How Academician Sakharov saw the world half a century later. Internet and adventurous wars. How Academician Sakharov saw the world half a century later It seems to me that continuation and development is inevitable

Current page: 4 (total book has 10 pages)

An even more important place than now in the science of the future should be occupied by space research. I am suggesting an expansion of attempts to establish communication with alien civilizations. These are attempts to receive signals from them in all known types of radiation, and at the same time design and implementation of their own radiating installations. This is a search in space for information projectiles of alien civilizations. Information received "from outside" can have a revolutionary impact on all parties human life- on science, technology, can be useful in the sense of exchanging social experience. Inaction in this direction, despite the absence of any guarantee of success in the foreseeable future, would be unwise.

I assume that powerful telescopes installed in space scientific laboratories or on the Moon, will make it possible to see the planets revolving around the nearest stars (Alpha Centauri and others). Atmospheric interference makes it inexpedient to increase the mirrors of ground-based telescopes beyond the existing ones.

Probably, by the end of the fiftieth anniversary, the economic development of the surface of the Moon, as well as the use of asteroids, will begin. Having made explosions of special atomic charges on the surface of asteroids, it may be possible to control their movement, to direct them "closer" to the Earth.

I have outlined some of my assumptions about the future of science and technology. But I have almost completely bypassed that which is at the very heart of science, and which often proves to be the most significant in terms of practical implications, the most abstract theoretical studies, born of the inexhaustible curiosity, flexibility and power of the human mind. In the first half of the 20th century, such studies were the creation of a special and general theory relativity, creation quantum mechanics, revealing the structure of the atom and atomic nucleus. Discoveries of this magnitude have always been and will be unpredictable. The only thing I can risk, and even then with great doubts, is to name a few fairly broad areas in which, in my opinion, especially possible important discoveries. Research in the field of the theory of elementary particles and in the field of cosmology can lead not only to great concrete progress in already existing areas of research, but also to the formation of completely new ideas about the structure of space and time. Great surprises can be brought by research in the field of physiology and biophysics, in the field of regulation of vital functions, in medicine, in social cybernetics, in the general theory of self-organization. Each major discovery will directly or indirectly have a profound impact on the life of mankind.

The inevitability of progress

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction of mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a global thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.

Now the world is unfavorable in the most direct, crudest sense of the word, hunger and premature death directly threaten many people. Therefore, the first task of truly human progress is now to confront precisely these dangers, and any other approach would be unforgivable snobbery. For all that, I am not inclined to absolutize only the technical and material side of progress. I am convinced that the “super task” of human institutions, including progress, is not only to protect all people born from unnecessary suffering and premature death, but also to preserve everything human in humanity - the joy of direct work with smart hands and a smart head, the joy of mutual assistance and good communication with people and nature, the joy of knowledge and art. But I do not consider the contradiction between these tasks to be insurmountable. Already, citizens of more developed, industrialized countries have more opportunities for normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. And in any case, progress that saves people from hunger and disease cannot contradict the preservation of the principle of active goodness, which is the most human thing in man.

I believe that humanity will find a reasonable solution to the complex task of making tremendous, necessary and inevitable progress while preserving the human in man and the natural in nature.

WORLD,
PROGRESS,
HUMAN RIGHTS

Nobel lecture 4
Read by E. G. Bonner in Oslo, December 10, 1975.

Dear members of the Nobel Committee!

Dear ladies and gentlemen!

Peace, progress, human rights - these three goals are inextricably linked, one cannot be achieved without neglecting the others. This is the main idea that I want to reflect in this lecture.

I am deeply grateful for being awarded this high, exciting award - the Nobel Peace Prize - and for the opportunity to speak to you today. I was particularly pleased with the Committee's language, which emphasizes the role of the protection of human rights as the only solid foundation for genuine and lasting international cooperation. This thought seems very important to me. I am convinced that international trust, mutual understanding, disarmament and international security are inconceivable without an open society, freedom of information, freedom of opinion, transparency, freedom of travel and choice of country of residence. I am also convinced that freedom of opinion, along with other civil liberties, is the basis of scientific and technological progress and a guarantee against the use of its achievements to the detriment of humanity, thereby the basis of economic and social progress, and is also a political guarantee of the possibility of effective protection social rights. Thus, I defend the thesis about the primary, determining significance of civil and political rights in shaping the fate of mankind. This point of view differs significantly from the widely spread Marxist and technocratic concepts, according to which it is material factors, social and economic rights that are of decisive importance. (The above does not mean, of course, that I in any way deny the importance of the material conditions of people's lives.)

I am going to reflect all these theses in the lecture and dwell in particular on some specific problems of human rights violations, the solution of which seems to me necessary and urgent.

In accordance with this plan, the title of the lecture was chosen: "Peace, progress, human rights." This is, of course, a conscious parallel to the title of my 1968 paper, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom," which is in many ways similar in its direction and its warnings.

There are many signs that since the second half of the 20th century mankind has entered a particularly responsible critical period its history.

A thermonuclear missile capable in principle of destroying all mankind has been created - this is the greatest danger of our time. Thanks to economic, industrial and scientific achievements So-called conventional weapons have also become incomparably more dangerous, not to mention chemical and bacteriological weapons.

Undoubtedly, the success of industrial and technological progress is the main factor in overcoming poverty, hunger and disease; but they also lead to threatening change V environment to resource depletion. Mankind thus faced a formidable ecological danger.

Rapid changes traditional forms lives have led to an uncontrollable population explosion, especially powerful in the developing countries of the third world. Population growth is creating unusually difficult economic, social and psychological problems already now and inevitably threatens much more serious dangers in the future. In many countries, especially in Asia, Africa, Latin America, food shortage continues to be a constant factor in the lives of hundreds of millions of people, doomed from the moment of birth to a miserable, half-starved existence. At the same time, the forecasts for the future, despite the undoubted successes of the "green revolution", are alarming, and, according to many experts, tragic.

But even in developed countries, people face very serious problems. Among them are the grave consequences of immoderate urbanization, the loss of social and psychological stability of society, the continuous exhausting race of fashion and overproduction, the frantic, insane pace of life and its changes, the increase in the number of nervous and mental diseases, the separation of everything more people from nature and normal, traditional human life, the destruction of the family and simple human joys, the decline of the moral and ethical foundations of society and the weakening of the sense of purpose and meaningfulness of life. Against this background, numerous ugly phenomena arise - the growth of crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, terrorism, etc. The impending depletion of the Earth's resources, the threat of overpopulation, many times deepened by international political and social problems, are beginning to put more and more pressure on life in developed countries, depriving (or threatening to deprive) many people of their habitual abundance, convenience and comfort.

However, the most significant, determining role in the problems modern world the global political polarization of mankind is playing, dividing it into the so-called first world (we will conditionally call it “Western”), the second (socialist), and the third (developing countries). The two largest socialist states have in fact become warring totalitarian empires with the exorbitant power of a single party and state over all aspects of the life of their citizens and with a huge expansionist potential, seeking to subjugate vast areas to their influence. the globe. At the same time, one of these states, the PRC, is still at a relatively low level. economic development, and the other - the USSR - using unique Natural resources Having gone through decades of unheard-of disasters and an overstrain of all the forces of the people, it has now reached enormous military power and a relatively high (albeit one-sided) economic development. But even in the USSR the level of material life of the population is low, and the level of civil liberties is even lower than in the small socialist countries. Very complex global problems are also associated with the "third world", with its relative economic inactivity, combined with growing international political activity.

This polarization greatly enhances the already very serious dangers hanging over the world - the dangers of thermonuclear death, starvation, environmental poisoning, depletion of resources, overpopulation, dehumanization. Discussing this whole complex of urgent problems and contradictions, it should be said first of all that, in my opinion, any attempts to slow down the pace of scientific and technological progress, reverse urbanization, calls for isolationism, patriarchy, for revival based on appealing to the healthy national traditions of past centuries - unrealistic. Progress is inevitable, its cessation would mean the death of civilization.

Not so long ago, people did not know mineral fertilizers, machine tillage, pesticides, intensive farming methods. There are voices calling for a return to more traditional and possibly safer forms of farming. But is it possible to do this in a world where hundreds of millions of people still suffer from hunger? Undoubtedly, on the contrary, it is necessary to further intensify and extend it to the whole world, to all developing countries. The increasing application of medical advances and the expansion of research in all its branches, including bacteriology and virology, neurophysiology, human genetics and gene surgery, cannot be abandoned, despite the potential dangers of abuse and undesirable social consequences of some of these studies. . The same applies to research in the field of creating intelligence imitation systems, to research in the field of managing people's mass behavior, to the creation of unified global communication systems, systems for collecting and storing information, etc. It is quite obvious that in the hands of irresponsible secrecy of institutions - all these studies can turn out to be extremely dangerous, but at the same time they can become extremely important and necessary for humanity if they are carried out under the control of publicity, discussion, scientific social analysis. It is impossible to refuse the ever-widening use of artificial materials, synthetic food, the modernization of all aspects of people's life. Increasing automation and consolidation of industrial production cannot be abandoned, despite the social problems associated with it.

It is impossible to abandon the construction of ever more powerful thermal and nuclear power plants, from research in the field of controlled thermonuclear reaction, since energy is one of the foundations of civilization. In this regard, I will allow myself to recall that 25 years ago, together with my teacher, Nobel Prize winner in physics Igor Evgenievich Tamm, I had a chance to stand at the beginning of research on a controlled thermonuclear reaction in our country. Now these works have acquired a huge scope, a variety of directions are being explored, from classical schemes of magnetic thermal insulation to methods using lasers.

It is impossible to refuse the expansion of work on the exploration of near-Earth space and on the study of deep space, including attempts to receive signals from extraterrestrial civilizations - the chances of success of such attempts are probably small, but the consequences of success can be grandiose.

I have named only some examples, they can be multiplied. In fact, all the main aspects of progress are closely interrelated, none of them can be canceled without risking the destruction of the entire edifice of civilization - progress is indivisible. But a special role in the mechanism of progress is played by intellectual, spiritual factors. The underestimation of these factors, which is especially widespread in the socialist countries, perhaps under the influence of the vulgar ideological dogmas of official philosophy, can lead to a perversion of the paths of progress or even to its cessation, to stagnation. Progress is possible and safe only under the control of Reason. The most important problem of environmental protection is one of the examples where the role of publicity, openness of society, freedom of belief is especially clear. Only the partial liberalization that took place in our country after the death of Stalin made possible the public discussions on this problem that we all remember in the first half of the sixties, but its effective solution requires further strengthening of public and international control. Military applications of scientific achievements, disarmament and control over it is another equally critical area, where international trust depends on publicity and openness of society. The mentioned example of controlling the mass behavior of people, despite its external exoticism, is also quite relevant now.

Freedom of belief, the presence of an enlightened public opinion, the pluralistic nature of the education system, freedom of the press and other media - all this is greatly lacking in the socialist countries due to their inherent economic, political and ideological monism. Meanwhile, these conditions are vital not only to avoid abuses of progress, voluntary and out of ignorance, but also to maintain it. It is especially important that only in an atmosphere of intellectual freedom is an effective system of education and creative continuity of generations possible. On the contrary, intellectual lack of freedom, the power of a dull bureaucracy, conformism, first destroying the humanitarian fields of knowledge, literature and art, then inevitably lead to a general intellectual decline, bureaucratization and formalization of the entire education system, to the decline of scientific research, the disappearance of the atmosphere of creative search, to stagnation and decay. .

Before turning to the discussion of disarmament problems, I would like to take the opportunity to recall once again some of my general proposals. First of all, this is the idea of creating under the auspices of the UN an International Consultative Committee on Disarmament, Human Rights and Environmental Protection. The Committee, in my opinion, should be given the right to obtain binding replies from all governments to its requests and recommendations. Such a committee would be an important working body to ensure worldwide discussion and publicity on the most important issues on which the future of mankind depends. I look forward to support and discussion of this idea.

I also want to emphasize that I consider it especially important to use UN troops more extensively to stop international and interethnic armed conflicts. I highly appreciate the possible and necessary role of the UN, considering it one of the main hopes of humanity for a better future. Last years- difficult, critical for this organization. I wrote about this in the book "On the country and the world"; already after its publication, a deplorable event was the adoption by the General Assembly (almost without substantive discussion) of a resolution declaring Zionism a form of racism and racial discrimination. All impartial people know that Zionism is the ideology of the national rebirth of the Jewish people after two thousand years of dispersion and that this ideology is not directed against other peoples. The adoption of such a resolution, in my opinion, dealt a blow to the prestige of the UN. Despite such facts, often generated by the lack of a sense of responsibility towards humanity among the leaders of some of the younger members of the UN, I still believe that sooner or later the UN will be able to play a worthy role in the life of mankind, in accordance with the purposes of the Charter.

