State and Law of Medieval Japan. Naturalistic tendencies in the prose of A.P. Chekhov monograph

Censor
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron Censorship →

Glossary: Khodsky - Censorship. Source: vol. XXXVIIa (1903): Khodsky - Censorship, p. 947-948()

Censor, censorship V Ancient Rome. The state economy of Rome in the epoch of the free system entirely fit the concept of οίκονομία πολιτική (Ps. Arist., Οίκον., II), that is, it was the economy of the city-state and remained so even when Rome had long been an all-Italian and world state. The most striking indicator of the purely urban nature of the Roman state economy is the institution of censorship, the main economic body of the Roman Republic. The name censor is directly related to census; it was worn by magistrates, whose main duty was to establish the composition and property provision of citizens (see Qualifications). With this main duty of the censors from time immemorial, that is, from their very appearance in the Roman state system (443 or 435 BC), was the duty to regulate the state economy of Rome together with the senate. The appearance of censorship was caused by the tendency to reduce the power and unlimited arbitrariness of the consuls, who alone in financial affairs were independent of the Senate. The appearance of the censors, who had only the money allocated to them by the Senate, marks the end of the financial arbitrariness of the consuls: the entire budget of the state passes from their hands into the hands of the censors, only the latter regulate the expenses and revenues of the state from now on, constantly adhering to the powerful instructions of the Senate. The establishment of censorship was a major victory in the struggle between the senate and the magistracy, a victory that placed in the hands of the senate what Polybius considers the basis of his power - complete control of public finances. The Senate willingly paid for this right by transferring to the censors the right to replenish and purify the Senate, in accordance solely with its own conscience. Censorship was not an annual magistracy; its urgency is closely connected with the concept of a chandelier - a cleansing act that took place at the end of the qualification and gave its name to the periods of four or five years in which de jure the qualification was to be performed. This periodicity of the qualification, on the one hand, and the connection of censorship precisely with the qualification - that is, its termination, simultaneously with the qualification, the solemn act of lustration - led to the fact that the censors functioned only during the production of the qualification, i.e., no more than 18 months: if the qualification began on March 15, then the lustration and the end of the censorship functions usually fell on the month of May of the following year. Due to the discrepancy between the terms of the qualification period and censorship, censorship was not an ordinary magistracy; its appearance depended on the consuls, who led the election of censors in the centuriate comitia. For the same reason, censorship did not find a definite place for itself in the chain of Roman magistracies, or, rather, its usual place (below the praetorship) did not at all correspond to its usual rank (censors were originally consulars). In close connection with the original nature and urgency of censorship is the fact that the censors did not have an empire and were exclusively city magistrates, whose activities were attached to the Field of Mars and the forum. Dependence on the consulate was due to the fact that there were no censors at the time of choosing their successors; that is why, right up to the final consolidation of the power of the senate, censorship pairs appear so unevenly and comparatively rarely. The censorship seemed to the consuls unnecessary and infringing on their rights; while they were still able to fight the senate, they did everything in their power to reduce the new magistracy to nothing if possible. The importance of censorship as a magistracy, the arbitrariness of which was almost not bound by anything, a magistracy that had the right to interfere in the life of every citizen, led to the fact that censorship was especially strictly bound by collegiality and uniqueness. Each act of C. had to be performed not only with the knowledge, but by agreement with a colleague; at the comitia, elections were to be held without fail for both candidates; the death or renunciation of power by one of the censors led to the abdication of the other; Twice Ts. could not be in any case (the only exception is G. Marcius Rutil, but on his own initiative the prohibition of iteration was carried out). The censors did not have a whole series of general magistrate rights; without an empire, they could not gather either the people or the senate, they were not accompanied by lictors, their coercive power was insignificant, but on the other hand, the accountability and responsibility of the censors made them free from the court of the tribunes and gave them the right to a number of external honorary distinctions. Home duty C. was committing qualification (see) and the associated revision of the lists of riders with the right to exclude and comment. The economic functions of censorship and the replenishment of the lists of the senate with the right to make comments to individual senators (nota censoria) and the right to be excluded from the lists stand outside the connection with the qualification. Accession of economic functions to censorship was caused by the fact that the chandelier was a fixed period for regulating the economy of the community, entirely based on farming. Revision of the lease contracts, the conclusion of new ones, the resolution of disputes related to them was the business of the censor. Maintenance of property and new buildings, besides the payment of free servants of the state, were the main expense of the community, and income from real estate - its main income; they also managed the estates of the Roman state. At the Roman forum, auctions were held for the lease of the lands of the state, regardless of where these lands were located, and regardless of the acquaintance or unfamiliarity of C. with what was being leased; here, within the amount allocated by the Senate, it was established what work was needed for the upcoming chandelier, and these works in Rome, Italy and de jure even in the provinces were handed over to the one who offered the most favorable conditions. When Rome found itself the owner of colossal property in Italy and outside it, the method of managing this property through two magistrates associated with Rome - a method suitable for Rome that did not go beyond Latium - turned out to be outdated and extremely unprofitable. Nevertheless, the senate - which had taken a more rational path, having organized in a Hellenistic manner the financial administration of Sicily through the mediation of its propraetor and local capitalists - already with the organization of Africa and Asia returned to the centralization of affairs in Rome in the hands of the censors. New contracts were concluded by C. on the basis of a special document (the so-called lex censoria), which specified the terms of the lease. With the entry of new C. into office, all contracts eo ipso were considered expired, and the state economy was regulated completely anew. The duties of Ts. were to monitor state property and return to the community, in the course of administrative proceedings, what had been appropriated by private individuals. Out of this protection of the interests of the community developed the jurisdiction of C., which, however, did not go beyond the administrative quasi-court with the right to fine and pignoris capio. The gradual weakening of the influence of the senate, starting from the era of the Gracchi, also caused a rapid decline in censorship. A complex economy required new forms of management; the civil qualification, in the absence of the need to resort to direct taxation and the appearance of a mercenary army, lost its significance; electio senatus has become mechanical since the time of Sulla. It is not surprising, therefore, that in the 1st c. to R. Chr. C. appear only sporadically, and then very rarely. For a time, censorship revives under Augustus and drags out existence until Vespasian and Titus, under which the last qualification and the last chandelier took place. The death of censorship was sealed by the fact that Domitian became a lifelong C. Since that time, the name C. has disappeared from the Roman political system. In the municipalities, C. are relatively rare, for the first time - in 204, in twelve Latin colonies, for the production of a qualification there at the request of the Romans. Usually the functions of C. carried the so-called. quinquennals (see). In the East, the magistrates corresponding to the Roman censors were called τιμηταί. See Mommsen, "Romisches Staatsrecht" (II, 331 f.); Herzog, "Staatsverfassnng" (I, 757 f.); De-Boor, Fasti censorii (Paris, 1873); Ruggiero, "Dizionario epigrafico" (ΙI, ff. 157). For the municipalities, see Liebenam, "Städteverwaltung" (259), and Levy, in "Revue des études gr." (1895).

China in the VIII-XV centuries

Chapters from the book: History of the countries of foreign Asia in the Middle Ages. M., 1970.

