manufactory. It was a relatively large production. It employed masters highly specialized in their skills - blast-furnace, foundry, dam and others. Complex mechanisms operated here, which were no longer operated by hand, but by the power of water, which is why such plants were called "water-powered".

The first attempts to create a domain manufactory in Russia are associated with the activities of English merchants who appeared here under Ivan the Terrible. But his permission to do so was soon revoked. The first blast furnace in Muscovy appeared much later - under the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty.

The father of Russian blast-furnace metallurgy was destined to be the Dutch entrepreneur Andreas Dionisius (Andrey Denisovich in Russia) Vinius, who was originally engaged in trade here. A couple of times, on behalf of the government, he quite successfully sold state-owned bread abroad, thanks to which he received benefits as an incentive. In 1632, the sovereign granted the merchant again: at his request, he ordered him and his companions, his brother Abraham (Abram) Vinius and Julius Willeken (Elisey Vylkens, Vilkensen), from iron ore "to make any iron for ten years without quitting". It was indicated to do this (it was stipulated: “against their petition”) “between Serpukhov and Tula on three rivers: on the Voshan river, and on the Skniga river, and on the river on the Raven and forward, where they ... will find places.” Companions were instructed to “set up mills in those places and iron for all sorts of articles, melt and pour and forge cannons and cannonballs and boilers and boards and various rods and do all kinds of iron work.” By "mills" was meant hydraulic power plants used to drive blast-furnace blowers and hammers to reforge cast iron with water.

Factories - in fact, workshops of a single enterprise - were placed in a chain along the Tulitsa River, a tributary of the Upa River, at a distance of one or two versts from one another. (The weakness of the watercourse of small rivers did not allow them to be placed side by side.) Address: Tula district, Starogorodischensky camp, according to which the plants received one of the names - Gorodishchensky (another - Tula). From the nearest of them to the armory of Tula (which we will get to know later) was only 12 versts. Let's pay attention: the first blast-furnace plant in Russia, which produced products already in 1636, operated near the center, where weapons were made from time immemorial. The connection between the two branches of Russian industry - ferrous metallurgy and the production of weapons, which has existed for a long time, has become even stronger with the launch of a blast furnace near Tula.

At the Gorodishche plants, the production of pig iron and its conversion into iron were combined. The factories that cast cannons and cannonballs for them, made frying pans and shackles became an experimental testing ground, proving that iron from Russian ores can be cast no worse than in other countries, that iron from such cast iron in many cases completely replaces Swedish. The state, vitally interested in the presence in Russia of such an industry (which largely provided for the needs of the army), helped its development: it provided loans to breeders, assigned palace peasants to the factories.

The first builder of the factories, Andrey Vinius, “dropped out” of their history a decade after the launch. The furnaces and hammer furnaces created by his cares were transferred to his companions of the “second wave”: to the Dutch merchant Filimon Akema and a native of Hamburg, a resident Danish king Peter Marselis. It was they who built the first pure conversion (iron-making) complex in Russia - the Kashirsky factories on the Skniga River, which worked on cast iron, with the complete processing of which the Molotovs in Tulitsa could not cope with the complete processing of which. They were followed by new manufactories. So the Gorodishchensky plants became the center of the Tula-Kashirsky metallurgical region, the oldest in the history of Russian blast-furnace metallurgy.

Most of the owners of Russian metallurgical manufactories of the 17th century were foreigners. There were exceptions, but few. It was not until the last decade of the century that a new trend emerged. In 1690, all the Marselis factories, as escheated property, went to the treasury and were soon transferred to the domestic owner - the uncle of Tsar Peter Alekseevich boyar Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin. A few years later, the construction of factories by Russian entrepreneurs began. The first of them were the founders of the plant in the city of Romanov, the clerk Kuzma Borin and Nikita Aristov, who belonged to the living hundred. Around the same time, the state-owned gunsmith Nikita Demidov was building his first factory in Tula.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book Fridtjof Nansen author Kublitsky Georgy Ivanovich

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From the book Kolyma Notebooks the author Shalamov Varlam

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Early stages of development of metallurgy

Despite the names of the periods of evolution of primitive society, metallurgy begins its development in the Stone Age. The most ancient attempts of man in metalworking are dated by historians to the sixth century BC. Relevant archaeological finds testifying to this were discovered on the Iberian Peninsula, in the Balkans (in Serbia and Bulgaria), in the British Stonehenge. True, the age of all these finds is not always easy to establish.