Let me turn to one of the central problems of our time - disarmament. I set out my position in detail in the book “On the Country and the World”. It is necessary to strengthen international confidence, perfect control on the ground by the forces of international inspection teams. All this is impossible without extending detente to the realm of ideology, without increasing the openness of society. In the same book, I emphasized the need for international agreements to limit the supply of weapons to other states, the cessation of new development of weapons systems under special agreements, an agreement to ban secret work, the elimination of strategic instability factors, in particular the prohibition of multiple warheads.

How do I envision an ideal global disarmament agreement in technical terms?

I think that such an agreement should be preceded by an official (not necessarily immediately open) statement on the volume of all types of military potential (from stocks of thermonuclear charges to forecasts of military contingents), indicating approximate conditional breakdown areas of potential confrontation. The agreement should, as a first stage, provide for the elimination of the advantages of one side over the other separately for each strategic area and for each type of military potential (of course, this is only a scheme from which some deviations are inevitable). Thus, it will be excluded, firstly, that an agreement in one strategic area (say, in Europe) will be used to strengthen military positions in another area (say, on Soviet-Chinese border), and, secondly, possible injustices are excluded due to the difficulty of quantitatively comparing the significance different types potential (for example, it is difficult to say how many anti-aircraft missile defense systems are equivalent to one cruiser, etc.). The next stage in the reduction of armaments should be a proportional reduction simultaneously for all countries and all strategic regions. Such a formula of a "balanced" two-stage arms reduction will ensure the continued security of each country, the continuous balance of power in each area of potential confrontation, and at the same time a radical solution to the economic and social problems generated by militarization. For many decades, variants of this approach have been put forward by many experts and statesmen, but so far there has been very little success. But I hope that now, when humanity is really threatened with death in the fire of thermonuclear explosions, the minds of people will not allow this outcome. Radical balanced disarmament is indeed necessary and possible as part of a multilateral and complex process of resolving formidable, urgent world problems. That new phase of interstate relations, which has come to be known as détente or detente, and which probably has the Helsinki meeting as its culminating point, in principle opens up certain possibilities for advancing in this direction.

The final act of the Helsinki meeting in particular attracts our attention because it officially reflects for the first time that comprehensive approach to solving problems of international security, which seems to be the only possible one; the act contains profound language about the connection of international security with the protection of human rights, freedom of information and freedom of movement and important obligations of the participating countries guaranteeing these rights. It is obvious, of course, that this is not about a guaranteed result, but about new opportunities that can be realized only as a result of long-term, systematic work, with a unified and consistent position of all participating countries, especially democratic countries.

This applies, in particular, to the problem of human rights, which is the subject of the last part of the lecture. In our country, about which I will now speak mainly, in the months that have passed since the meeting in Helsinki, there has not been any significant improvement at all in this direction; on some issues, even attempts by hard-liners to "tighten the screws" are noticed.

The important problems of international information exchange, freedom of choice of the country of residence, trips for study, work, treatment, and simply tourism are still in the same state. In order to make this statement concrete, I will now give some examples - not in order of their importance and not striving for completeness.

You all know better than I do that kids from, say, Denmark can get on bikes and have a fun ride to the Adriatic. No one will see them as "underage spies." But Soviet children cannot do this! You yourself can mentally develop this example (and all the following ones) into many similar situations.

You know that the General Assembly, under pressure from the socialist countries, has adopted a decision restricting the freedom of television broadcasting from satellites. I think that now, after Helsinki, there is every reason to revise it. For millions of Soviet citizens, this is very important and interesting.

In the USSR, the quality of prostheses for the disabled is extremely low. But not a single Soviet invalid, even having a call from a foreign company, can go abroad on this call.

It is impossible to buy non-communist foreign newspapers in Soviet newsstands, and not every issue of communist newspapers is sold. Even such news magazines as "Amerika" are extremely scarce and are sold in an insignificant number of kiosks, but they sell out instantly and usually with a "load" of slow-moving publications.

Everyone who wants to emigrate from the USSR must have a call from close relatives. For many, this is an insoluble problem, for example, for 300 thousand Germans who want to leave for the FRG (besides, the quota for leaving for Germans is only 5 thousand people a year, that is, the departure is planned for 60 years!). This is a huge tragedy. Especially tragic is the situation of people who want to reunite with relatives in the socialist countries - there is no one to intercede for them, and the arbitrariness of the authorities knows no bounds.

Freedom of movement, choice of place of work and residence continues to be violated for millions of collective farmers, continues to be violated for hundreds of thousands Crimean Tatars, 30 years ago with great cruelty evicted from the Crimea and still deprived of the right to return to their native land.

The final act of the Helsinki meeting reaffirmed the principles of freedom of opinion. But a great and stubborn struggle is required for these provisions of the act to have not only a declarative value. In the USSR, many thousands of people are being persecuted today for their convictions in court and out of court - for religious beliefs and the desire to raise their children in a religious spirit; for reading and distributing (often a simple acquaintance of one or two people) literature undesirable to the authorities, usually absolutely legal according to democratic norms, for example, religious; for trying to leave the country; Particularly important in moral terms is the problem of persecution of persons suffering for the protection of other victims of injustice, for the desire for publicity, in particular for disseminating information about the courts, about persecution for their beliefs, about the conditions of places of detention.

It is unbearable to think that now, when we have gathered for a festive ceremony in this hall, hundreds and thousands of prisoners of conscience suffer from severe long-term hunger, from the almost complete absence of proteins and vitamins in food, from the lack of medicines (vitamins and medicines are forbidden to be sent to places of detention), from overwork, they tremble from cold, dampness and exhaustion in dark punishment cells, forced to wage an unceasing struggle for their human dignity, for their beliefs, against the machine of "re-education", but actually breaking their souls. The features of the system of places of detention are carefully hidden, dozens of people suffer for its exposure - this is the best proof of the reality of the accusations against it. Our sense of human dignity requires an immediate change in this system for all prisoners, no matter how guilty they may be. But what about the torments of the innocent? The worst thing is the hell of special psychiatric hospitals in Dnepropetrovsk, Sychevka, Blagoveshchensk, Kazan, Chernyakhovsk, Orel, Leningrad, Tashkent...

Today I cannot tell specific court cases, specific destinies. There is a great deal of literature (here I draw your attention to the editions of the Khronika-Press publishing house in New York, which reprints, in particular, the Soviet samizdat journal Chronicle of Current Events and publishes a similar newsletter). I will simply name here, in this hall, the names of some of the prisoners known to me. As you heard yesterday, I ask you to consider that All prisoners of conscience, All political prisoners of my country share with me the honor of the Nobel Peace Prize.

Here are some names I know: Plyushch, Bukovsky, Gluzman, Moroz, Maria Semyonova, Nadezhda Svetlichnaya, Stefania Shabatura, Irina Kalinets-Stasiv, Irina Senik, Niyole Sadunayte, Anahit Karapetyan, Osipov, Kronid Lyubarsky, Shumuk, Vince, Rumachik, Khaustov, Superfin, Paulaitis, Simutis, Karavansky, Valery Marchenko, Shukhevych, Pavlenkov, Chernoglaz, Abankin, Suslensky, Meshener, Svetlichny, Safronov, Rode, Shakirov, Heifets, Afanasiev, Mo-Hun, Butman, Lukyanenko, Ogurtsov, Sergienko, Antonyuk, Lupynos , Ruban, Plahotniuk, Kovgar, Belov, Igrunov, Soldatov, Myattik, Yushkevich, Kiirend, Zdorovy, Tovmasyan, Shahverdyan, Zagrobyan, Hayrikyan, Markosyan, Arshakyan, Mirauskas, Stus, Sverstiuk, Kandyba, Ubozhko, Romanyuk, Vorobyov, Gel, Pronyuk , Gladko, Malchevsky, Grazhis, Prishlyak, Sapelyak, Kalinets, Suprey, Waldman, Demidov, Bernichuk, Shovkovy, Gorbachev, Verkhov, Turik, Zhukauskas, Senkiv, Grinkiv, Navasardyan, Saarts, Yuriy Vudka, Puce, Davydov, Bolonkin, Lisovoy, Petrov, Chekalin, Gorodetsky, Chernovol, Balakhonov, Bondar , Kalinichenko, Kolomin, Plumpa, Yaugialis, Fedoseev, Osadchy, Budulak-Sharygin, Makarenko, Malkin, Stern, Lazar Lyubarsky, Feldman, Roitburt, Shkolnik, Murzhenko, Fedorov, Dymshits, Kuznetsov, Mendelevich, Altman, Panson, Khnokh, Wolf Zalmanson , Israel Zalmanson and many, many others. In unfair exile - Anatoly Marchenko, Nashpits, Tsitlenok. Waiting for trial - Mustafa Dzhemilev, Kovalev, Tverdokhlebov. I could not name all the prisoners known to me for lack of space, I do not know more or do not have information at hand. But I mean all mentally and all those who are not explicitly named, I ask you to excuse me. Behind every named and unnamed name is a difficult and heroic human fate, years of suffering, years of struggle for human dignity.

Option No. 375982

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Version for printing and copying in MS Word

What is from-whether-cha-et in-know-va-tel-nuyu de-I-tel-ness?

1) in-lu-che-practice-ti-che-ski in laz-no-go re-zul-ta-ta

2) for-tra-ta fi-zi-che-sky and in-tel-lek-tu-al-nyh efforts of man-lo-ve-ka

3) not-about-ho-di-bridge of joint actions with other people

4) right-of-len-ness on the basis of new information

Answer:

Absolute truth, as opposed to relative

1) is obtained only by scientific means

2) is an exhaustive knowledge of the subject

3) requires effort to understand

4) contains objective knowledge about the subject

Answer:

What trend in the development of education is evidenced by the presence of a variety of institutions additional education oriented to the different interests of children and adults?

1) humanization

2) informatization

3) humanization

4) internationalization

Answer:

Are the following statements about culture correct?

A. Works of spiritual culture exist in material form.

B. Works of material culture are always practically applicable.

1) only A is true

2) only B is true

3) both statements are correct

4) both judgments are wrong

Answer:

The consumer will benefit in a market economy when

1) increasing taxes on the producer

2) increase duties on imported products

3) centralized production planning

4) elimination of the monopolization of the economy

Answer:

Machine tools and industrial equipment used in the production process, industrial buildings, structures, components and consumables, technologies refer to such a factor of production,

1) capital

3) management

Answer:

What is state budget revenue?

1) financing of defense orders to enterprises

2) payments of state grants to major scientists

3) maintenance of the state apparatus

4) funds from the sale of government bonds

Answer:

The figure shows the situation on the cosmetics market: the supply line S has moved to a new position - SI (P is the price of the product, Q is the supply volume of the product). This movement may be associated primarily with

1) the entry of new manufacturers into the market

2) increasing the level and quality of life of the population

3) an increase in the cost of raw materials for the production of cosmetics

4) an increase in the variety of cosmetics

Answer:

Are the following statements about the labor market correct?

A. The labor market is characterized by high professional mobility.

B. Job seekers create demand in the labor market.

1) only A is true

2) only B is true

3) both statements are correct

4) both judgments are wrong

Answer:

By what criterion of differentiation are social groups of Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Muslims singled out?

1) by citizenship

2) by occupation

3) by nationality

4) by religious affiliation

Answer:

Citizen N. quarreled at work with colleagues. Only when she came home, talked with relatives, received moral support from them, she calmed down, came to a benevolent mood. What function of the family can be illustrated by the given example?

1) social control

2) social status

3) emotional and psychological

4) recreational

Answer:

Are the following statements about socialization correct?

A. Socialization is a process peculiar to an adult and uncharacteristic for a child.

B. Socialization occurs only as a result of spontaneous, unintended impacts on the personality of various social situations.

1) only A is true

2) only B is true

3) both statements are correct

4) both judgments are wrong

Answer:

State sovereignty presupposes

1) political dominance in the international arena

2) independence and supremacy of state power

3) the right to interfere in the internal affairs of other states

4) total state control of all aspects of private and public life

Answer:

During a discussion about the role of the state in the life of society, citizen P. spoke as follows: “The priority in the activities of the modern state should be social support for the poor. For these purposes, it is necessary to introduce a progressive tax on the rich, to increase taxes on the profits of firms. What political ideology does P. support?

1) liberal

2) social democratic

3) anarchist

4) conservative

Answer:

The sovereignty of a state is

1) dominance in the international arena

2) the right to interfere in the internal affairs of other states

3) independence of state power from other authorities

4) the right to alienate the lands of neighbors

Answer:

Are the following statements about political parties correct?