State organization of the Ming empire. Strengthening centralization

Having established themselves in power as opponents of the overthrown Yuan regime, the Ming rulers borrowed many of its political institutions. The Ming Empire retained the typical features of the Chinese feudal despotism. The emperor, as before, was an unlimited ruler, considered a sacred person, "the son of heaven." The capital administration in its structure initially completely repeated the patterns of previous feudal dynasties. The supreme executive body was the "Supreme Chamber" appointed by the emperor. Its head, the first minister, or chancellor, carried out the day-to-day management of the lower levels of the state apparatus. The "Supreme Chamber" directly directed the activities of the traditional six departments. Separate from these bodies was a special chamber of censors, which oversaw the work of metropolitan and local officials. The provincial government in the early years of the Ming was built on the principle of unity of command. The governors had broad powers that made them almost independent rulers.

Having inherited the traditional forms of government, the Ming dynasty tried to overcome the flaws in them that prevented the consolidation of its power. Zhu Yuan-chang led a resolute struggle against the abuses of officials - a plague that had previously corroded the entire state organism. Especially severe punishments were established for covetousness. According to imperial decrees, for a bribe exceeding 60 liang in silver, an official was cut off his head, then they skinned the executed man, stuffed it with straw, and the terrible effigy made in this way was put on display for everyone. Employees convicted of petty bribery and other illegal actions were subject to exile to hard labor. Strict measures, although they did not liquidate, nevertheless for a time significantly reduced the scale of corruption of the feudal bureaucracy.

The formation of the Ming Empire took place in a difficult political environment. The overthrown Yuan dynasty had many more adherents not only among the Mongol nobility expelled from China, but also within the country, among the Chinese feudal lords. Zhu Yuan-chang, attracting influential feudal lords, including former Yuan bureaucrats, and seeking their support, at the same time treated them with a certain mistrust. Fearing treason and separatism, he sought to ensure reliable control over the actions of his subordinates, to maximize the centralization of state power.

To this end, in 1376, a reform of the provincial administration was carried out. Instead of all-powerful governors, three higher positions were established in each province: civil and military governors and a provincial judge, independent of each other and subordinate only to the capital authorities. Such a division of power weakened the independence of the local administration and facilitated control.

Further centralization was accelerated in connection with the discovery in 1380 of a major anti-Min conspiracy among officials, whose roots went back to Mongolia. The organizer of the conspiracy was the head of the "Supreme Chamber", Chancellor Hu Wei-yong. Violently cracking down on change

Kami, Zhu Yuan-chang simultaneously carried out a major restructuring of the central government. He abolished the post of chancellor, and then completely liquidated the "Supreme Chamber", which for a long time served as a kind of cabinet of ministers under the feudal monarchs of China. The functions of this body, the restoration of which was henceforth strictly prohibited, from now on passed personally to the emperor.

The success of the centralization course was facilitated by the weakening of the grouping of large Chinese feudal lords as a result of previous popular uprisings. Many large landowners perished, while the middle and small ones needed a strong state.

Confucian ideology played an active role in the process of centralization of the control system. Reformed under the Song, it temporarily weakened its position during the period of Mongol domination. With the advent of the Ming Dynasty, Confucian doctrines again became a reliable ideological tool for strengthening imperial power. Well-known Confucian scholars, connoisseurs of ancient books, from the very beginning formulated the basic principles of the policy of the Ming court.

A clear contradiction to the centralizing principle in the activities of Zhu Yuanzhang was the creation by him of the institution of "specific" princes from the sons and grandsons of the emperor, who numbered several dozen people by the end of his reign. Each of them was assigned a “destiny” from birth. Upon reaching the age of majority, the princes moved there to live, receiving part of the local tax revenues.

Minsk "destinies", unlike European ones, were a conditional award without the right to civil and judicial power. However, the "specific" princes were given significant military powers. At their residences-headquarters, a staff of courtiers and security troops were established. These residences became like the imperial court. Even during the life of Zhu Yuanzhang, numerous princes of the blood began to weave intrigues against each other and led a covert struggle for the succession to the throne. Only the stern disposition of the founder of the dynasty kept his offspring from open strife and civil strife.

After the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, a group of courtiers, bypassing the emperor's sons, enthroned his grandson Hoi-di. The young emperor, together with some of the dignitaries, decided to liquidate the princely "destinies". In response, in the fall of 1399, one of the most influential princes, Zhu Di, rebelled against the new sovereign.

Zhu Di was the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang. His "destiny" was in the north of the country with a residence in Beijing. He himself gained solid military experience and influence in the border troops, repeatedly participating in campaigns against the Mongols. Leading the rebellion, Zhu Di moved from his base to the south, to the capital of the empire. In the four-year war against the army of the imperial court, he won. In 1403, his troops took Nanjing. Emperor Hoi-di disappeared without a trace during the storming of the city; Zhu Di proclaimed himself emperor under the motto Yongle (1403-1424). Having asserted his power and made Nanjing the capital first, and then, from 1421, Beijing, he restored the regime of political centralization in the country.

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GV Plekhanov's article is devoted to the analysis of Lenin's theses on the tasks of the proletariat in the revolution.

U to Chekhov's "Ward No. in" It makes up a whole k and f to u.<...>In artistic terms, this thing Gogol is weaker than "Chamber No. 6".

<...>

Hermeneutics of dramaturgy A.P. Chekhov monograph

M.: FLINTA

The book of Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor I.V. Dmitrevskaya is devoted to a practically unexplored problem, a hermeneutic analysis of A.P. Chekhov. Considering the situation of misunderstanding as the main internal cause of the existential content of Chekhov's plays, the author, using the method of systemic hermeneutics, reveals the sequence of meanings hidden inside Chekhov's texts and aimed at resolving existential situations or identifying the conditions under which they remain insoluble. Thus, the internal logic of the plot is revealed, the movement psychological world heroes from misunderstanding to understanding. The book reveals other aspects of A.P. Chekhov - phenomenological, existential, symbolic, social, etc.

L. Shestov identifies Pavlovich with the personalities of the main characters of such works as "The Black Monk", "The Chamber<...>A.P. Chekhov very accurately reflected this process in the works "Ward No. 6" and "Ivanov".<...>The devil can be external, the same everyday context of misunderstanding ("Chamber No. 6), it is he who destroys<...>The interlocutor is doctor Andrey Efimovich Ragin, later also an inhabitant of ward No. 6.<...>Chamber No. 6 // Chekhov A.P. Fav. prod. M., 1936.

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Wood processing methods: method. decree. to laboratory work on the discipline "Woodworking" for students on the profile of training 261400.62 "Technology of artistic processing of materials"

Guidelines compiled in accordance with the requirements curriculum and the program of the discipline "Woodworking" and include all the necessary information for the qualified performance of laboratory work in this discipline. Detailed guidelines on the conduct of laboratory work, the structure, content and design of the work, the stages of the work are described, a list of references is given. Methodical instructions are intended for students on the profile of training 261400.62 "Technology of artistic processing of materials."

decorative woodcarving in the second half of the 17th century became one of the workshops of the Moscow Armory<...>, which bore the name "Chamber of carvings and carpentry".