Of course, his first experiments in metallurgy ancient man carried out with low-melting metals: silver, tin, as well as iron of meteoric origin. The processing of metals with a higher melting point was simply impossible in those days. So, in the III millennium BC. The Egyptians learned how to make pretty good meteoric iron weapons, which were valued far beyond ancient egypt. These durable blades were soon dubbed "heavenly daggers".

About 5500 years ago, humanity enters a new era of its development - Bronze Age. This transition was marked by several important achievements. First, man learned to extract tin from rocks. Secondly, he managed to get a completely new alloy -. However, the further development of metallurgy needed more technologically advanced and more complex processes, and therefore slowed down for more than two millennia.

It is generally accepted that it was first revealed from the body to the Hittites, a people who lived in Asia Minor and was repeatedly mentioned in the Bible. It happened around 1200 BC. It is from this date that the Iron Age begins in the development of society.

Traces of the development of ferrous metallurgy can be seen in various historical cultures: in Ancient Greece and Rome, Egypt and Anatolia, Carthage, Ancient China and India. It is not superfluous to note that many of the techniques and methods of metal processing were invented by the Chinese, and only then they were all mastered by the Europeans. It is, in particular, about smelting, invention or hydraulic hammer. But the leaders in the field of forging metals and mining, as researchers recently found out, were the ancient Romans.

The history of the development of metallurgy in Africa, Southeast Asia and Australia

How did it develop in other regions of the Earth? It is known that in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, tools from bloomery iron were already actively used in Southeast Asia. At first, these were bimetallic products, and a little later they were made entirely of iron.

The population of ancient China was also familiar with bimetallic things. For their production, iron of meteoric origin was used. The first information about such items dates back to the 8th century BC. But by the middle of the first millennium BC, the production of real iron begins in this part of the world. It was the Chinese who first mastered the technique of producing cast iron, and they did it much earlier than the Europeans.

The African region also made a significant contribution to the global process of development of metallurgy. It was in Africa that a cylindrical horn was invented for, which was not known to other peoples of the world. Many historians are sure that Africans have learned to produce iron on their own, without any outside influences. About 2600 years ago, iron already appeared in a number of countries and territories of the "black continent": in Sudan, Libya and Nubia. Separate African tribes, as researchers suggest, they completely “jumped” from the Stone Age - immediately into the Iron Age.

In general, iron production in Africa was fully developed within the second half of the 1st millennium BC. It is curious that copper production was mastered here even a little later. And if jewelry was made from copper on this mainland, then only tools were made from iron.

Concerning " southern land”- the mainland of Australia, then ferrous metallurgy began to develop here only during the Great geographical discoveries(in the XVI-XVII centuries).

Features of the development of metallurgy in America

The New World was characterized by the existence of several centers of early metallurgy at once. One of these centers was located in the Andes Mountains, which are famous for their rich ore minerals. The first metal here was gold. In addition, silverware was produced in the Andes. On the territory of the modern state of Peru in the second half of the II millennium BC. an alloy of silver and copper was obtained - tumbaga, which became extremely popular in South America.

IN Central America people got acquainted with metal only in the first millennium BC. And they brought him here. The Mayan tribes mastered the craft of obtaining metal only by the 7th century AD. However, by this time their civilization was already approaching its decline.

Copper was the first metal in North America. Then they learned how to make iron here (at first, meteoric, and a little later, bloomery). This happened in the first millennium BC, and the western regions of the continent in this area developed much faster.

Invention of the cheese-blowing process

One of the most ancient ways of obtaining iron is called raw iron (from the words "to blow" and "raw"). Furnaces were dug directly into the ground, as a rule, on the slopes of the relief. Raw (cold) air entered (blew out) small furnaces with iron ore. In the early stages of development this method air draft was natural, but later it was replaced by artificial air in the furnace began to be forced.