A. A political party is any registered association of citizens.

B. In relation to the law, legal and illegal political parties are distinguished.

1) only A is true

2) only B is true

3) both statements are correct

4) both judgments are wrong

Answer:

De-pu-tat of the State Duma ra-bo-ta-et

1) on a temporary basis

2) by the way

3) on a permanent basis

4) by contract

Answer:

What body is called upon to supervise the precise and uniform execution of laws throughout the state?

2) notary

3) prosecutor's office

4) advocacy

Answer:

Represents the interests of citizens in court and arbitration in civil cases

1) prosecutor

2) notary

3) lawyer

Answer:

Are the following statements about law correct?

A. Legal norms express the will of the state, which in a democratic society is backed by the will of the people.

B. All legal norms are adopted by the highest judicial authority.

1) only A is true

2) only B is true

3) both statements are correct

4) both judgments are wrong

Answer:

For-pi-shi-te word, passed in the table.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE MARKET

Answer:

Below are some of the characteristics. All of them, with the exception of two, belong to the concept of "legal norm".

1) established by the state

2) has a written form

3) idea of good

4) contains in regulatory legal acts

5) inner motivation

6) guarded and protected by the state

7) regulator of public relations

Find two terms that “fall out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in response.

Answer:

Usta-no-vi-te correspondence between ti-pa-mi eco-no-mi-che-tho-growth and specific measures-me-ra-mi, their il-lu-stri-ru-yu-schi-mi : for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

EXAMPLES

TYPES OF ECONOMIC GROWTH

A) A tea-producing company hired an additional number of women to collect tea leaves on their plan-ta-chi-yah

B) An oil-producing company began the development of a new oil field, depleting the old swarm

C) Vegetable farm in the summer period na-nya-la for temporary work of students and students for picking cucumbers and marrows

D) A Japanese company modernized the assembly line for auto-mo-bi-lei

E) Due to the use of in-no-va-tsi-on-th technologies at the enterprise, the productivity of labor has significantly increased

1) ex-ten-siv-ny

2) in-ten-siv-ny

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

Find the functions of the state in the list below. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) political

2) law enforcement

3) social

4) democratic

5) ethnic

Answer:

Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

(A) Zoya Kuzminichna saw from the window that an unknown person was trying to open her neighbor's car. (B) Zoya Kuzminichna called the police. (B) The police maintain law and order, protect the rights of citizens, and suppress and prevent crime. (D) The car thief, who had already injured several motorists, was detained. (E) A good citizen should not remain indifferent to such situations.

Determine which positions of the text have

1) actual character

2) the nature of value judgments

3) the nature of theoretical statements

Write in the table under the letter denoting the position, the number expressing its nature.

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

Pro-chi-tay-te pri-ve-den-ny text below, in some rum a number of words are passed. You-be-ri-those from the pre-la-ga-e-mo-th list of words, some-rye not-about-ho-di-mo put in place of the passes.

“De-mo-kra-tia - a form of a-li-ti-che-or-ga-ni-za-tion of the state-su-dar-stva, os-no-van-naya on recognition on -ro-yes is-toch-no-one ________ (A), his right to participate in the resolution of state-su-dar-stven-ny affairs in co-che-ta-ni with shi- ro-kim circle of rights and freedom. An important sign of de-mo-kra-tia is the guarantee of co-observation of the rights and freedoms of a person and ________ (B). Another important feature of that de-mo-kra-tii is the possibility of you-ra-zhe-niya of different views - ________(IN). Do they-cha-yut de-mo-kra-tia direct and ________ (G). In-sti-tu-tom direct (not-medium-noy) de-mo-kra-tii is ________ (D). In this case, ________ (E) himself, without intermediaries, you-no-sit this or that decision.

The words in the list are given in the name-ni-tel-nom pas-de-zhe. Each word (word-in-co-che-ta-nie) can be used-pol-zo-va-but only once. -but one word after another, cape-len-but for-filling each pass. Pay attention to the fact that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

Spi-juice ter-mi-nov:

Write down the numbers in response, sort them out in a row, corresponding to the letter-to-you:

A	B	IN	G	D	E

Answer:

In country Z, there is a rapid development of electronic mass media. What other signs indicate that the country has begun to develop as a post-industrial society?

1) The urban population is growing.

2) The leading position in society is occupied by science.

3) The main factor of production is knowledge and information.

4) Mechanized labor is spreading.

5) Families of the patriarchal type predominate.

6) Along with industry, agriculture is developing.

Answer:

Find a concept that generalizes to all the other concepts in the series below. Write down this word (phrase).

scientific knowledge, systematic knowledge, reliance on experiments, rationalistic arguments, objectivity.

Answer:

Based on the text, determine what the author's opinion is about scientific and technological progress in general. List two sides.

(AD. Sakharov)

Based on social science knowledge, explain the meaning of the concept of "social progress". What are the two tasks facing human progress that the author formulates?

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction in mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.

Right now the world is unfavorable in the most direct, crudest sense of the word. Hunger and premature death directly threaten many people. Therefore, the first task of truly human progress now is to confront precisely these dangers, and any other approach would be unforgivable snobbery. For all that, I am not inclined to absolutize only the technical and material side of progress. I am convinced that the "super task" of human institutions, including progress, is not only to protect all people born from unnecessary suffering and premature death, but also to preserve everything human in humanity - the joy of direct work with smart hands and a smart head, the joy mutual assistance and good communication with people and nature, the joy of knowledge and art. But I do not consider the contradiction between these tasks to be insurmountable. Already, citizens of more developed, industrialized countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. And in any case, progress that saves people from hunger and disease cannot contradict the preservation of the principle of active goodness, which is the most human thing in man.

I believe that humanity will find a reasonable solution to the complex task of making tremendous, necessary and inevitable progress while preserving the human in man and the natural in nature.

(AD. Sakharov)

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.
On the next page, you will be asked to check them yourself.

The text says that citizens of more developed countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. Based on the knowledge of the course and media materials, give three characteristics of life in backward and starving countries, concretizing this statement.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction in mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction in mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.

Choose one of the statements below and write a mini essay based on it.

Formulate, at your own discretion, one or several main ideas of the topic raised by the author and reveal it (them) based on social science knowledge.

To reveal the main idea(s) you have formulated, give reasoning and conclusions using social science knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical provisions).

To illustrate your main idea(s), theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions, give at least two social facts/examples from various sources (public life (including media reports), personal social experience (including including books read, movies watched), from various academic subjects.

Each cited fact/example must be formulated in detail and confirm the indicated main idea, theoretical position, reasoning or conclusion/be clearly connected with them. In terms of content, the examples should not be of the same type (they should not duplicate each other).

29.1 Philosophy:“A person must unshakably believe that the incomprehensible is comprehensible, otherwise he will not be able to explore anything” (Johann Wolfgang Goethe).

29.2 Economy:“Business is an exciting game in which maximum excitement is combined with a minimum of rules” (B. Gates).

29.3 Sociology, social psychology:“The furthest will go is the one who is not inferior to his equal, maintains dignity in relations with the strongest and knows how to restrain himself in relation to the defenseless” (Thucydides).

29.4 Political science:"No government can consider itself for real safe where there is no powerful opposition” (Benjamin Disraeli).

29.5 Jurisprudence:“Punishment cannot be eternal, but guilt endures forever” (saying from Roman law).

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.
On the next page, you will be asked to check them yourself.

Finish testing, check answers, see solutions.

1) According to the collections of Egorayeva solve task B3. There will be a test.
I draw your attention to the fact that almost everyone did not consider it necessary to carry out during the last month what I asked, namely: working out sequentially all tasks of part B. (B1-B8). I advise you to pay attention to this omission.

Please submit your work and right on Wednesday. I won't take it later.

I changed the theme of this set of texts, making it closer to the historical moment of the last days.
Arguments can be drawn directly from life.
Read the accompanying texts carefully. Information about the authors often helps to write an essay.

DZ on literature for Monday, March 5:
Read the beginning of A. Platonov's novel "The Pit". Think about the features of the language, style of the writer. What are the reasons for these features?

There is no man without shame

Pavel Lungin made his first film at the age of 40. "Taxi Blues" immediately brought him the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for Best Director. Then there were Luna Park, Wedding, Oligarch, Poor Relatives.

The director says that his last film, The Island, is a film about God, shame, sin, and crime. But it is also an attempt to talk about how excruciatingly painful it is to be human. And how they need to be.

Text 1 (From an interview with Pavel Lungin)

(1) It seems to me that now the whole world does not understand where it is going. (2) Russia is like God's laboratory in which he experiments on us. (3) He did this in 1917, he continues to do these experiments today. (4) In our country, the same thing is happening as in other countries, but brought to the point of absurdity. (5) When water boils in a glass saucepan, the bubbles in it seem so huge - it even becomes creepy. (6) There must have been worse times on Earth. (7) Another thing is that then there were clear ideas about good and evil. (8) And in this opposition of good to evil one could find at least some consolation. (9) Now all this is smeared, blurred. (10) And we often do not understand what is good and what is evil.

(11) Russia, writhing in general contradictions, does not realize what it is going to. (12) On the one hand, she wants to preserve her own characteristics, on the other, she wants to be like everyone else. (13) On the third hand, there are a lot of temptations around ... (14) This is a difficult period. (15) But, you know, the world always develops along a sinusoid. (16) And now we are in some deep universal depression.

(17) At the beginning of the 21st century, there were no big ideas or big aspirations left in the world. (18) Profitability cannot be perceived as the goal of life. (19) A person is not born to realize himself as a small but profitable enterprise in which he invests his own earned money.

.(20) Russia has entered a period of stabilization. (21) And the main question now is not how to physically survive in this world, but who to BECOME in it. (22) A person was not created to live only for the sake of success and money and spend the years allotted to him between work and TV. (23) Our country has always lived with ideas, spiritual struggle, the search for the meaning of life. (24) And now we are concerned about other issues. (25) "Is my car good and prestigious enough, what brand is my mobile phone, is the label on my suit, and in general - do they consider me a loser?" - many people think. (26) We are locked in a cage of money, success and the television screen.

(27) Do we still have a conscience? (“8 (Are we capable of repentance, pity, compassion? (29) These feelings are not killed in us - they are suppressed. (30) We perceive them as a weakness. (31) But it’s shameful to cry. (32) And you can’t count the presence souls as a manifestation of weakness.(33) The world does not consist of orderly ranks of junior managers who march victoriously from success to success.(34) The world is more complicated.(P. Lungin)

Text 2 (A.D. Sakharov)

It seems to me inevitable that the current trends in scientific and technological progress will continue and develop. I do not regard this as tragic in its consequences, although I am not entirely alien to the fears of those thinkers who hold the opposite view.

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for a person to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless), even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction of mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected. And in this regard, there is no way to "cancel" some areas of progress without destroying the entire civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but one must be ruthless to wish for such an outcome.

Right now the world is unfavorable in the most direct, crudest sense of the word. Hunger and premature death directly threaten many people. So now the first task of truly human progress is to confront precisely these dangers, and any other approach would be unforgivable snobbery.

However, I am not inclined to absolutize only the material side of progress. I am convinced that the “super task” of human institutions, including progress, is not only to protect all born people from unnecessary suffering and premature death, but also to preserve everything human in a person - the joy of direct work with smart hands and a smart head, the joy of mutual assistance and good communication with people and nature, the joy of knowledge and art, but I do not consider the contradiction between these tasks insurmountable.

Already, citizens of more developed countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. And in any case, progress that saves people from hunger and disease cannot contradict the preservation of the principle of active goodness, which is the most human thing in man.

I believe that humanity will find a reasonable solution to the complex task of making tremendous, necessary and inevitable progress while preserving the human in man and the natural in nature.

Dmitry Sergeyevich Likhachev Dmitry Sergeyevich Likhachev (November 28, 1906, St. Petersburg, Russian Empire - September 30, 1999, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation) - an outstanding Soviet and Russian philologist, art critic, screenwriter, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (until 1991 - Academy of Sciences of the USSR).

Author of fundamental works on the history of Russian literature (mainly Old Russian) and Russian culture. Author of works (including more than forty books) on a wide range of problems in the theory and history of ancient Russian literature, many of which have been translated into English, Bulgarian, Italian, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Czech, French, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, German and others languages. Author of 500 scientific and about 600 journalistic works. Likhachev made a significant contribution to the development of the study of ancient Russian literature and art. Circle scientific interests Likhachev is very extensive: from the study of icon painting to the analysis of the prison life of prisoners. Throughout all the years of his activity he was an active defender of culture, a propagandist of morality and spirituality. He was directly involved in the preservation and restoration of various cultural sites in St. Petersburg and its suburbs.

Before you is the book "Letters about the Good and the Beautiful" by one of the outstanding scientists of our time, chairman of the Soviet Cultural Fund, academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev. These "letters" are not addressed to anyone in particular, but to all readers. First of all, young people who have yet to learn life and follow its difficult paths.