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Culture of Russia in the post-reform period (1860 - 1890s): Text of lectures Text of lectures

The text of the lectures highlights the main problems of Russian culture in the post-reform period (60s - 90s of the 19th century). The development of primary, secondary and higher schools, periodicals is shown, the successes of Russian scientists in science and technology are reflected. The activity of artists, composers, architects is considered. Special attention is paid to the Russian drama theater. It is intended for students studying in the specialty 020700 History (disc. "History of Russian culture in the post-reform period", block DS), part-time education.

Mendeleev in 1893, the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures (metrological service) was opened.<...>Chekhov (1860 - 1904) a great master of short stories, short stories ("A Boring Story", "Ionych", "Ward No. 6" and

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Lexicology of the Arabic language studies. allowance

The paper pays special attention to the history of lexicology and lexicography in the Arabic philological tradition. The manual is aimed at Arabic students in the specialty "Philology" and "Linguistics" with in-depth study Arabic, as well as all those interested in the origin and use of Arabic vocabulary.

.: ةعنبر الحاالت الخطير I "ward for the seriously wounded"); 6) whole part (narrowing of meaning): حشيش "grass"

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Naturalistic tendencies in the prose of A.P. Chekhov monograph

The publication is a monographic study of naturalistic tendencies in the prose of A.P. Chekhov on the material of the book of essays "Sakhalin Island", stories and short stories: "Tina" (1886), "Witch" (1886), "Women" (1891), "Gusev" (1890), "Fear" (1890), " Duel" (1891), "Ward No. 6" (1892), "Ariadne" (1895), "At Friends" (1895), "Murder" (1895), "Men" (1897), "In the Ravine" (1900 ). The author proves that naturalistic tendencies are an essential feature of A.P. Chekhov in the 1880s-1900s, an integral feature of his poetics. For the first time in Czech studies, naturalistic tendencies in the narrative works of A.P. Chekhov of the 1880s-1900s: from the stories of the 1880s, the book of essays "Sakhalin Island" - to the works of the writer's post-Sakhalin creativity; a connection is found between the emergence of naturalistic tendencies and the views of the writer, his attitude towards positivism and naturalism.

The way the ward of the mentally ill is depicted in Ward No. 6 is strikingly similar to the descriptions of Sakhalin prisons.<...>“In “Ward No. 6”, our general orders and characters are depicted in miniature. Everywhere - ward number 6.<...>December) in the same year as "Ward No. 6".<...>Chekhov "Ward No. 6" / Provatorova O.<...>Chekhov "Ward No. 6" / Provatorova O.

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The idea of Simón Bolivar about the creation of a new government is analyzed, which differs from the triad of traditional authorities provided for by classical theory separation of powers, which he called the Moral Power and proposed in the draft Constitution of Venezuela in 1819.

Miranda of 1808, in which he proposed the institution of censors for "observation of public education <...>The Areopagus consists of two chambers: the Chamber of Morals and the Chamber of Education.<...>He proposed the creation of a tricameral legislature: in addition to the Chamber of Tribunes and the Chamber of Senators -<...>Chamber of Censors.<...>Brice, in his work The Bolivarian Constitution, praised Bolívar's proposal to establish a Chamber of Censors.

The theory of separation of powers is analyzed as one of the key problems of the political and legal doctrine of the outstanding leader of the War of Independence. Latin America Simon Bolivar (Liberator). The doctrine of S. Bolivar is the most important foundation of Latin American constitutionalism.

censors ", who would have political and moral power, somewhat reminiscent of the power of the Athenian<...>the Areopagus and the Roman censors; they would be vigilant that the constitution,<...>congress - the chamber of censors - was supposed to serve as an obstacle to the usurpation of power by the executive<...>In addition, in his opinion, the third chamber could play the role of a “mediator judge”: in case of “disagreement<...>between two chambers, the matter will be decided by the third, that is, in the dispute it will be impartial, and so

In the museum silence of Moscow and Moscow region

The book tells about various cultural monuments of Moscow and the Moscow region, acquaintance with which expands the reader's understanding of Russian culture, the spiritual life of Muscovites.

These workshops were called chambers because they were located in large stone buildings - chambers.<...>What was the original Armory? 3. Why were workshops called chambers? 4.<...>This is the museum of the Chamber of the XVI-XVII centuries. The chambers have a peculiar and interesting story. <...>Where is the museum "Chambers of the XI-XVII centuries" located? 2. Who used to own the chambers? 3.<...>When did the museum open in the chambers? 4. What chambers were built? 5. What rooms were in the wards?

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No. 6 [Posev, 1996]

We were attracted by the apparatus of the upper house to organize a public examination of these laws.<...>"In ward N 7 of the one hundred and thirty-ninth department of the hospital.<...>About everything he experienced, he wrote the story "Chamber No. 7", which produced the effect of a broken<...>"Russia has moved from Chamber No. 6 to Chamber No. 7," wrote one of the English newspapers.<...>Now I have several editions of the "Chamber" published abroad, there is a lot of noise in the press ... "

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No. 59 [Fringes, 1965]

JOURNAL OF LITERATURE, ART, SCIENCE AND PUBLIC THOUGHT. Among the authors of "Frontiers" in different years there were such writers and poets as A. Akhmatova, L. Borodin, I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, Yu. Dombrovsky, B. Zaitsev, N. Lossky, A. Kuprin, V. Soloukhin, M. Tsvetaeva, O. P. Ilyinsky.

Tarsis "Chamber No. 7" (see Borders "N9 57, 1965). - R e d.<...>Near Andreev's Chamber Drunk people. The girls burn unkissed. Catch the hands of the skirts.<...>And the beds are white as ice floes, the ward is a brittle ice drift.<...>The communist authorities had to release him, and about his experiences he wrote the story "Chamber<...>"Gran and" printed "Chamber No. 7" / No. 57 /, and the world press highly appreciated both the heroism of the author and the

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The monograph by M.V. Fedorov "The Doctrine of Simon Bolivar". The structure of the book, the content of the chapters are analyzed. The expediency of internal construction of the monograph is substantiated. It is argued that the work is an original and relevant historical and legal research that makes a theoretical and practical contribution to legal science and to the decision contemporary problems history of state and law, history of constitutionalism, legal doctrines.

Moral power was exercised by a special body - the Areopagus, which consisted of two chambers: the chamber of morality<...>"Kniga-Service Agency" the state of morality in the republic, for the observance of good customs and morals, and the chamber<...>expressed in a message to the Constituent Congress of Bolivia in 1826, proposing to include in the constitution the "House of<...>Censors”, whose duty was to monitor the strict observance of the constitution and treaties.

Based on the analysis of archival materials, published sources and literature, the monograph reveals the formation, formation and evolution of political censorship in Soviet Ukraine in the 1920s–1930s, their place in the system of political supervision. The creation and development of a single body of ideological control in Ukraine - the Main Directorate for Literature and Publishing Houses is highlighted. Particular attention is paid to the forms, methods and principles of censorship and the process of passing printed works through all stages of the censorship mechanism is revealed. The ways of forming a new mass Soviet worldview and its influence on the population of Ukraine are analyzed.