The bottom of the furnaces was covered with coal, and ore was placed on top in layers. The latter, during its combustion, released oxide - a gas that performed the function of reducing iron oxides. It is worth noting that with the raw-blowing method, iron was not so much melted as "cooked", since this process created a temperature insufficient for iron melting (about 1200 degrees Celsius). Based on this, "boiled" iron in the form of a spongy mass resembling dough was located at the bottom of the furnace. This mass, as a rule, included numerous impurities and residues of coal (however, in some cases, slag was removed from the furnace through a special chute).

In order to produce any products from such a substrate, it was necessary to first remove foreign impurities from the cracker. This was done by forging - cold and hot. Ultimately, it was possible to obtain flash iron for later use.

The “invention” of the raw iron production method, as historians suggest, occurred during direct smelting or copper. As is known, this process was accompanied by the addition of not only coal and the corresponding ore, but also hematites to the smelting furnaces. And it was precisely in this scenario that, most likely, the first iron cracks were obtained by man. It is quite possible that copper smelting furnaces simply gradually turned into raw furnaces.

It so happened that getting copper or is much easier than iron. Even despite the fact that copper and tin ores are much less common in nature than iron ores. That is why the cheese-making process turned out to be a very important stage in the development of ferrous metallurgy. This technology has been constantly improved: by improving the blast or increasing the size of the furnaces. However, these improvements did not solve main problem: flash iron contained practically no carbon, which means that it could not compete with bronze. Things from it were not hard enough, in comparison with bronze products. It was for this reason that iron in those days was used to a greater extent for the manufacture of jewelry. In the production of iron, it was simply necessary to change something.

Mastering the technology of cementation and hardening of iron

The next round of progress in the development of metallurgical business was the emergence of the technology of the so-called "cementing", as well as hardening and thermal tempering of iron. The beginning of a full-fledged Iron Age is associated with the development of these three processes.

Cementation refers to the process of artificial saturation of crack with carbon. This technology was mastered by man in the first place. Various substances were used to cement the bloomery iron. Initially, the bloom mass was calcined in bone charcoal, later in other substances with a high carbon content. The development of cementation technology gave man the opportunity to obtain the first, albeit very primitive, steel samples.

"Cemented" iron already outperformed bronze in terms of its hardness. At the same time, the degree of carbon saturation of the bloom depended on the iron heating temperature.

Following the discovery of the carburizing technique, the hardening effect was discovered. Man was surprised to find that iron saturated with carbon and cooled becomes even stronger. For such cooling, water, snow, or iron was simply left in the open cold air. The effect was even in the latter case.

Both of the processes described above were most likely discovered by man by accident. It is unlikely that the ancient blacksmiths could explain the true nature of these processes. This is evidenced by the found written sources of those times. In particular, they can find very interesting moments. Thus, the fact of strengthening the strength of iron during hardening was often explained by fantastic or mystical theories. For example, in the chronicle from Asia Minor, dated to the ninth century BC, one can find a colorful way of hardening iron by “dipping a dagger” into the body of a “muscular slave”. It is the strength of the slave, according to the author given text, made the metal harder. No less interesting is a separate fragment taken from Homer's Odyssey, where burning out the eye of a cyclops is compared with immersing a red-hot iron cleaver in ice water. Moreover, Homer refers to the last procedure as "treatment of an ax." Based on this, the ancient Greeks probably did not understand the nature of the metal hardening process, but gave it a special, magical meaning.

Hardened steel has one significant drawback - it is excessive brittleness. The discovery of the technology of thermal tempering of iron made it possible to significantly reduce it. This technology consists in heating products up to 727 degrees Celsius (this is the boundary temperature of the deformation of the iron structure).

One should not think that the development of technologies for carburizing, tempering and hardening of iron was a one-time thing. In fact, these processes lasted for about a thousand years! But it was the discovery and improvement of these three technologies that once and for all put an end to the irreconcilable competitive struggle between bronze and iron.

Development of metallurgy in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, smelting furnaces have already changed significantly. Firstly, they reached a height of two or three meters. And secondly, they worked with the help of water energy: blowers set in motion special pipes or large water wheels.

IN medieval Europe the so-called "shtukofen" were widespread - huge and high furnaces, which brought ferrous metallurgy to a new stage in its development. These furnaces were equipped with a 4-meter draft tube and water engines. Sometimes the bellows set several workers in motion. The ferruginous kritz was removed from such an oven once a day.
The history of the invention and penetration of shtukofen into Europe is curious. They were invented in India in the first millennium BC. Then the new invention came to neighboring China, and from there, in the 7th century AD, to the Arab world. In the XIII century, the Arabs brought these wonderful ovens to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, from where they quickly spread throughout Europe.