The fact that the author of the letters, Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, is a man whose name is known on all continents, an outstanding connoisseur of domestic and world culture, elected an honorary member of many foreign academies, and bearing other honorary titles major scientific institutions, makes this book especially valuable.

After all, only an authoritative person can give advice. Otherwise, such advice will not be heeded.

And the advice that can be obtained by reading this book relates to almost all aspects of life.

This is a collection of wisdom, this is the speech of a benevolent Teacher, whose pedagogical tact and the ability to speak with students are one of his main talents.

The book was first published by our publishing house in 1985 and has already become a bibliographic rarity - numerous letters that we receive from readers testify to this.

This book is translated in different countries, translated into many languages.

Here is what D.S. Likhachev himself writes in the preface to the Japanese edition, in which he explains why this book was written:

“It is my deep conviction that goodness and beauty are the same for all peoples. They are united in two senses: truth and beauty are eternal companions, they are united among themselves and are the same for all peoples.

Lies are bad for everyone. Sincerity and truthfulness, honesty and disinterestedness are always good.

In my book “Letters on Good and Beautiful”, intended for children, I try to explain with the simplest arguments that following the path of goodness is the most acceptable and the only path for a person. He is tested, he is faithful, he is useful - both to a person alone and to the whole society as a whole.

Text 3 (Likhachev: “Letters about kindness”)

The third letter is the BIGGEST

What is the biggest purpose of life? I think: to increase the good in those around us. And goodness is above all the happiness of all people. It is made up of many things, and every time life sets a task for a person, which is important to be able to solve. You can do good to a person in small things, you can think about big things, but small things and big things cannot be separated. Much, as I have already said, begins with trifles, is born in childhood and in loved ones.

A child loves his mother and his father, brothers and sisters, his family, his home. Gradually expanding, his affections extend to the school, village, city, all of his country. And this is already a very big and deep feeling, although one cannot stop there and one must love a person in a person.

You have to be a patriot, not a nationalist. You don't have to hate every other family because you love your own. There is no need to hate other nations because you are a patriot. There is a profound difference between patriotism and nationalism. In the first - love for one's country, in the second - hatred for all others.

The great goal of kindness begins with a small one - with the desire for good for your loved ones, but, expanding, it captures an ever wider range of issues.

It's like circles on the water. But the circles on the water, expanding, are becoming weaker. Love and friendship, growing and spreading to many things, gain new strength, become higher and higher, and the person, their center, is wiser.

Love should not be unaccountable, it should be smart. This means that it must be combined with the ability to notice shortcomings, to deal with shortcomings - both in a loved one and in those around you. It must be combined with wisdom, with the ability to separate the necessary from the empty and false. She shouldn't be blind. Blind delight (you can’t even call it love) can lead to terrible consequences. A mother who admires everything and encourages her child in everything can bring up a moral monster. Blind admiration for Germany ("Germany above all" - the words of a chauvinistic German song) led to Nazism, blind admiration for Italy - to fascism.

Wisdom is intelligence combined with kindness. Mind without kindness is cunning. Cunning, however, gradually languishes and sooner or later turns against the cunning one himself. Therefore, the trick is forced to hide. Wisdom is open and reliable. She does not deceive others, and above all herself wise man. Wisdom brings a sage a good name and lasting happiness, brings reliable, long-term happiness and that calm conscience, which is most valuable in old age.

How to express what is common between my three positions: “Big in small”, “Youth is always” and “The biggest”? It can be expressed in one word, which can become a motto: "Loyalty". Loyalty to those great principles that a person should be guided by in big and small things, loyalty to his impeccable youth, his homeland in the broad and narrow sense of this concept, loyalty to family, friends, city, country, people. Ultimately, loyalty is loyalty to the truth - truth-truth and truth-justice.

Lesson #31-32

Lesson topic: The problem of social progress

Target :

Tasks: 1) explain the concepts and terms: "social progress", "regression", "multivariance of social development", "historical alternative", "criterion of progress"; to acquaint with the features of social progress, to show the diversity and unevenness of the processes of social development, to emphasize the inconsistency of social progress;

Lesson type : Combined lesson, lesson of generalization and consolidation of knowledge.

Equipment: Textbook, individual handout, educational presentation.

During the classes

1 lesson

I. Organizational moment (1 min.)

II. Examination homework(5-7 min.)

1) What is the meaning of the concept of "historical process"? (The historical process is a succession of successive events in which the activities of many generations of people have manifested themselves. )

2) What is the difference between the existing ideas in science about the types of social dynamics? (various types of social dynamics. The most common type is linear movement as an ascending or descending line of social development. This type is associated with the concepts progress and regression . Cyclic type unites the processes of the emergence, flourishing and disintegration of social systems that have a certain length in time, after which they cease to exist ( civilization ). Third, spiral type associated with the recognition that the course of history can return a particular society to a previously passed state, but characteristic not of the immediately preceding stage, but of an earlier one. )

3) What are the possible options for a radical, qualitative renewal of society? ( The social revolution is a radical qualitative change in the entire social structure societies )

4) What factors affect the character historical process? (natural factors, spiritual factor, material factors, technique And technology,)

5) Which participants in the historical process are driving forces stories? ( These factors have a strong influence onpeople's activities. All who carry out this activity aresubjects of the historical process: individuals, various social communities, their organizations, great personalities. There is another point of view: without denying that history is the result of the activities of individuals and their communities, a number of scientists believe that only those who are aware of their place in society, are guided by socially significant goals and participate in the struggle rise to the level of the subject of the historical process. for their implementation)

6) How do the roles of the masses and prominent personalities correlate in the historical process? ( There is another point of view: without denying that history is the result of the activities of individuals and their communities, a number of scientists believe that only those who are aware of their place in society, are guided by socially significant goals and participate in the struggle rise to the level of the subject of the historical process. for their implementation)

Preparing for the perception of new material

Thinkers from ancient times have thought about the question: in what direction is society developing? Can its movement be likened, for example, to cyclical changes in nature: summer must be followed by autumn, then winter, spring and again summer? Maybe society should develop according to the same rules? A period of prosperity is replaced by an era of decline, followed by a rebirth, and again prosperity inevitably comes, and this continuous cycle lasts for millennia? Is it so? Let's think about these issues together.

The theme of the lesson: "The problem of social progress." We will consider the following questions:

Progress and regress.

Progress inconsistency.

progress criteria.

Variety of ways and forms of social development.

II I . Learning new material (30 min)

In the history of social science, two approaches to solving the problem of the direction of human history have developed: pessimistic and optimistic. The first can be attributed to the views of the ancient Greek poet Hesiod, who divided the whole history into five centuries: gold, silver, copper, bronze and iron. According to Hesiod, the golden age was distinguished by high morality, but people were corrupted, due to which each subsequent age turned out to be worse than the previous one. The worst, most terrible Iron Age, modern Hesiod, showed a complete decline in moralness.

The representative of the optimistic approach was Democritus, who divided history into qualitatively different periods: past, present and future. The transition from one period to another, in his opinion, is characterized by the growth of culture and the improvement of people's lives.

1. Progress and regress (10 min)

workingWithprovided material, answer the questions and complete the assignments.

The direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from a lowerto the highest, from the less perfect to the more perfect, is called in scienceprogress. The term "progress" itself comes from the Latin wordprogress , which means "forward". The concept of progress is opposed to the conceptregression. Regression is characterized by a movement fromhigher to lower, the process of degradation, a return to obsolete forms and structures.

It is known that society is in continuous movement and development.Thinkers from ancient times have thought about the question - in whatdirection is society developing?

ancient philosophersPlato and Aristotle viewed history ascyclical process, a closed cycle, passing through the same stages.

There is also an organic theoryemergence and developmentaboutsociety and the state, according to which the laws of the life of society can be compared with the life cycles of a living being: an organism is born from a cell, matures over time, reaches itsflourishing, becoming mature, then inevitablegetting oldand dies.

On what way goes society: on the path of progress or regression? The way people think about the future depends on the answer to this question.

In different eras, scientists and philosophers explained social progress and its prospects in different ways.The essence of the hypothesis proposed by one or another thinker, largely depended on the historical period, as well as wholesale, worldview.

ancient greek poetHesiod (VIII-VII centuries. BC e.) talked about the stages in the life of human society. The first stage, in his opinion, wasgolden age, when people lived easily and carelessly, and goodness and justice reigned in the world. Hesiod called the second stagesilver age; it marked the beginning of the fall of the foundations of morality and piety, became the transition to a period of decline. Thus, with the decay of moral values and the collapse of ideals, people found themselvesin the iron age when evil, violence, self-interest, greed ruled everywhere, justice was trampled.According to the position expressed by Hesiod, human society has reg aggressive way of development, and the person himself is not in power to change the tragic course of history.

With the achievements of science, crafts, the flourishing of the arts, the revival of social life in the Renaissance, the emergence of the theory of social progress is associated. One of the first to put forward the theory of social progress was the French philosopher Anne Robert Turgot (1727-1781).

French Enlightenment PhilosopherJean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794) wrote that history is a picture of the continuous development and progress of the human mind. Observations of what man was and what he has now become will help us, wrote Condorcet, to find the means to secure and hasten the new advances that his nature allows him to hope for. The direction of development of society and the degree of its maturity largely depend on the conscious activity of people.Herself the essence of the historical process is perceived by Condorcet as a path of social progress, in the center of which is the upward development of human mind.

Classic of German PhilosophyGeorg Hegel considered social progress not only the principle of reason, but also the driving force of all world events.

This belief in progress was takenKarl Marx and his followers who believed that humanity is moving towards ever greater mastery of nature, the development of production and the improvement of man himself.

XIXAndXXcenturies were marked by turbulent events that provided new information for reflection on progress and regression in the life of the generalstva.In the XX century. Sociological theories appeared that abandoned the optimistic view of the development of society, characteristic of the ideas of progress. Instead, they propose theories of cyclic circulation, pessimistic ideas of the end of history, global environmental, energy genetic and nuclear disasters. Scientists and philosophers revisitedto Hesiod's theory of the regressive path of development of society.

One of the points of view on the issue of progress was put forward by the philosopher and sociologistKarl Popper (born 1902). He owns the statement: “If we think that history is progressing or that we are forced to progress, then we are making the same mistake as those who believe that history has a meaning that can be discovered in it, and not given to it. After all, to progress means to move towards a certain goal that exists for us as human beings. It's impossible for historyonly human individuals can progress.”K. Popper introduced the concepts of "social technology" and "social engineering", believing that the course of history is not subject to design.

What is "progress"?

What is "regression"?

Which thinker do you agree with and why?

Fill the table:

Thinker

views

Aristotle and Plato

They considered history as a cyclical process, a closed cycle, passing through the same stages.

Hesiod(VIII-VII centuries. BC e.)

He talked about the stages in the life of human society. The first stage, in his opinion, was the "golden age", when people lived easily and carelessly, and goodness and justice reigned in the world. Hesiod called the second stage the "silver age"; it marked the beginning of the fall of the foundations of morality and piety, became the transition to a period of decline. So, with the decay of moral values and the collapse of ideals, people found themselves in the "Iron Age", when evil, violence, self-interest, greed ruled everywhere, and justice was trampled on. In accordance with the position expressed by Hesiod, human society has a regressive path of development, and man himself is not in power to change the tragic course of history.

Jean AntoineCondorcet(1743-1794)

History is a picture of the continuous development and progress of the human mind. Observations of what man was and what he has now become will help us, wrote Condorcet, to find the means to secure and hasten the new advances that his nature allows him to hope for. The direction of development of society and the degree of its maturity largely depend on the conscious activity of people. The very essence of the historical process is perceived by Condorcet as a path of social progress, in the center of which □ the upward development of the human mind

Georg Hegel(1770-1831)

He considered social progress not only a principle of reason, but also the driving force of all world events.

CharlesMarx(1818-1883)

Mankind is moving towards ever greater mastery of nature, the development of production and the improvement of man himself.

Karl Popper(1902 -1 994)

Talked about the possibility of progress only for human individuals, but not for the historical process

PhilosophersXX - XXI centuries

Sociological theories emerged that abandoned the optimistic view of the development of society, characteristic of the ideas of progress. Instead, they offer theories of cyclical circulation, pessimistic ideas of the end of history, global environmental, energy and nuclear disasters. Scientists and philosophers again turned to Hesiod's theory of the regressive path of development of society

2. Inconsistency of progress (10 min.)

If we make an attempt to graphically depict the progress of mankind, we will get not an ascending straight line, but broken line, reflecting ups and downs, accelerated movement forward and giant leaps back. There were periods in the history of different countries when social progress froze, and the progressive forces of society were persecuted.