Sovereign Archives of the Book Chamber of Ukraine: History and Modernity // Bulletin of the Book Chamber. – 2001<...>The draft "Regulations on the Ukrainian Book Chamber" noted that the chamber is a body of the NCP for the state<...>Corrected by the censor"523.<...>Sovereign Archives of the Book Chamber of Ukraine: history and present. // Bulletin of the Chamber of Books. -<...>The Sovereign Archives of the Book Chamber of Ukraine: History and Modernity // Bulletin of the Book Chamber. - chest

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Path to science. Issue. 14 Sat. scientific works of graduate students and students ist. faculty

The collection includes articles by graduate students and students of the winners of the scientific conference of the Faculty of History of the YarGU. P. G. Demidov 2009. The collection includes sections "General history", " National history”, “History of the Yaroslavl Territory”, “Museum work and protection of historical and cultural heritage”, “Socio-cultural service and tourism”.

XXIX. 37. 12), as well as the imposition of a fine in the presence of a contingent audience: before the gathering, the censors<...>Those assembled only testified to the censor's decision.<...>First of all, the censors, with the help of contions, prepared the holding of the subsequent qualification.<...>The censors, performing the function of cura morum, delivered speeches of the appropriate content at the meeting.<...>Yegorov, the tiles for the chambers of the Romanov boyars21 and Sophia's chambers of the Novodevichy Convent were restored

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The highest officials of the Russian Empire short dictionary

M.: Russian Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Science

This dictionary includes brief information about representatives of the highest civil officials of Russia early XVIII- the beginning of the twentieth century. - persons who had in active service civil or court ranks of the first four classes according to the Table of Ranks (for the 18th century - also the fifth class). In total, the dictionary includes more than 22 thousand people.

Censor of the St. Petersburg Censorship Committee.<...>Censor. Member of the GUDP. Member of the Council of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Ots. since 1896.<...>Censor. / 1.2.1898 / . MATVEEV Platon Prokofievich.<...>Saint Petersburg censor.<...>Censor of the Main Committee on Press Affairs.

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No. 3 [Red Burda, 2012]

The magazine was founded by members of the legendary KVN team UPI ("Ural wipers") Alexander Sokolov ( Chief Editor 1990-2003), Yuri Isakov and Vladimir Maurin. Until 1994, Krasnaya Burda was published in the format of a newspaper. The magazine has a close-knit team of authors that creates the exclusive humor of the publication. Many of the journal's texts have become popular. In addition to his own humor, the magazine publishes works by humor classics, drawings by the best cartoonists of the CIS. "Krasnaya Burda" was twice (1993, 1994) awarded the professional prize "Golden Ostap". In addition, Maxim Smagin, the artist of Krasnaya Burda, was awarded a personal Golden Ostap. In 2007, KB received the Humor of the Year award from the Humor FM radio station in the print edition nomination. Repeatedly performed at the Comedy Club as guests, took part in the TV shows “Laughing is allowed”, “Different Burda”, “Red Burda and her friends”, “33 funny letters". The Humor FM radio station regularly airs the Krasnaya Burda program.

ah crawls up to his own room and “takes off” under the door. Down the hallway! unnie!<...>a� looking into the chambers. Patients don’t pay attention to us, everyone is busy doing their own thing.<...>and in the oval ward .<...>�In�the wards�instead of the usual�!ooh!�-�durable�!years!<...>- There are girls in this ward who are not good, but they find fault. -�That�s�!a!

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Workers of the Russian National Library. I.A. Krylov

The book tells about the fabulist Ivan Andreevich Krylov, who made a significant contribution not only to Russian literature, but also to culture in general. He helped A. N. Olenin in the creation of the National Library of Russia, headed the Department of Russian Books, actively participating in replenishing the Library with Russian books, creating catalogs, serving readers, introducing his own, new everywhere. For 29 years of work in the Library (1812-1841) he became a professional librarian.

In 1774, my father retired with the rank of captain and was appointed chairman of the provincial criminal chamber.<...>In September 1783, he managed to get a job as a clerk in the Treasury with the rank of provincial secretary<...>The Treasury was in charge of state revenues.<...>I. S. Turgenev, who saw him once (14), told about Krylov's "mind chamber".<...>In a conversation with the censor K.S.

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History of the state and law of foreign countries studies. allowance

M.: Russian State University justice

Tutorial prepared in accordance with State standard in the discipline "History of the state and the law of foreign countries" for secondary vocational education. The moments of the history of the state and law are analyzed selected countries of the world, which had the greatest influence on the history of statehood in the course of world development, the content of state-legal processes developing in a certain time and space, causal relationships and specific historical patterns inherent in them are investigated.

From the middle of the IV century. BC e. Tribunes of the Plebs were empowered along with consuls, praetors and censors<...>All magistrates were elected for one year, with the exception of the censors, who performed their duties in<...>The army was recruited by the consuls on the basis of lists drawn up by the censors.<...>censors, and the Supreme Court was engaged in the analysis of cassation cases.<...>House of Lords. The House of Lords is the upper and older chamber of Parliament.

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No. 2 [Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 8. History. , 2010]

Censors.<...>These are the censors.<...>This version of the Basic Law, as Dumba stated, made the Assembly, which consisted of only one chamber<...>The same tables for regalia were installed in the Assumption Cathedral "on the throne" and in the Palace of Facets.<...>for regalia were used only during the coronations and funerals of emperors and were kept in the Armory

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No. 3 [Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 8. History. , 2012]

The journal publishes articles and materials on domestic and world history, history of art, source studies, ethnology, archeology, etc.; archival documents from scientific commentary; information about " round tables» and scientific conferences with the participation of university specialists. The pages of the journal are open for discussion, so its content does not necessarily reflect the views of the founders and the editorial board. The authors are responsible for the selection and accuracy of the facts, quotations, proper names, geographical names, statistical and other information, as well as for the use of data not intended for open printing

Field of Mars, lustrum, qualifications and censors.<...>From 443 BC this ritual came under the jurisdiction of the college of censors (Liv.<...>Censor ‘censor’ and auctoritas ‘power’ // Same. Dictionary of Indo-European social terms.<...>Censor ‘censor’ and auctoritas ‘power’ // Benveniste E. Dictionary of Indo-European social terms.<...>Each district elects one member of the lower house of the US Congress.

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1. The case was initiated by complaint no. Messina (hereinafter the applicant) 22 December 1993

In the case of Messina v. Italy (no. 2), the European Court of Human Rights (Second Section), sitting as a Chamber<...>Rozakis, President of the Chamber, B. Conforti, G. Bonello, V. Strazhnitskaya, P. Lorensen, M.<...>the applicant to the Secretariat of the European Commission for Human Rights through his wife, came with the stamps of the censors<...>The letters are then marked with a censor's stamp as proof that they have been read (see<...>The Grand Chamber of the European Court of Justice in the case of Labita v.