In terms of performance and technical parameters, shtukofen was head and shoulders above its predecessors - cheese-blowing ovens. The melting temperature in it was reached higher, which made it possible to obtain full-fledged cast iron. A shtukofen could produce more than two centners of iron per day. True, cast iron from such an installation was, as a rule, unsuitable. The fact is that it ended up at the bottom of the furnace, mixing with slag. To clean it, forging was required, which cast iron did not succumb to. At that time, they did not know other ways to clean it.

Nevertheless, some peoples still managed to find a use even for such “dirty” cast iron. Hindus, for example, made coffins for the dead from it. But in Ottoman Empire cannonballs were made from stucco cast iron.

Invention of a new type of stove - blauofen

Medieval metallurgists established an important pattern: the higher the melting temperature of the ore in the furnace, the more product (iron) can be obtained at the output. After this discovery, they began to try to modernize their gizmos: increase the height of the pipes and establish an air preheating system. So in the 15th century, a new type of stove appeared in Europe - blauofen.

However, the modernized furnaces almost immediately unpleasantly surprised metallurgists. The output of the final product really increased, but at the same time, the amount of waste - unsuitable cast iron - increased by 20%. Dirty, or, as it was also called, "pig" iron, it froze on its own at the bottom of new furnaces. Cast iron mixed with slag, as before, was absolutely unsuitable for casting. As a rule, it was used for the production of sledgehammers, anvils and other rough implements. True, cannonballs made of blauophene cast iron came out of better quality.

Another positive moment of the blauofen is that the amount of steel along the edges of the iron flash in these furnaces has increased significantly. Of course, this pleased the metallurgists. However, on the other hand, it was very, very difficult to separate such steel from flash iron. And in this situation, different peoples took different paths, solving this complex problem.

So, in India, all efforts were thrown at improving the forging technique in order to achieve a more uniform distribution of carbons in the product. And these efforts bore fruit - the Indians received damask steel - a very strong and elastic steel, from which first-class bladed weapons were made at that time. Bulat was also produced in Iran and Central Asia.
The Chinese and Europeans, unlike the Indians, were not at all interested in the quality, but in the quantity of the final product. Therefore, it was they who soon discovered the so-called conversion process, which incredibly strongly influenced the development of metallurgy as a whole.

The emergence of blast furnaces

Up to 1,500 tons of high-quality cast iron per day - medieval metallurgists could not even dream of such a thing. But this became a common daily norm with the advent of blast furnaces. Due to its large size, air preheating and mechanical blast system, such a furnace was able to extract iron from the ore mass and turn it into pig iron. The latter came out in molten form. True, forging was still necessary. But now there was already much less slag in mass, and more iron. Another advantage of the blast furnace was the continuity of its operation. The installation functioned around the clock, without stopping and without cooling.

In the 18th century, another process was discovered in European metallurgy - puddling. He assumed the purification of cast iron in a furnace with the help of gas obtained from the combustion of coal or other mineral fuels. By the way, in ancient China, steel was even produced in this way back in the 10th century. With this cleaning technique, the glandular particles were collected in lumps. Then they were welded in a forge or in a special rolling machine, and various iron blanks were obtained from them. The puddling method made it possible to increase the productivity of iron up to 140 kg per hour.

The development of metallurgy in the 19th and 20th centuries

Another leap in the development of the metallurgical business occurred in late XIX century. During this period, almost simultaneously, three absolutely new methods are being introduced into the production of metal: open-hearth, Thomas and Bessemer. All these methods have increased steel production enormously - up to six tons per hour.
Half a century later, even newer processes are being introduced into metallurgy. These are, in particular, continuous casting of steel and oxygen blasting. Blowing molten metal with oxygen in converter furnaces significantly accelerated the rate of chemical reactions.

History, as you know, moves in a spiral. This also applies to history. industrial production. Thousands of years ago, people built raw-blast furnaces in the ground and obtained, using a one-stage method, high-quality and corrosion-resistant iron with a small amount of impurities. And today, scientists have again returned to the technology of one-stage processes, developing a method of ore dressing and steel production.