Aphorisms:

If in ancient times people wore the skin of a leopard, now they wear a fur coat sewn from it - progress, as they say, is obvious, but not for the leopard. ( Toyshibekov Baurzhan)

If they shout: "Long live progress!", always ask: "Progress of what?" ( Stanislav Jerzy Lec)

All the progress one can hope for is to make people somewhat less evil. ( Gustave Flaubert)

Objections to progress have always boiled down to accusations of immorality. ( George Bernard Shaw)

What thoughts about progress can be traced in these aphorisms?

Is progress always a contradictory phenomenon?

What examples of contradictory progress could you give?

Controversy of progress : improvement in some areas turns into losses in others. Some social forces may benefit from progress in this area, while others may not.

THAT. Process historical development society is contradictory: both progressive and regressive changes can be found in it.

The progress of science and technology has had mixed consequences. Discoveries in the area nuclear physics made it possible not only to obtain a new source of energy, but also to create a powerful atomic weapon. The use of computer technology not only greatly expanded the possibilities of creative work, but also caused new diseases associated with long, continuous work at the display: visual impairment, psychical deviations associated with additional mental stress.

Height major cities, the complication of production, the acceleration of the rhythm of life - all this increased the load on the human body, gave rise to stress and, as a result, pathologies nervous system, vascular diseases. Along with greatest achievements human spirit in the world there is an erosion of cultural and spiritual values, drug addiction, alcoholism, and crime are spreading.

Humanity has to pay a high price for progress. The conveniences of city life are paid for by the "diseases of urbanization": traffic fatigue, polluted air, street noise and their consequences - stress, respiratory diseases, etc.; ease of movement in the car - congestion of city highways, traffic jams.

Attempts to accelerate progress sometimes come at a prohibitive price. Our country in the 20-30s. 20th century came in first place in Europe in terms of production of a number of the most important industrial products. Industrialization was carried out at an accelerated pace, mechanization began Agriculture increased the literacy rate of the population. These achievements had a flip side: millions of people who became victims of a severe famine, hundreds of thousands of families expelled from their places of habitual residence, millions of repressed people, the subordination of people's lives to total regulation and control.

How to evaluate these contradictory processes? Are the positive changes that come at such a high price progressive? Is it possible to talk about social progress in general with such ambiguity of changes? To do this, it is necessary to establish what is the general criterion of progress, which changes in society should be assessed as progressive and which are not.

3. Criteria of social progress (10 min)

During the discussion of the issue of the ambiguity of social progress, it was suggested that, arguing on this topic, it is necessary for oneself to choose one's own view of the essence of progress. In other words, it is necessary to define the criteria for progress.

Criteria are those circumstances that determine the existence and development of abecause phenomena. Let's dwell on this in more detail.

Working with the third paragraph of § 15, fill in the table:

Thinkers

Views on the criteria for progress

A. Condorcet and Enlighteners

The development of the human mind

Socialists □ utopians

The principle of the brotherhood of man

F. Schelling

Gradual approach to the legal system

G. Hegel

Consciousness of freedom

Modern Philosophers

1. The development of productive forces, including man himself.

2. The rise of humanism □ the measure of a person's freedom, the disclosure of his truly human qualities, i.e.development of humanity

□ What criterion of social progress do you think is the most correct and why?

Traditional progress criteria : - progress of science and technology

The concept of progress in modern conditions is increasingly being transformed in the direction of enriching it with humanistic parameters and characteristics. The development of man in his spiritual and physical dimension, the realization of the inherent value of human existence, the creation of favorable conditions for man - this is seen as the progress of modern society. Ashumanistic criteria put forward such indicators of the progressive development of society

- the level of education,

- attitude to nature, etc.

III. Lesson summary (3-5)

What is the contradictory nature of social progress?

2 lesson

Target: To reveal the main questions on the topic of the problem of social progress

Tasks: 1) to acquaint with the features of social progress, to show the diversity and unevenness of the processes of social development, to emphasize the inconsistency of social progress on the examples of USE assignments;

2) to develop in students the ability to carry out a comprehensive search, systematize social information on the topic, compare, analyze, draw conclusions, rationally solve cognitive and problematic tasks aimed at preparing for the exam;

3) contribute to the development of the civic position of students.

I. Organizational moment (1 min.)

II. Learning new material (5-7 min)

4. Variety of ways and forms of social development

Logics world history it is a single process of progressive development of mankind. The unity of the historical process is clearly manifested with the emergence of states, changing political structures, common views, etc.

But at the same time, the history of mankind is not reduced to one unity. The unity of the historical process does not exclude diversity. The diversity of history is an obvious fact, since the history of mankind is the history of many states and peoples, cultures and civilizations, the history of different eras and their change, wars and revolutions. The development of any country is distinguished by its historical and national characteristics and takes place in a specific historical time and social space. Every nation has its own culture, language, special natural conditions existence. The peoples are on different stages their development, which means the unequal level of their material and spiritual culture. Thesefactors determine the diversity in the life of peoples, the multivariate nature of their development.

But diversity is carried out within the framework of a universal and unified historical process.

Consequently, various options for solving urgent problems are possible, that is, a historical alternative.

Multivariance is not limitless: it is includedV frame opcertain tendencies of historical development.

III . Fixing (30 min)

Analysis of tasks of part C .

C5. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social progress"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about social progress.

1) the meaning of the concept, for example: “Social progress is the development of society from the lowest (simple, imperfect) to the highest (complex, perfect)”;

Another definition that is close in meaning can be given.

2) two sentences with information about social progress based on knowledge of the course, for example:

- “The improvement of the material conditions of life and the increase in its duration are considered by many to be the main criterion for social progress”;

- "Some scholars propose as an integrative criterion of social progress the level of humanization of society, the position of the individual in it."

Any other proposals containing correct information about social progress may be made.

C6. Give three examples of technological progress in modern society.

Examples can be given in the correct answer:

1) the creation of instruments and equipment that make it possible to record what is happening at great distances from it;

2) creation of long-range attack means;

3) construction of interplanetary ships and organization of scientific research on other planets.

Other examples may be given.

C7.Industrialization in the USSR led to the development of modern industry, but was accompanied by infringement of the rights of citizens. What property of social progress is illustrated by this example? Give two examples of your own that illustrate this property.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) property of social progress: contradictory character;

2) examples illustrating this property, for example:

- Egyptian pyramids testify to the enormous successes of the Egyptian civilization, but thousands of people died during their construction;

-the progress of technology, the development of industry, chemicalization and other changes in the field of production have led to the destruction of nature, to irreparable damage to human environment environment;

- the growth of large cities, the complication of production, the acceleration of the rhythm of life - all this increased the burden on the human body, gave rise to stress and, as a result, pathologies of the nervous system, vascular diseases.

Other manifestations of the inconsistency of progress can be cited.

C8. You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The concept of social progress. Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1. Different views on the direction of social development

2. The concept of progress and regression.

3. progress criteria :
- development of the human mind
- improvement of people's morality
- progress of science and technology
- development of productive forces, including man himself
- an increase in the degree of freedom that society can provide a person

4. Controversy and relativity of progress

5. Humanistic criteria for progress : - the average life expectancy of a person,- child and maternal mortality, health status,- the level of education,- development of various spheres of culture,- feeling of satisfaction with life,- degree of observance of human rights,- attitude to nature, etc.

C9.2Philosophy

“If an ogre uses a fork and a knife, is this progress?” (S. Jerzy Lec)

1. Problem definition ( criteria for social progress, improvement of people's morality)

2. Theoretical block ( progress, progress criteria)

3. Arguments

IV . Lesson summary

What does the word "progress" mean?

How to explain the diversity of views on progress?

What is the contradictory nature of social progress?

What criterion of progress can be recognized as universal? What are its benefits?

Why are the ways and forms of social development diverse?

What do you see as the meaning of the expression "unity of diverse social development"?

Express your point of view about the revolutionary and evolutionary ways of development of society. What, in your opinion, in world history was more effective, if we talk about progress, revolution or reform?

Homework

Learn § 15, do the tasks.

1. Work with text to complete tasks C1-C4.

Read the text and do the tasks CI - C4.

Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction in mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.

Right now the world is unfavorable in the most direct, crudest sense of the word. Hunger and premature death directly threaten many people. Therefore, the first task of truly human progress is now to confront precisely these dangers, and any other approach would be unforgivable snobbery. For all that, I am not inclined to absolutize only the technical and material side of progress. I am convinced that the "super task" of human institutions, including progress, is not only to protect all people born from unnecessary suffering and premature death, but also to preserve everything human in humanity - the joy of direct work with smart hands and a smart head, the joy of mutual assistance and good communication with people and nature, the joy of knowledge and art. But I do not consider the contradiction between these tasks to be insurmountable. Already, citizens of more developed, industrialized countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. And in any case, progress that saves people from hunger and disease cannot contradict the preservation of the principle of active goodness, which is the most human thing in man.

I believe that humanity will find a reasonable solution to the complex task of making tremendous, necessary and inevitable progress while preserving the human in man and the natural in nature.

(AD. Sakharov)

C1. Based on the text, determine what the author's opinion is about scientific and technological progress in general. List two sides.

C2. What are the two tasks facing human progress that the author formulates?

C3. The text says that citizens of more developed countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. Based on the knowledge of the course and media materials, give three characteristics of life in backward and starving countries, concretizing this statement.

C4. HELL. Sakharov admits two options for the fate of mankind - his death or salvation. What do people do at the beginning of the third millennium to survive? Give three examples of such activities.

2. Finish writing an essay

As a rule, families of the most different composition and any size are called households. At one extreme are the so-called large families, consisting of several generations living under the same roof and jointly owning certain economic resources. The opposite pole is represented by the person who lives alone and is not a family in the traditional sense. In finance, however, such a family is also considered a household.

Households typically have to make four types of financial decisions.
Consumption and saving decisions. How much of the family's current wealth can be spent on consumer needs, and how much of current income should be saved for future use and directed to savings?
Investment decisions. What assets should you invest your savings in?
Financing decisions. When and how should a household use borrowed funds to realize its consumption and investment plans?
Decisions related to risk management. How and under what conditions should households try to reduce financial uncertainty, and when should risk tolerance be increased?

As a result of the fact that households save a certain part of their income for future use, they accumulate a general wealth pool, which can be stored in various forms. Some people prefer to keep money in bank accounts, others invest it in real estate or in any business. All these funds have a common name - assets. Assets are anything that has economic value.

Ultimately, any resources of society belong to households, since it is they who own firms (either directly or through ownership of shares, life insurance policies, or participation in pension plans) and pay taxes that are subsequently spent by the state.

(Z.Bodi, R.Merton)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) given author's definition:
– families of the most different structure and any sizes are called households;
2) indicated two poles of households:
- large families consisting of several generations of relatives;
- families consisting of one person, also representing the household.

C1 No. 1694.
C1. Based on the text, determine what the author's opinion is about scientific and technological progress in general. List two sides.

It seems to me that the continuation and development of the main current trends in scientific and technological progress is inevitable. I do not consider this tragic in its consequences, although I am not entirely alien to the fears of those thinkers who hold the opposite point of view.
Population growth, depletion of natural resources - these are all such factors that make it absolutely impossible for humanity to return to the so-called "healthy" life of the past (in fact, very difficult, often cruel and joyless) - even if humanity wanted to and could carry it out under conditions competition and all sorts of economic and political difficulties. The various aspects of scientific and technological progress - urbanization, industrialization, mechanization and automation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the growth of culture and leisure opportunities, the progress of medicine, the improvement of nutrition, the reduction in mortality and the extension of life - are closely interconnected, and there is no way to "cancel » some directions of progress without destroying the whole civilization as a whole. Only the death of civilization in the fire of a worldwide thermonuclear catastrophe, from hunger, epidemics, general destruction - can reverse progress, but you have to be crazy to wish for such an outcome.
Right now the world is unfavorable in the most direct, crudest sense of the word. Hunger and premature death directly threaten many people. Therefore, the first task of truly human progress is now to confront precisely these dangers, and any other approach would be unforgivable snobbery. For all that, I am not inclined to absolutize only the technical and material side of progress. I am convinced that the "super task" of human institutions, including progress, is not only to protect all people born from unnecessary suffering and premature death, but also to preserve everything human in humanity - the joy of direct work with smart hands and a smart head, the joy of mutual assistance and good communication with people and nature, the joy of knowledge and art. But I do not consider the contradiction between these tasks to be insurmountable. Already, citizens of more developed, industrialized countries have more opportunities for a normal healthy life than their contemporaries in more backward and starving countries. And in any case, progress that saves people from hunger and disease cannot contradict the preservation of the principle of active goodness, which is the most human thing in man.
I believe that humanity will find a reasonable solution to the complex task of making tremendous, necessary and inevitable progress while preserving the human in man and the natural in nature.