Remizov called the story “My literary career” (as my first books were printed and published) where the center was some kind of mysterious statuette, which, with its mystery, flying under secret from language to language, stirred up the whole of Petersburg and crossed over to Moscow. “I leave the story, having described the “eve,” and finish, as if about something else, but in fact about my literary career. The central “statuette”, which remains a mystery, is a phenomenon of any and non-literary career,” writes Remizov.

Censor. Old Ghetto. Vladimir Lensky. Morning Calls. Anatoly Kamensky.<...>When Roslavlev "proclaimed" before Saksagansky about three great writers: Dmitry Censor (hit<...>on "Censor"), Vladimir Lensky (; Mr. "Eugene Onegin", who does not know this?)<...>The censor, neither Vladimir Lensky, nor I, and, of course, neither Lazarevsky and Roelavlev, we are no Leo Tolstoy<...>Roslavlev was a cavalier of the monkey sign of the 1st degree with a cannon and bells of the monkey of the great and free chamber

Library life of Kuzbass: a collection. Issue. 4 (34)

The next issue of the collection "Library Life of Kuzbass" opens with a large section, which presents scenarios for the best library events held in the libraries of the region. This issue of the collection contains a summary index of contents, as well as an index of the authors of the 2001 editions of the collection.

Answer: "Ward N6".<...>In "Chamber No. 6" Chekhov gave a generalized picture of despotism in Russia. And many understood this.<...>Nikolai Leskov wrote: "In the Copyright of OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" "Ward N6" in miniature<...>Everywhere ward N6. It's Russia. This part of our quiz evening is called "Chekhov on the Screen".

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The struggle for freedom of the press in Western Europe, the USA and Russia on the eve and during the period of political modernization (mid-18th-19th centuries) [Electronic resource] / Nakvakina // Izvestia of higher educational institutions. Volga region. Social Sciences. - 2008 .- No. 1 .- P. 106-118 .- Access mode: https://site/efd/268537

M.: PROMEDIA

The distinctive features of the censorship policy in France are identified and analyzed. England, Germany, Russia and the USA in the middle of the 18th-19th centuries. and specific features of the development of printing in these countries are noted.

time in France), officials, having obtained an Essay on a Woman printed in his printing house, presented it to the Chamber<...>At the same time, the House of Commons, by 273 votes in favor and three against, recognized that the famous No. 45 of the newspaper<...>No book may be printed without the permission of the lieutenant of police and the approval of the censor.<...>Foreign publications are pre-screened by censors.<...>of the existing form of government were revered as treason and as such were subject to the jurisdiction of the chamber

No. 3 [World of Legal Science, 2010]

Magazine "Mir legal science"included in new List peer-reviewed scientific publications in which the main results should be published for the degree of candidate of science for the degree of doctor of science dated December 1, 2015 No. 13-6518 (number in the List 1614)

the Senate for life included former magistrates by appointment of magistrates, first consul, then censor<...>The highest magistrates of the Roman Republic included: consuls, praetors, censors, tribunes of the people and some<...>Censors in the amount of 5 people reviewed the list of senators, carried out a census of citizens, supervised<...>The word "censor" has also entered modern terminology.<...>chambers and voting.

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The article is devoted to the life and work of Yuri Koval - one of the most famous and beloved children's writers Soviet Union and Russia. Yury Koval's books have been translated into several European languages, as well as into Chinese and Japanese; they have been reprinted and reprinted many times

who, being the editor of the magazine "Koster", in every possible way contributed to the forger's publications, recalled: "The censor<...>And the censor allowed the story.<...>Beware of the bald and mustachioed: a story, short stories. - M .: Book Chamber, 1993. 4.

No. 1 [Military History Journal, 2014]

Monthly popular scientific publication of the Ministry of Defense Russian Federation. It illuminates actual problems domestic and foreign military history, the military policy of the Russian state at all stages of its formation and development, the historical experience of providing national security, the history of the development of military science and technology, the activities of prominent Russian and Soviet commanders and naval commanders, as well as many other aspects of military history and science. The readers of the journal are professional historians, specialists from research institutions, faculty, officers and cadets of the military educational institutions, veterans of the Great Patriotic War and the Armed Forces, as well as all those interested in military history. The publication will also be of interest to the younger generation, as it contains the section "Youth military history magazine". In addition to articles, it publishes cryptograms, chainwords and crosswords on military-historical topics. The authors of the publication are three candidates of sciences, one honored cultural worker of Russia, as well as military experts and historians. This guarantees a high professional level content of the magazine, consisting of such headings as "Military Symbols", "Military Heraldic Work", "Family Archive", "Symbols of the Russian Empire", "Through the Pages of Rare Editions", "Bookshelf of a Military Historian", "Criticism and Bibliography "," Memorable dates"and others. In addition, the journal publishes information about the results historical research, and also reports on thematic exhibitions and expositions held by archives and museums. The “Military Historical Journal” has been published from August 1939 to the present with some interruption: its publication was temporarily discontinued with the outbreak of World War II and resumed already in 1959. Four years ago, a special supplement of the journal appeared on the Internet - “Military Historical magazine. Internet Application". Its main task is the publication of articles, documents and scientific research that cannot be placed in a printed edition due to the limited volume of the journal - 80 pages and 8 color pages. Currently, the publication is actively cooperating with educational institutions, and also organizes visiting and correspondence reader conferences, seminars and round tables.

De Bono; member of the Great Fascist Council, chairman of the Chamber of Corporations - the lower house of the Italian<...>The following responsibilities were assigned to local commissioners: receiving from printing houses and sending to the Book Chamber<...>In particular, the aforementioned Book Chamber and the Bureau were created to compile reviews of time-based printing.<...>Military censor of the Oryol province and Mr.<...>reported that there was no censor in the brigade "and never was"25.

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Poems

Moscow: Publishing House "Children's Literature"

The book includes selected poems of the great Russian poet. Pushkin is a guesser, an interpreter of the obscure and mysterious rumble that accompanies historical shifts, an exponent of superhuman ideas that move history. He felt its course and movement, as a brilliant geologist feels the underground movement of the earth's continents, on which ordinary people live, unaware that not a single point of the earth's firmament is in complete peace. In world history, according to Pushkin, heroes and great people are not majestic in themselves, not because they are strong natures, figures and adventurers - no, each of them is the embodiment of some world idea that has concentrated the will of the people or the will of the state, the will of art or the will of fanaticism, the will of evil or the will of good.

Not so, dear friend, writers are rich; Fate gave them neither marble chambers, nor stuffed with pure gold.<...>But you, tormentors of the chambers, Easy-tongued whirlwinds, You, black disastrous alarm, Slanderers, enemies of Russia!<...>Copyright JSC "Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" 227 COMMANDER The Russian tsar has a chamber in his halls<...>Second Epistle to the Censor. Timkovsky - I.O. Timkovsky, Petersburg censor until 1821.<...>The reason for writing was the speeches in the French Chamber of Deputies (Lafayette, Moguin and others), calling for

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No. 1 [LOCUS: people, society, cultures, meanings, 2016]

In 1581, in Rus', the Apothecary Chamber was established by the English physician James Frenchan, which was transformed<...>Several royal saadaks made by the masters of the Armory have been preserved.<...>Saadak 1621 by Konon Ivanov and Ivan Popov is in the Armory.<...>Sovereign Armory / Ch. ed. V.E. Tumanovsky. St. Petersburg, 2002. 6. Dvurechensky O.V.<...>All this ultimately led to the removal of Kruse from the position of censor in December 1858.

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№4 [LOCUS: people, society, cultures, meanings, 2013]

�Meanwhile� the censor �admitted� that�prosecuting�the�publisher�would be<...>Reasons�of�Polyakov�did not convince�the censors�of�the�harmlessness�of�the book.� On December 23rd, 1870� at a� meeting� of the Committee<...>From the censors’ point of view, the publisher’s fault was that “all the pamphlets he collected were written in<...>Longinov requested the Prosecutor of the Judicial Chamber A.A.<...>The relevant bill was presented to the House of Commons on May 11, 1791.

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History of Smolensk mail

The book of the Smolensk collector and local historian V.A. Gurov is the final stage in his work on the trilogy "Post and Philately in the Smolensk Region". It explores the history of the formation and development of the postal service in Smolensk on the background of the all-Russian evolution of the postal business. The book is aimed at postal workers, philatelists and everyone who is not indifferent to the history of the Motherland.

We were judged by the Moscow Court of Justice almost two years after the strike.<...>So, yesterday, eight people of the Treasury Chamber, as the Head of the Chamber informed me, were not admitted at all<...>under investigation but held in prison, special investigators and members of the judicial chamber<...>The number of the censor was indicated in the center of the stamp.<...>In the center of the stamp is "Military censor" and its number.

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No. 1-2 [Literary newspaper, 2015]

Literaturnaya Gazeta is the oldest Russian periodical. The first issue of the newspaper, founded by a group of writers with the close participation of A.S. Pushkin was published on January 1, 1830. Today "LG" is primarily a social and political weekly for a wide range of intellectuals, dedicated to politics and economics, society, literature and art, and man. Mandatory topics for each issue: "Events and Opinions", "Politics", "Society", "Literature", "Art", the famous "12 Chairs Club". Issues with extensive applications are periodically published: “ Characters”, “LAD - Russian-Belarusian newspaper”, “Club 206”. "Literaturnaya Gazeta" is an integral part of the history, culture and spiritual life of Russia, its national treasure.

Voeikov, for publishing the poem "Censor" in the 1st issue of the magazine.<...>censors, and sometimes Benckendorff, were attracted by the works of Pushkin, Prince.<...>community: cooperation for the sake of development”, organized by the Public Chamber and the Seven Opera<...>national and regional public chambers and citizens!<...>donor of the Lipetsk regional organization of the society "Knowledge" Andrey Nasoprun; member of the Public Chamber

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The genesis of Latin American constitutionalism and its evolution during the 19th century are studied.

the task of monitoring the observance of constitutional norms is entrusted to legislative bodies, such as the Chamber<...>censors in con78 On the significance of the normative force of the constitution, see: Crisafulli V.

The article provides a literary-critical analysis of V. Grossman's novel "For a Just Cause", covering the life of Soviet people and the events of the Great Patriotic War.

tempting indication, very carefully and timidly begin to show the essence of Soviet life, party censors<...>hospital and orderly Nikiforov, usually a sedentary, gloomy man, and a handsome, cheerful political instructor from the ward<...>case” aroused the admiration of real literary scholars and critics and sowed panic among the party censors.

№2 [Literary almanac "Sputnik", 2019]

The first open literary magazine in Russia for anyone who writes or wants to become a writer.

At the heart of the palace are the chambers of the 16th–17th centuries.<...>In 1723, the chambers confiscated from Shafirov passed to Count P.A.<...>The Yusupovs owned the chambers for almost two centuries - until 1917.<...>Send everything you write to me; From now on, I will be your censor."<...>From now on, Nicholas I himself became his censor, which put the poet in a special privileged position - to complain

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No. 3 [Class leadership and education of schoolchildren (ID September 1), 2017]

phantasmagoria based on the play by this author, Leonid Gaidai had to re-voice several fragments according to the requirements of the censors<...>That's enough to drive me from ward to ward. Lena (to Alina). And what are you commanding here?<...>MAINTENANCE OF CENSORSHIP At first, officials and censors tried to cling to the animated series.<...>Then the censors found fault with bad habit Wolf smoking.<...>They say that the censors were hinted from the very top: leave the creators alone!

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Formation independent states in the post-Soviet space and the formation of their own history require clarification of a number of aspects of the activities of the Bolsheviks in the national cultural policy. "Purges" library collections, which were held throughout the USSR, in individual republics had their own characteristics. In the article, on the example of Soviet Ukraine, causal relationships are traced between work with book funds and the political situation, cultural and national politics party and state apparatus of the USSR. On the basis of archival sources, the process of organizing library "cleansing" from "harmful" literature is revealed, the bodies that gave orders and took part in this work are identified, the mechanism of their activity in the conditions of Soviet Ukraine is recreated. An important aspect of the study is the identification of motives for the removal of works by Ukrainian authors from libraries. Particular attention is paid to various instructions, lists of references and authors used by political censorship bodies when working with book collections.

now the exclusion from libraries of counter-revolutionary literature rests solely with the district censors<...>Abramov. - M.: Book. Chamber, 1987. - 655 p. 2. Varlamova S.F.<...>Ukrainian Book Chamber in front of її znischennyam in the river. 1930 - 1933 // Ukrainian collection.<...>Sovereign Archives of the Book Chamber of Ukraine: History and Modernity // Bulletin of the Book Chamber. - 2001

Constitutional prohibition of censorship in Russia monograph

M.: Prospect

The monograph is devoted to the analysis of the legal content of the constitutional prohibition of censorship and the study of the role played by the prohibition of censorship in the system of legal guarantees and restrictions on freedom of the mass media, as well as in the system of guarantees and restrictions on a whole range of rights and freedoms of citizens. The main stages of the development of censorship law are studied. Russian Empire, the transformation of the institution of censorship in the Soviet period of the development of our state, the options for formulating information rights and freedoms in the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation, developed in the early 1990s, and the materials of the Constitutional Conference. The problems of implementing the constitutional ban on censorship are considered in the context of growing threats information security individual, society and state. On the basis of a review of the current legislation, types of harmful information are systematized, organizational and legal mechanisms for combating the dissemination of such information are studied. The main problems of implementation of the constitutional prohibition of censorship are revealed. Legislation is as of September 1, 2015.

Dismissal of the censor. The case of N.V.<...>Zhirkov, according to the prosecutors of the judicial chambers of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Odessa<...>regional committees and regional committees, censors of regional newspapers - district committees of the party.<...>independently prohibit the publication of "especially harmful" books and magazines, these cases were transferred from the jurisdiction of the judicial chambers<...>received negative feedback from the Government of the Russian Federation, the Committee for Culture State Duma and the Public Chamber

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The article attempts scientific research question of the controversial nature of the fundamental human rights guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights. An analysis is given of the critical positions of three directions: supporters of turning to history, supporters of legal positivism and supporters of organicism. The practice of the Strasbourg Court in relation to the approval of new European norms protecting human rights is being studied. It is concluded that it is necessary to critically review the real operation of fundamental rights in order to strengthen them.