(AD. Sakharov)

Hide text

Explanation.
1) the author does not consider the consequences of scientific and technological progress to be tragic;
2) the author, to a certain extent, shares the fears of thinkers who foreshadow tragic fate mankind as a result of scientific and technological progress.

C1 No. 1731.
C1. What areas of life of people in society does the author name?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The sphere of material production is the most important (first) general sphere of the life of society as a system. But as the embodiment of the sensory-practical activity of people, it is closely connected with the sphere of theoretical activity (the second universal sphere), which supplies society with knowledge about how the world works, subjected to practical transformation. This knowledge, of course, can take on a variety of forms - exist in the form of science, magic, tradition, astrology. In any case, society is constantly collecting information about the external environment in relation to it, making it a profession for a certain circle of people - priests, church leaders, scientists.
The third general sphere of the life of society is the activity of people in the value development of reality. Philosophy, art, religion are engaged in this, first of all. Values link the spheres of material production and theoretical activity. Any conscious, purposeful human activity can achieve a positive result for the life of society, individual life, if a person has value ideas that will be involved in his purposeful activity.
In addition to the three distinguished general spheres of people's life in society, which correspond to the three spheres of their assimilation of external reality, it is necessary to point out the existence of another general sphere - the management of social processes, that is, the management of society as an integral self-developing system. Since the appearance of classes and the state as an apparatus of power, the sphere of government takes on the character of political management of society. (...) And finally, the last universal sphere of people's life is the social sphere proper. To a certain extent, it opposes the first three spheres and the sphere of social management. IN social sphere there is consumption public man what is created in the production sphere - in material production, in science, in the value sphere. At the same time, this consumption is also production, the reproduction of man as a natural, social and spiritual being.
If all people were in exactly the same position in terms of their access to social wealth, then human reproduction would be largely a managerial, technological, but not a political problem. In real life, the position of people in society in terms of the methods of appropriation (or development) of the wealth accumulated by society varies greatly among themselves. The existence of the rich and the poor, old people and children, gifted by nature and bypassed by it, makes a picture of the social situation of people and social relations extremely confusing. But the correct and timely solution of social problems is the key to the normal functioning and development of society as a system.
...Understanding the specifics of universal spheres, and even more so their number, can be different. But the main thing here is something else. The exchange of activity between people is the essence of social interaction between them. The way the mechanism for the exchange of activities is arranged also determines the assessment of society as fair or unfair and the understanding of what needs to be done to eliminate the existing injustice,

(I.T. Frolov)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must include:
1) the sphere of material production;
2) the scope of theoretical activity;
3) the sphere of people's activity in the value development of reality;
4) the sphere of management of social processes;
5) social sphere.

C1 No. 1768. C1. Find in the text any three examples of human transformational activity.

It seems to me that those who are horrified by the development of technology do not notice the difference between a means and an end. (...) the car is not the target. The plane is not a target, it is just a tool. The same tool as the plow.
(...) Reveling in our successes, we served progress - we laid railroads, built factories, drilled oil wells. And somehow they forgot that all this was created in order to serve people. (...)
Even a machine, becoming more perfect, does its job more modestly and inconspicuously. It seems that all the labors of a man - the creator of machines, all his calculations, all sleepless nights over drawings only manifest themselves in external simplicity; as if the experience of many generations was needed in order for the column, the keel of the ship or the fuselage of the aircraft to become slimmer and more chased, until they finally gained their original purity and smoothness of lines (...). It seems as if the work of engineers, draftsmen, designers comes down to this, to grind and smooth, to lighten and simplify the attachment mechanism, to balance the wing, to make it invisible - no longer a wing attached to the fuselage, but some kind of perfection of forms, naturally developed from the kidney , mysteriously fused and harmonious unity, which is akin to a beautiful poem. As you can see, perfection is achieved not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away. A machine at the limit of its development is almost no longer a machine.
So, according to the invention, brought to perfection, it is not visible how it was created. In the simplest tools of labor, the visible signs of the mechanism were gradually erased, and in our hands we found an object, as if created by nature itself, like pebbles turned by the sea; the car is also remarkable in the same way - using it, you gradually forget about it.

(A. de Saint-Exupery. "Planet of people")

Hide text

Explanation.
Three examples of human transformational activity:
1. laying of railways
2. construction of factories
3. oil drilling
Other examples may be given.

C1 No. 1805. C1. Indicate three signs of human nature, highlighted by the author.

Oh, Man, the riddle of riddles, the crown of nature and its curse! Scientists tried on that 95 percent of our genes are the same as monkeys. I can’t even believe it: Christ, Buddha and next to it are gorillas. Sad...

Human nature: a herd animal endowed with a creative mind. Animal means instincts. Reason means taking into account the circumstances, the distant future, the choice of goals. But there is creativity - and hence the alteration of oneself. But how much? Two thousand years of the science of psychology, but there is no consensus.

(...) Yes, our ancestor got a lucky ticket - a creative brain. Yes, speech and weapons have expanded the pack, increasing survivability and controllability. And then the history of ideologies began.

Ideology is the subject of inventions, as is technology. To do this, you need to isolate a generalized concept from the sea of images, designate it with words, train it with repetitions and authorities until the word becomes a feeling - a conviction. According to them, the world is then evaluated and actions are prescribed - “this is good, this is bad”, “should - can - can not”. The material for generalizations are alternatives and observations of people. Such, for example: are people equal or not? If not, then the power of the strong, intelligent, rich is legitimate. If equal, then democracy. Property: “mine” or “ours”? Personal or general? The same is true of labor: individual or collective. "An eye for an eye" or non-resistance to evil? Freedom or obedience? Aggression or tolerance? Finally, matter or God?

Behind a set of words are images and feelings. Some are activated, others are inhibited. This is how ideologies correct "biological psychology" and construct relationships.

(...) Man is “calculated” by evolution for a rigid hierarchical flock, in which, first of all, the program “for oneself” is worked out - this is already naked egoism, and then - “for the kind” - this is a distraction for the cubs. And only at the end - “for the sake of appearance”, that is, for the whole flock, but in such a way that the strongest ones are selected for breeding. Otherwise, the view will fade. As you can see, it didn't fade. But not only smart ones were selected, but also cruel ones. And the weak are always bad.

But: this lucky ticket fell out - with a brain! Is it really impossible to extract anything from the mind for the happiness of all? There is some kind of education in a person... Or is everything already hopeless, and humanity will perish from greed, selfishness and aggressiveness?

(...) A compromise between the material and the spiritual. While overpowering the material. However, as the rationality of society grows, the discomfort from the realization of this fact increases, which inspires hope.

(N. M. Amosov)

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Explanation.
The following three signs of human nature should be indicated:
1. instincts;
2. mind;
3. creativity.

C1 No. 1842. C1. What process takes place in modern science? What is it due to?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The development of modern science also shows with increasing depth the dialectical character of natural and social phenomena, the dialectical relationship of contradictory concepts. Modern mathematics shows the dialectical unity of continuity and discontinuity, the theory of relativity shows a close dialectical relationship between space and time, mass and energy, the quantum physics- the relationship between a wave and a particle, between matter and a field, biology - the relationship between an organism and the environment, etc. And these factors indicate the process of synthesis in science, due to the material unity and the dialectical nature of the world.
It turns out that different concepts and areas are not at all isolated from each other by some kind of sharp boundary, but are intertwined with each other, permeate each other; they are in a certain functional relationship with each other, that one follows from the other as a cause and effect. The metaphysical way of thinking mistakenly assumes that, for example, necessity is radically different from chance, space from time, etc., that is, that contradictions are not a function of another contradiction, but that both of them are independent of each other. Thus the world is dissected by metaphysics into a mass of unrelated parts. In contrast to metaphysics, dialectics shows that all concepts mutually substantiate each other and are in a certain functional interdependence, which must be revealed. (...)
milestone in the unification of sciences is the creation of cybernetics. (...) Such concepts of cybernetics as control, communication, information, Feedback and others, suitable both for theory mathematical machines, and for biology, neurophysiology, psychology, linguistics, political economy and sociology. (...)
The enormous complexity and immensity of scientific information forced the creation of information processing machines that "lengthen" the overloaded human brain. It can be assumed that these machines will help create a unified scientific language, coordinate information from various branches of science, and help control the logical accuracy of initial theses by detecting and eliminating erroneous results. (...)
The synthesis of sciences is an unfinished, open process. Science is not a finished, closed system. New facts break the system of science every time, reveal new contradictions. However, this does not mean that it is impossible to strive for a closer unification of these systems of individual sciences. The unification process can be completed relatively as a certain stage of development, which will raise science to a new, qualitatively higher level.

(I. Zeman.)

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Explanation.
1. The process taking place in modern science is indicated.
In modern science there is a process of synthesis
2. An explanation of its conditionality is given.
The process of synthesis is determined by the material unity and the dialectical nature of the world.
Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning.

C1 No. 1879. C1. Based on the text, give any author's definition social role and indicate its distinguishing feature.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Social roles is a term actively used as social psychology as well as sociology. He focuses on the universal, universal requirements for the behavior of a person who is in a certain social position.
Social status and social role are two sides of the same phenomenon. (...) Status describes a society in immobility, that is, it reveals a statistical picture of the world. The role describes a society in motion, that is, it reveals a dynamic picture of the world. (...)
Social role - a model of behavior focused on this status. It can be defined differently - as a template type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status. A role describes how status holders interact with each other.
In a bunch of concepts "status-role" the leading place belongs to the first. That is why the expression “status role” is found in the literature, but “role status” never comes across.
The term "role" is borrowed from the theatrical sphere, where it was intended to emphasize the difference between the actor and the part performed. Many well-known actors tried themselves in the role of Hamlet, just as many graduates medical institute become doctors.
People cannot behave as they please. They obey what everyone thinks is right for the role. To a large extent, the behavior of the student is predictable, because the student is a certain role. The same goes for a teacher, salesperson or statesman. We all know what these people are supposed to do, no matter how much individuality they put into their role. In general, all teachers or salespeople behave in a similar way.
(...) “The whole world is a theater, all the people in it are actors, and everyone plays more than one role,” said the great Shakespeare. And if we consider the world as a stage, then we really have to play a great many roles on this stage. We are all sons and daughters, husbands and wives, subordinates and leaders, speakers and listeners, passengers, spectators, specialists, and so on. Moreover, this entire repertoire lives inside us at the same time, and each next role is included as we move from one situation to another. In some of these roles we have to stay for a longer time, in some - relatively insignificant; some of the roles we cope with without difficulty, others are barely bearable for us.
People play many social roles in society. Their distinguishing feature is that the role of father or teacher remains the same if the people who perform these roles change. It is in this way that predictability and order in society are achieved.
(A.I. Kravchenko)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1. The author's definition of a social role is indicated, for example:
- a patterned type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status.
2. A distinctive feature of the social role is indicated:
- the role will remain the same even if the people who perform this role change.
Can be formulated

C1 No. 1916. C1. From what two groups of phenomena do social phenomena differ, according to the author?

Read the text and do tasks CI-C4.
When I act as a brother, spouse, or citizen, (...) I perform duties established outside me and my actions by law and custom. Even when they agree with my own feelings, and when I acknowledge their existence in my soul, the latter still remains objective, since it was not I who created them myself, but they were inspired by my upbringing.
How often, however, we do not know the details of the duties imposed on us, and in order to know them, we are forced to consult the code and consult with its authorized interpreters!
The system of signs that I use to express my thoughts, the system of coins I use to pay my debts, the instruments of credit that serve me in my commercial relations, the customs observed in my profession, etc. - all this functions regardless of the use that I make of them. Let them take, one by one, all the members that make up the society, and all that has been said may be repeated about each of them. Consequently, these patterns of thought, action, and feeling have the remarkable property that they exist outside of individual consciousnesses.
These types of behavior or thoughts are not only outside the individual, but also have a coercive force, as a result of which he is forced to them, regardless of his description. Of course, when I voluntarily conform to them, this coercion, being useless, is felt little or not at all; yet it is a characteristic property of these facts, as evidenced by the fact that it appears as soon as I try to resist. If I am an industrialist, then no one forbids me to work using the techniques and methods of the last century, but if I do this, I will probably go broke. Even if, in fact, I can free myself from these rules and successfully break them, I can only do so after struggling with them; even if in the end they are defeated, they still make their coercive force sufficiently felt by the resistance they offer. There is no innovator, even a happy one, whose enterprises do not encounter opposition of this kind.
Here, then, is a class of facts distinguished by specific properties; it consists of images of thoughts, actions and feelings that are outside the individual and endowed with a coercive force, as a result of which he is forced to
him. Hence, they cannot be confused either with organic phenomena, since they consist of representations and actions, or with psychic phenomena that exist only in and thanks to individual consciousness. They constitute, therefore, the new kind, and they should be given the name social.