Europeans and 47 states, to come from only 47 judges ruling on significant cases by the Grand Chamber<...>In other words, European judges become censors state laws and all that they<...>Therefore, they can behave like censors.

No. 7 [Posev, 1968]

Socio-political magazine. Published since November 11, 1945, published by the publishing house of the same name. The motto of the magazine is "God is not in power, but in truth" (Alexander Nevsky). The periodicity of the journal has changed. Initially published as a weekly publication, for some time it was published twice a week, and from the beginning of 1968 (number 1128) the magazine became a monthly one.

subcommittee x of the Senate, Robert Kennedy and actively nominates his brother John Kennedy, first in chamber of censors

Rostov

The textbook aims to follow historical process development of Russian journalism from 1900 to October 1917, to show the mental, creative, typological, functional changes in the system of periodicals against the dynamically changing background of Russian history.

Petersburg Court of Justice “recognized P. N. Milyukov and I. V.<...>Petersburg Court of Justice. April 1, 1906 in St.<...>In December 1914, the chairman of the Moscow Chamber of this Union, V.G.<...>The organ of the Main Chamber of the Union was the magazine "The Direct Way", published in St.<...>In 1912, the censor pointed out the sympathies of N.N.

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The State-Legal Structure of Ancient Rome: Early Monarchy and Republic: Study Guide Study Guide

The proposed textbook contains a presentation of the fundamental political and legal mechanisms of the Roman state structure era of the kings and the Republic. The manual has two levels of complexity: it contains both sections intended for junior students studying ancient history and Roman public law, and sections aimed at senior students specializing in these disciplines and graduate students. The textbook is intended to provide methodological assistance in the meaningful assimilation of difficult topics in the fundamental courses of historical and legal education in classical universities. The textbook was prepared and published with the financial support of: - The Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, research project"The Roman state in critical eras: the formation of the political and legal foundations of the Republic and the Empire" (G02-1.2-535), grant fundamental research in area humanities, - Administration of the Yaroslavl region, research project "Roman public law: the executive power of the Republic and the Principate", grant of the Governor of the Yaroslavl region.

“The ex-curule magistrates formed, as it were, the upper house of the curia, the senators of the lowest rank were called<...>The censors had no empire.<...>Based on these data, the censors corrected the lists of the former censors and compiled new lists of citizens.<...>After that, the censor pronounced oaths and spells, and then the people in the military formation were assigned by the censors<...>Censors, performing. 240 Melnichuk Ya.V. Roman censors ... S. 40. 241 Ibid. P. 38. 242 Ibid.

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The central event of the Ulyanovsk jubilee pottery events in June 2012 was the opening of the Historical and Memorial Center-Museum of I.A. Goncharov in the house in which he was born and lived (now - the city of Ulyanovsk, Goncharova street, house 20) In addition to museum expositions, there will be a special residence for writers, a literary cafe, a specialized book Shop and publishing center.

Since 1866, he served in the judiciary: he was an assistant secretary of the judicial chamber in St. Petersburg, secretary<...>Prosecutor of the Moscow Court of Justice, Deputy Prosecutor of the Sumy and Kharkov District Courts, proK<...>He had to take the place of the censor, be the editor of the official "Northern Post" and finish the service,

Protection of freedom of conscience, dissemination of beliefs through the prism of judgments of the European Court of Human Rights

M.: Statute

This book, written by an experienced legal practitioner, not only raises problems, but also provides ways to solve them. The issues raised in the book are addressed through specific court cases, including those brought by the author himself, which makes reading the book fascinating. The author, carefully analyzing the problems, compares law enforcement practice with the practice of the European Court of Human Rights. The analysis of the applicable legislation was carried out with the study of the speeches of the deputies, taking into account the opinions of the scientific community, experts, and practitioners. Considering the modern practice of restricting freedom of conscience and spreading beliefs through the application of anti-extremist legislation, the author conducts comparative analysis with the censorship legislation of the Russian Empire. One of the main directions of the book is the consideration of the principle of "due process". The author is distinguished by the depth of study of the material and the lightness of style.

M.: FLINTA

The dictionary is the first attempt at a lexicographic description of the language of a prominent representative of the "Pushkin galaxy" of poets A.A. Delviga (1798–1831); includes an alphabetical-frequency index of lexemes (if necessary with their interpretation, functional and stylistic marks) and proper names (with appropriate comments) noted in the literary heritage of the writer, as well as a rating of the most commonly used words in his poetry, prose, criticism, letters.

through a slash, for example: Bayan / Boyan [legendary old Russian bard], Birukov / Biryukov [A.S. Birukov, censor<...>"P. star" (meteor)] (1,0,0:186), package (0,0,2:284,324), chamber (1,0,0:352), executioner (1,0,0:203), finger<...>"lord of the winds")] (1:153); E.P. Shcherbinina [wife of the Chairman of the Kharkov Civil Chamber M.A. Shcherbinin<...>"a river in the underworld of the dead"] (2:34,82); Krasovsky [A.I. Krasovsky,

Kniga-Service”Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau “BIBCOM” & LLC “Agency Kniga-Service” 19 Henry Reznik President of the Chamber of Lawyers<...>At one time, according to contemporaries, only in the district of the St. Petersburg Court of Justice was used<...>Already in 1841, the quite loyal A.V.<...>The basic medical principle "Do no harm" must be unconditionally taken into account by all members of both chambers of the Russian<...>Markov, summarizing the decisions of the councils of bar associations on disciplinary practice4, and you will see an amazing

Japan is one of today's great world powers. The name of the country comes from the word Nippon - literally "land of the rising sun". The insular position of the country, the absence of foreign domination, careful attitude to the monuments of the past made it possible to preserve many legal antiquities, based on which it is possible to recreate the development of state-legal history. All attempts by invaders from neighboring countries to enslave Japan failed. True, at the beginning new era the country turned out to be a vassal of the Chinese emperors for some time: as a sign of dependence, the Japanese sent gifts to the gods and paid tribute.

In contrast to the Western European medieval statehood, Japan has gone through the main stages in its state-legal development:

7th-12th centuries - Early Middle Ages: feudal relations are just beginning to take shape;

XIII-XVII centuries - the developed Middle Ages: a feudal seignioral-vassal structure was formed with the omnipotence of the shogun - "the great governor who conquered the barbarians";

XVIII-XIX centuries - in modern times, the feudal relations of the shogunate are in crisis, this is the beginning of their collapse.

By the 7th century there have been major changes in the social life of Japan. The tribal system fell into decay, giving way to feudalism. Japan developed into an early feudal, relatively centralized state in the form of a monarchy. The founder of the dynasty is considered to be a large tribal union of Yamato. The head of state had the title of emperor (literally "son of Heaven" - Tenno). Emperor Kammu moved to 784. the capital from Nara to the neighboring city of Kyoto.