(E. Durkheim)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements.
Two groups of phenomena from which social phenomena differ are indicated:
- organic, consisting of representations and actions;
- mental, existing only in the individual consciousness.

C1 No. 1953. C1. Expand the meaning of the concept of "nation" in the framework of each of the three approaches considered in the text: political and legal, socio-cultural, biological.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
National relations, i.e. relations of people in a community called a nation, or other ethno-national relations, do not exist separately from the state or in parallel with it. National and ethno-national relations are somehow mediated by the state and form a single political whole.

There are three main approaches to understanding the nation: political and legal, sociocultural and biological. In the political and legal approach, a nation is understood as fellow citizenship, i.e. community of citizens of a particular state. In international law, when one speaks of nations, one has in mind precisely political ones, nations that act as "national" states in the international arena.

In the sociocultural approach, the emphasis is on the commonality of language, culture, religion, traditions, and customs of a large group of people that form a nation. This allows us to consider the nation as a community of people who are characterized by a common spiritual culture, historical development, behavioral stereotypes, everyday lifestyle. It should be borne in mind that the nation is also a subjective phenomenon of consciousness and self-consciousness.<…>

E. Gellner, a well-known researcher of the nation phenomenon, noted: “Two people belong to the same nation if and only if they recognize each other's belonging to this nation. In other words, nations are made by man; nations are the product of human beliefs, passions and inclinations.”

Most countries of the world base their understanding of the nation on the first two approaches. For all their differences, they have one thing in common - the denial of consanguinity as a defining nation-forming principle.

The third approach to understanding the nation, biological, is precisely based on the recognition of the blood community as the main dominant of the nation.

(Yu.V. Irkhin, V.D. Zotov, L.V. Zotova)

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Explanation.
In the answer, the meaning of the concept of "nation" should be disclosed within the framework of three approaches:
1) political and legal: a community of citizens of a particular state;
2) socio-cultural: a community of people who are characterized by a common spiritual culture, historical development, behavioral stereotypes, everyday lifestyle;
3) biological: recognition of the blood community as the main dominant of the nation.
The meaning of the concept can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

Read the text and do tasks CI-C4.
Problems of the forest industry
One of the most important problems of the timber industry is the lack of personnel. Almost all forestry regions face the problem of a shortage of skilled workers. For example, the timber industry complex of the Arkhangelsk region is experiencing a shortage of personnel. Vocational schools do not have a modern educational and material base, namely, personnel are being trained according to the old system, not taking into account the current economy of the country and scientific and technological progress. There is a rapid aging of staff. Young people do not want to go to the forest due to low wages (compared to other industries) and the lack of appropriate equipment. Experiences the industry and the lack of personnel with working specialties. In the Sverdlovsk region, 11.6 thousand people work in the timber industry complex, which is 87 percent of the 2004 level. The timber industry enterprises of the region lack about 1,500 people, and at the same time average age working - 46 years!
In addition, timber prices are growing at a slower rate than timber prices. Timber suppliers face the problem of ruin, as revenues barely cover the costs of lumberers. If the cost of 1 cubic meter of timber has been on average 500-620 rubles for seven years, then the cost of harvesting is growing rapidly every year. The cost of diesel fuel is growing, and the prices of forestry equipment have increased several times. Also, the ever-relevant issue of roads. On this moment to resolve the situation, it is necessary to build at least 3-4 times more "year-round" roads. For maintenance and repair highways lumberjacks have no money at all. In order to build a road along which 25-ton timber trucks can pass without harm to the roadway, 6-7 million rubles must be invested in each kilometer ... Other countries are significantly ahead of Russia in the number of logging roads. The number of "forest" roads in Finland exceeds Russian ones by 12-13 times!

(P. Ilyin)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements.
Two reasons for the problem of shortages of personnel in the timber industry zone are indicated:
-vocational schools do not have a modern educational and material base
- the rapid aging of personnel, the unwillingness of young people to go to the forest because of low wages.

Read the text and do tasks CI-C4.
Features of the labor market in Serpukhov
Based on the analysis of the socio-economic development of the city of Serpukhov and the Serpukhov district in 2007, we will consider the trends in the development of the labor market in the sectoral context according to the following indicators: the number of unemployed citizens, the level of general and registered unemployment; gender and age and professional qualification structure of supply and demand work force, the average duration of unemployment; reasons for the dismissal of employees from organizations; the composition of citizens applying in order to find suitable work and unemployment of citizens, taking into account profiling.
In the labor market, the price of labor power is wages. High wages increase the supply of labor. From the point of view of an employee who wants to sell his labor force, the most promising sectors of the city and region are: financial activities, real estate transactions, public administration, production of electricity, gas and water, wholesale trade, transport.
During 2007, the demand for labor force increased in the Serpukhov region. This was facilitated by a program of local authorities aimed at developing and supporting small businesses. Since the beginning of 2006, the number of small businesses in the region has increased by 26 units and amounted to 364 enterprises. By type of activity, construction is in first place: the share of these enterprises among small businesses is 15%. The second line in the ranking of the most “interesting” occupations is occupied by wholesale trade, 11.2% of enterprises are engaged in it. In third place is retail trade - 9.3%.
Unfortunately, the positive trend in the development of the economy of the city of Serpukhov and the Serpukhov region does not mean the absence of unemployment. The unemployed include not only those who were fired for various reasons, but also people who voluntarily left work and are trying to find a new one ...

(E. Elizarova)

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Explanation.
The following indicators can be named:
- the number of unemployed citizens
- the level of general and registered unemployment
-gender and age and professional-qualification structure of demand and supply of labor force, -average duration of unemployment;
- reasons for the dismissal of employees from organizations;
- the composition of citizens applying in order to find a suitable job

C1 No. 2101. C1. What three groups of globalization risks does the author name?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Risks associated with globalization
Globalization creates new security threats in the broadest sense of the word, in rich and poor countries alike. Here are some of them.
Risks of global financial markets. Huge masses of short-term speculative capital circulate today in world financial markets. Changes in investor sentiment or targeted attacks on fixed exchange rates generate financial crises. Their distinctive feature is the unpredictability of occurrence. A country where there are no prerequisites for the emergence of a crisis may become a victim of international financial speculators or a certain set of circumstances in countries associated with it by economic relations. The speculative nature of the modern financial system greatly increases the risks of a financial and economic crisis. Each crisis causes a decline in production and an increase in unemployment, serious problems in the banking sector, falling real wages.
Risks to employment and income. Global competition gives rise to such processes as the bankruptcy of the largest companies, as well as all kinds of mergers and acquisitions. Both cause massive job losses. Competition with cheap labor or goods produced by cheap labor leads to the risks of losing jobs and incomes for the population of both developed and developing countries.
Health hazards. Significant flows of migrants, tourists and businessmen contribute to the spread of epidemics, incl. HIV AIDS. According to UN experts, “families affected by the HIV epidemic are in financial trouble due to rising health care costs and falling incomes. HIV-related spending can reach more than one third of a family's income, leading to cuts in other spending. At the same time, huge flows of people have made possible the emergence of influenza pandemics, bird flu mutations and the emergence of Ebola in developed countries. Mass death of people in this case will be difficult to avoid.
Thus, globalization brings not only positive sides. There are many negative consequences. The nature of the risks arising in the course of globalization is quite diverse. The growing openness of the economy makes the system vulnerable to any shocks. This means that the solution of an important task - balanced long-term economic growth - has become much more difficult.

(M. Vinogradov)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements.
Three groups of risks are named:
- Risks of global financial markets
- Risks to employment and earnings
- Health hazards

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The main driving force of the capitalist economy is self-interest: each economic unit strives to do what is most beneficial to itself. Entrepreneurs aim to maximize the profits of their firms or, alternatively, to minimize their losses. And the owners of material resources (property) are trying to sell or lease these resources at the highest possible prices. Workers also seek to obtain the highest possible income (satisfaction) and look for a job where a combination of wages, social benefits and working conditions would be most suitable for them. In turn, consumers, buying a certain product, try to get it at the lowest price. Consumers also want to cut costs and maximize product utility. In short, capitalism assumes that self-interest shapes the fundamental modus operandi of various economic units when they exercise their free choice. The motive of self-interest gives direction and order to the functioning of the economy, which without such interest would be extremely chaotic ...
It is simply amazing what a grandiose scale specialization has assumed in society. The vast majority of consumers themselves produce virtually none of the goods and services they consume, and, on the contrary, consume very little or none of what they produce... An assembly line worker who installs windows on Fords 8 hours a day , he can own a Honda car. Rarely do households seriously establish their own production of the food, shelter or clothing they need. Many farmers sell milk from their farm to a local dairy and buy their own butter from a local supermarket. Society has long learned that self-sufficiency breeds inefficiency. "Jack of all trades" can be a very bright personality, but he certainly does not differ in high labor productivity.
What do the authors call self-interest? How do they determine the personal interests of the owners of various factors of production?

(C. McConnell, S. Brew)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) the answer to the first question: self-interest is a situation where each economic unit seeks to do what is most beneficial to itself;
2) personal interests of the owners of various factors of production:
- Entrepreneurs aim to maximize the profits of their firms or, alternatively, to minimize their losses;
- owners of material resources (property) try to sell or lease these resources at the highest possible prices;
- workers seek to obtain the highest possible income (satisfaction) and are looking for a job where a combination of wages, social benefits and working conditions would be most suitable for them.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

C1 No. 2175. C1. What types of pluralism does the author name? Can you describe them?

Read the text and do tasks CI-C4.
A state is considered democratic and legal if it is a political organization of civil society. Democracy is carried out on the basis of the principles of ideological and political pluralism.
Ideological pluralism means that ideological diversity is recognized in the Russian Federation, no ideology can be established as a state or mandatory one (parts 1, 2, article 13 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
The Russian Federation is proclaimed a secular state (Part 1, Article 14 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation). This means that no religion can be established as a state or obligatory one. The secular nature of the state is also manifested in the fact that religious associations are separated from the state and are equal before the law (Part 2, Article 14 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
Political pluralism presupposes the existence of various socio-political structures functioning in society, the existence of political diversity, a multi-party system (Part 3, Article 13 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation). The activities of various associations of citizens in society have an impact on the political process (the formation of state authorities, the adoption of state decisions, etc.). A multi-party system implies the legality of the political opposition, promotes involvement in political life wider segments of the population. Only the creation and activities of such public associations are prohibited, the goals or actions of which are aimed at forcibly changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed formations, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred (part 5 of article 13 Constitution of the Russian Federation) ...
Political pluralism is based on the diversity of forms of economic activity. This diversity is ensured by the fact that the basis of the Russian economy is a social market economy, which ensures freedom of economic activity, encouragement of competition, diversity and equality of forms of ownership, their legal protection ... Land and other natural resources are used and protected in the Russian Federation as the basis of life and activities of the peoples living in the respective territory. Land and other natural resources may be in private, state, municipal and other forms of ownership (Article 9 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
The state also guarantees the unity of the economic space, the free movement of goods, services and financial resources.

(V.N. Suvorov)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
two types of pluralism are indicated, each characterized, for example:
- ideological pluralism (means that ideological diversity is recognized in the Russian Federation, no ideology can be established as a state or mandatory)
- political pluralism (assumes the presence of various socio-political structures functioning in society, the existence of political diversity, multi-party system)

C1 No. 2212. C1. Give the position of the text, which reflects the essence of the territorial or territorial-administrative division. Indicate in what three forms (types) this division manifests itself.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
When they talk about territorial or territorial-administrative division, they mean the principles and mechanisms of the relationship between central and local public authorities. IN real life these principles and mechanisms are expressed in unitarism, federalism and confederalism...
The unitary type is one of the most common forms of territorial and political organization, both in the modern world and in previous periods of human history. In a unitary state, powers are delegated by the central authorities to territorial self-government bodies, and in a federal state, unitarism exists within the framework of subnational units: states, lands, provinces, regions. Unlike a federal state, in which there are three levels of government - federal, subjects of the federation and local, a unitary state is characterized by the dominance of a single system of authorities and justice, guided by uniform legal and constitutional norms. Here, all administrative formations are subordinate to the government from top to bottom. The leaders of local governments are elected, but their prerogatives are limited...
In many countries of the modern world, a federal type of state-territorial structure has been established. The federation is union state many or more state formations having a certain degree of independence in various spheres of public life. The federal structure of the state is reflected in the structure of the supreme legislative body, which consists of two chambers.
A confederation is an internally contradictory form of political organization. Here, each entity that is part of the confederation almost completely retains its constitutional prerogatives and power. The central government receives funds for its activities from more or less voluntary contributions from lower governments ... As historical experience has shown, a confederation is one of the most unviable forms of government.

(K.S. Gadzhiev)

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Explanation.
A correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) text position:
when they talk about territorial or territorial-administrative division, they mean the principles and mechanisms of the relationship between central and local government bodies;
2) three forms (types) of territorial division: unitarism, federation, confederalism.

C1 No. 2249.
C1. What two forms of leadership does the author distinguish? Give them a description.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Political leadership is not an innate property of individuals and is not once and for all a given privilege of subjects ...
The social status of a subject is a certain position held by him in society, connected with other positions through a system of rights and obligations. In other words, social status characterizes the place of a given subject in the system social interaction place in society. As follows from the above, political leadership is a managerial status, the social position of the subject, associated primarily with the adoption of power decisions. This is a position in society, which is characterized by the ability of the engaged subject to direct and organize collective actions. In other words, a leader is a leader...
But can any manager be called a leader? Probably not. In sociology, a formal and informal leader is distinguished. A formal leader is appointed or elected to a position in accordance with established regulatory procedures ... The power of a political leader is based not on formal, regulatory acts, but on authority ... political leader according to his status, he is an authoritative member of a group, organization, society, whose influence allows him to play an important role in the adoption and implementation of power decisions in the political process.
Here we come to another important characteristic of political leadership. Political leadership is not only the type of subject of activity, social attitude, social status, but also the most important social institution. Psychological approach tries to explain the phenomenon of leadership not only from the standpoint of the leader's motivation, but also from the standpoint of the follower's motivation on the basis of deep subconscious processes... Social relations can be interpreted by the type of relationship in the family: child - mother, child - father. Adult members of the family, and above all the father, act as the highest authority for the child. The need for such authority, reliance on this authority, is one of the essential foundations of a child's life. And this need does not disappear as the child grows up. A person always wants to rely on something higher, native.
The system-functional approach closely links the causes and functions of political leadership with the social needs of society. The main content of leadership functions, from the point of view of this approach, is determined by the objective need of the political community as a whole or its individual parts (political groups, organizations) for conscious self-regulation and self-development.

(AA. Radugin)

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Explanation.
A correct answer must identify and describe two forms of guidance.
- formal (the head is appointed or elected to the position in accordance with established regulatory procedures);
- informal (power is built on authority, the leader plays an important role in making and implementing power decisions in the political process).
The description may be worded differently.

C1 No. 2286. C1. Who and under what conditions can initiate a referendum in Russia?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The referendum of the Russian Federation is held on the initiative of: 1) at least 2 million citizens of the Russian Federation who have the right to participate in the referendum of the Russian Federation, provided that no more than 10%% of them live in the territory of one constituent entity of the Russian Federation or in aggregate outside the territory of the Russian Federation; 2) the Constitutional Assembly in the case when it submits to a popular vote a draft of a new Constitution of the Russian Federation. Only these subjects can put forward a legally significant demand for a referendum. The initiative of the specified number of citizens is implemented in a certain order. An initiative group is formed to collect signatures in support of such an initiative; this group indicates the wording of the issue to be voted on and collects at least 2 million signatures of citizens within no more than three months. Subsequently, subscription lists, others Required documents are transferred to the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation, which sends the relevant documents with its conclusion to the President of the Russian Federation. He, after verification and recognition by the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation of compliance with constitutional requirements, appoints a referendum of the Russian Federation.
The preparation and holding of a referendum is organized by commissions for holding a referendum: the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation and election commissions for holding a referendum, as well as territorial (district, city and others) and precinct commissions for holding a referendum.
Citizens of the Russian Federation, public associations have the right, observing the laws, to freely campaign “for” and “against” holding a referendum, “for” or “against” participation in a referendum, “for” or “against” a bill, a law in force or another issue, submitted to a referendum in the Russian Federation. Campaigning must be terminated at zero o'clock local time on the eve of the day preceding the day of the referendum; on the day of the referendum, as well as on the day preceding it, campaigning is prohibited.
The ballot paper accurately reproduces the wording of the question submitted to the referendum and indicates the options for expressing the will of the voter - “for” and “against”, under which are placed empty squares, in one of which a citizen must put a sign when voting. If a citizen votes for the adoption of the issue submitted to the referendum of the Russian Federation, he puts a “plus” sign or any other sign in the square under the word “for”, if against, then put a plus sign or any other sign in the square under the word “against” ". The secrecy of the vote is ensured.
The results of the referendum of the Russian Federation are determined by the Central Election Commission. The referendum of the Russian Federation is recognized as valid if more than half of the citizens who have the right to participate in the referendum took part in the voting. The decision is considered adopted if more than half of the citizens who took part in the voting voted for it in the Russian Federation as a whole. (It should be borne in mind that the number of registered voters who have the right to participate in a referendum is usually much larger than the number of those who took part in the vote. For example, according to official data, 58 people took part in the voting on the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation in December 1993, 1 million people - 54.8%% of all registered voters, of which there were 106.1 million; while 32.9 million people voted "for" - 58.4%% of those who voted with valid ballots.)

(V.N. Suvorov)

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Explanation.
It is necessary to indicate the initiators and conditions of the referendum.
- not less than 2 million citizens;
- the Constitutional Assembly when adopting a new draft Constitution

C1 No. 2323. C1. Give four reasons given by the authors for the unattainability of complete social equality.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Social equality is an ideal that for centuries has reflected the eternal craving of people for justice and inspired mass social movements and humanistic currents of social thought. Historical practice confirms that complete equality is unattainable. And not only because of the differences in abilities and inclinations inherent in people by nature itself, but also because of the unequal social status, quality and productivity of their work. In this sense, inequality between people is irremovable and only changes its shape and size.
The impact of inequality on society is also ambiguous. The desire to take a higher position on the ladder of the property hierarchy encourages people to increase the efficiency of their activities and social status. Attempts to introduce an egalitarian distribution of property and income only undermine economic development. But, having exceeded a certain level, property inequality loses its stimulating role, turns into negative factor public life. Excessive wealth, especially easily obtained, as well as marginal poverty, dampen the impulses for economic development, generate social tension, and undermine the political stability of society. To the extent that social inequality favors economic and sociocultural development and the stability of society, it can be considered normal. It becomes redundant when it weakens the incentives for economic activity and creates hotbeds of tension that are fraught with social upheavals.
The problem of excessive social inequality becomes most acute during periods of social transformation, when the established structures of equality and inequality are being dismantled, and new mechanisms for the distribution of material goods, social services, values of life and culture are still being formed.

(V.A. Medvedev, Yu.A. Krasin)

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Explanation.
Reasons must be given in response:
1) differences in abilities and inclinations laid down by nature itself;
2) uneven social status;
3) uneven quality of labor;
4) uneven productivity.
The reasons can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The right to carry out entrepreneurial activity must be exercised within the boundaries outlined by regulatory legal acts containing both positive rules of conduct and prohibitions applied in this area. The set of rules, techniques and methods of state regulation of entrepreneurial activity forms the mode of its implementation. They talk about both a general legal regime that applies to all entities (for example, a registration regime), and a special regime, under which either a certain part of business law entities (for example, banks, exchanges), or entities engaged in a certain type of activity ( license mode).
The constitutional right to carry out entrepreneurial activity is secured by guarantees. Among the guarantees, first of all, it is necessary to name the possibility of judicial protection of rights in case of their violation, equal protection of all forms of ownership, the possibility of restricting rights only on the basis of federal law and only to the extent necessary to protect the foundations of the constitutional order, morality, health, rights and legitimate interests of other persons, ensuring the defense and security of the state.
The guarantees of the right to carry out entrepreneurial activity include the possibility of free choice: type, scope of activity; territories where activities are carried out; organizational and legal form of carrying out activities.
The organizational and legal form of entrepreneurial activity is understood as a set of property and organizational differences, ways of forming the property base, features of the interaction of owners, founders, participants, their responsibility to each other and counterparties.
The current legislation establishes the following organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurial activity: business partnerships (general and limited), business companies (with limited liability, with additional liability, joint-stock), production cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises. The listed organizations under the legislation of the Russian Federation are commercial.
In addition to commercial organizations, the current legislation provides for the possibility of creating non-profit organizations. Non-profit organizations can be created in the form of public and religious organizations(associations), non-profit partnerships, institutions, autonomous non-profit organizations, social charitable and other funds, associations and unions, as well as in other forms provided for by federal laws. In the event that a non-profit organization is granted by law or charter the right to engage in entrepreneurial activities that correspond to the goals for which this organization was created, the profit from such activities is not distributed among its participants, but is directed to the achievement of charter goals.
State regulation of entrepreneurial activity can be direct (directive) and indirect (economic) ... In market conditions of management, priority is given to indirect methods of regulation using various economic levers and incentives.

(I.V. Ershova)

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Explanation.
The following elements of the content of normative acts should be indicated:
- positive rules of conduct;
- Prohibitions applied in this area.

C1 No. 2397. What are the two main market pricing tools mentioned in the text? What is the significance of the information disseminated by the price system?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
The study of the interaction of supply and demand, competition as the main pricing tools allows you to conduct an effective search for elements of an effective mechanism for market self-regulation ...
In a market economy, price performs a number of important functions.
Prices transmit information... The price system automatically disseminates information to all market participants about a steady increase or decrease in demand for a particular type of product. This induces them to increase or, conversely, reduce the volume of production until a new rise or fall in prices sends signals of a shortage or overproduction of marketable products.
In modern conditions in the developed countries of the West, the operation of the price system is greatly simplified due to the functioning of highly organized markets with a developed infrastructure. At the same time, the price system is complicated due to distortions in price information, which is explained by a number of reasons. First of all, it is worth noting the intervention of the state in economic processes. A negative role is played by the activities of monopolies seeking to extract the highest possible profit, including through price gouging. Inflation is also a distorting factor, especially if it has high level and unstable character.
Prices perform an important stimulating function. Each company seeks to reduce production costs, rightly seeing this as one of the time-tested levers of profit growth. For these purposes, the achievements of scientific and technological progress, innovative and competitive technologies, know-how, various types of management, etc. are used. The cost of production, the labor intensity of its production are the basis for the formation of market prices. Each enterprise has its own capabilities and reserves on this path, using them to achieve the goal. Thus, the price stimulates the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, helps to reduce production costs and improve product quality.
Prices are involved in the regulation of the production of goods and services, and also affect the distribution of income, changing the structure of their use. This function outside of state influence is spontaneous. An increase in prices, for example, tends to increase the production of goods, but only to a certain extent, since high prices limit demand.

(V. I. Kushlin)

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Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) pricing tools:
- interaction of supply and demand;
- competition;
2) explanation of the meaning of information: depending on price changes, market participants increase or decrease production.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

C1 No. 2434. C1. Who, in accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, can be a member of a business partnership? The law may prohibit or restrict the participation of certain categories of citizens in certain commercial organizations. For what form legal entity Does this prohibition or this restriction apply?

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
Civil Code of the Russian Federation. extracts

Article 66

1. Business partnerships and companies are recognized as commercial organizations with authorized (share) capital divided into shares (contributions) of founders (participants). Property created at the expense of contributions of founders (participants), as well as produced and acquired by a business partnership or company in the course of its activity, belongs to it by the right of ownership.<…>

2. Business partnerships may be created in the form of a general partnership and limited partnership (limited partnership).

3. Business companies may be created in the form of a joint-stock company, a limited liability company or an additional liability company.

4. Participants in general partnerships and general partners in limited partnerships may be individual entrepreneurs and (or) commercial organizations.

Citizens and legal entities may be participants in economic companies and contributors in limited partnerships.

State bodies and bodies of local self-government are not entitled to act as participants in economic companies and investors in limited partnerships, unless otherwise provided by law.

Institutions may be participants in economic companies and investors in partnerships with the permission of the owner, unless otherwise provided by law.

The law may prohibit or restrict the participation of certain categories of citizens in business partnerships and companies, with the exception of open joint-stock companies.<…>

6. A contribution to the property of a business partnership or company may be money, securities, other things or property rights or other rights having a monetary value.

Monetary valuation of the contribution of a participant in a business company is made by agreement between the founders (participants) of the company and, in cases provided for by law, is subject to independent expert verification.

7. Business partnerships, as well as limited and additional liability companies are not entitled to issue shares.

Article 68

1. Business partnerships and companies of one type may be transformed into business partnerships and companies of another type or into production cooperatives by decision of the general meeting of participants in the manner prescribed by this Code.<…>

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Explanation.
Two questions must be answered, for example:
1) individual entrepreneurs and (or) commercial organizations;
2) open joint stock company.
Answers can be given in a different wording

C1 No. 2444.

Explanation.
The correct answer should include the following factors:
1) contradictions (deformations) of social relations;
2) reassessment of the meaning of criminal penalties ("cruelty gives rise to a response
cruelty").

C1 No. 2445.

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