The legal approval of the early feudal monarchy occurred as a result of major reforms, called the "Taika Manifesto" (646). According to the reforms, almost all public lands became state property, and the population became subjects of the emperor, his vassals, who were divided into two social groups: free - from a peasant to an aristocrat and mean - slaves, semi-free. The state allotment, poll tax extended to almost the entire population.

These reforms had the significance of a political revolution for Japan. They marked the establishment of an early feudal state headed by a hereditary monarch - the emperor. In the Taika era, the Ministry of the Imperial Court was created, which lasted until the end of World War II. Subsequently, with the growth of prosperity and the intensification of clan strife in Japan, the political influence of Buddhist hierarchs increases. Therefore, by the end of the XI century. three centers of political attraction are actually emerging in the country: the Imperial Court; house management of the ruling clan; Buddhist monasteries. Upon reaching adulthood, the emperor, as a rule, was forcibly tonsured a monk, and his young heir was elevated to the throne - an obedient tool in the hands of the ruling clan and Buddhist hierarchs. This is how the tradition of dual power gradually developed.

The supreme state power in Japan, as in China, belonged to the Grand Council of State, which developed the general directions of state policy.

The Council of State was headed by a chancellor or a senior minister. Direct management functions were carried out by two top ministers: the left (senior) and the right (junior), who, in turn, relied on senior and junior advisers.

Eight ministries were subordinate to the State Council (the Ministry of the Imperial Court, General Affairs, Finance, Justice, etc.), which, unlike China, were closely connected with the imperial house.

The Chamber of Censors, with a huge staff of traveling censors-controllers, monitored the "purity of customs and mores" and conducted investigations in cases of violations of morality in the state.

Cardinal changes in the country come in the XII century, when the shoguns come to power and create their own ruling dynasties. The term "shogunate" comes from an abbreviation for one of the functional duties of a warlord (in this case, the duties of pacifying rebellious barbarian tribes). In a general sense, a shogun is a military dictator turned hereditary official who dominated all power structures in Japan from 1192 to 1867. The regime of the shogunate was also called bakufu - "government in a camping tent."

In total, Japan has experienced three shogunates in its history. For several centuries, the status of the emperor as head of state was nominal, since the entire administrative and judicial hierarchy was under the control of the shogun - the military leader. The emperor lived almost without a break in his palace, and he was seen mainly by those who served him and close relatives. Usually, upon reaching a certain age, the sovereigns renounced the throne and spent the rest of their days in solitude and prayers. This was also facilitated by the Buddhist tradition, which encouraged the removal from worldly affairs to secluded monastic communities. When an adult monarch tried to interfere in politics, he was eliminated in one way or another. The power of the shogun usually passed to his son. Characteristically, in treaties with foreigners, the shogun, indecisive in his power capabilities, was called taikun (great sovereign).

The emperor was traditionally called "tenno" (ruler pleasing to Heaven), and for foreigners, the most common title was "mikado", borrowed from a poetic dictionary and meaning "light-sovereign".

With the establishment of the first Minamoto shogunate (1192-1333), dual power in Japan takes on a complete expression. Minamoto sought to eliminate the fragmentation of the country, to suppress strife, to strengthen the state and its power. characteristic feature the first shogunate was to maintain the status of the emperor as a nominal head of state, who had some representative functions. The emperor enjoyed traditional ritual honors, but neither he nor his court played any significant political role under the shogunate. From the beginning of the XIII century. the imperial court becomes the center of feudal opposition.

The shogunate acquires the features of a military-absolutist regime quite late - by the 17th century. (the third Tokugawa shogunate, since 1603), when the methods of governing the military-samurai elite are being tightened and an extensive police apparatus is being created. It was from that time on that the emperor’s political will was no longer taken into account at all, and in the imperial capital (Kyoto) a new position of the shogun’s viceroy was introduced, who monitored the moods of the court environment. At the same time (1635), the shogunate introduced a hostage system, in which all daimyo (large landowners, princes) had to alternately live in the shogun's house, and returning to their possessions, leave their families in Edo, the capital of the shogunate. The same system extended to the sons of the emperor.

By analogy with the management system of the imperial court of the past, the Tokugawa shogunate introduced the positions of senior advisers who were part of the Shogun’s State Council (something like a narrow “cabinet of ministers”) and controlled one of the five colleges of the bakufu. internal affairs, foreign, military, naval, financial. Junior advisers to the Tokugawa government were in charge of the shogun's guard, the guards of his palace, the police apparatus, and carried out surveillance of the vassals.

Since in medieval Japan the court was not separate from the administration, court cases were usually resolved by the department that dealt with the problems. The Ministry of Justice, for example, had two departments - penalties (confiscation of property and collection of fines in favor of the treasury) and prison department (supervision of those under investigation, forced labor of prisoners, execution of sentences). The most complex cases were sent to the Council of State for consideration. The emperor was the highest court of appeal in the country.

The social structure in Japan takes on a clear outline around the 12th century, when the feudal lords are conditionally divided into two main groups: gokenin - direct vassals of the ruler-shogun; higokenin - other vassals belonging to other lords, both secular and spiritual.

By the time of the developed Middle Ages (fifteenth century), influential princes (daimyo) and owners of large feudal farms emerged in Japan. By the 17th century daimyo are divided into two categories: direct vassals of the emperor, who held the highest positions in the state; "external" daimyo, who did not participate in government affairs, but retained titles and privileges.

When at the beginning of the XVII century. Japan is united under the auspices of the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, in 1615. the Law of 18 articles is published, which regulate legal statuses four main classes of Japanese society: samurai - si; peasants - but; artisans - to; merchants - that's it. Outside this class division was the Japanese aristocracy - kuge, who received rice rations from the shogun as a reward for their service. Social outcasts were excluded from society - this one.

The communal peasants were actually in land bondage, since they were forbidden to leave the communal land. Poll tax of dependent peasants - rice rent sometimes reached half of the harvest. But the Japanese serfs were in the most difficult situation - they were actually slaves.

The first monuments of Japanese law date back to the early Taika era (the Shotoku-taishi constitution of 604). But law at that time was not yet separated from the sphere of religious and ethical norms. The ancient religion of the Japanese - Shintoism, the creed of local tribes, later intertwined with Buddhism that penetrated the country. The coexistence of the two religions has become a kind of spiritual pluralism. The customs and canons of Shintoism were observed by the population during joyful events in life: the birth of a child, a wedding, harvesting, promotion, cleansing of sins by washing in the river, etc. People turned to Buddhism during sad events: during natural disasters, in case of illness, death, at a wake. At the same time, the day of commemoration of the dead was celebrated with songs and dances: Buddhism, as you know, denying reality existing world, affirms the truth of the other world of "eternal bliss".

The commitment of the Japanese to their creeds and spiritual values partially explains the country's closeness until the middle of the 19th century. Its inhabitants were suspicious of preachers of a different faith, missionaries, especially the Jesuits. The admission of Europeans to the country was allowed only for trade and through one port - Nagasaki.

The norms of behavior close to the Confucian attitudes in China were called weights in Japan: the weights of father and son, husband and wife, older and younger brothers stood out; outside the family there were weights of a merchant and a buyer, a master and an employee, etc. Weights partly replaced law, but above all it was morality. They were observed automatically, under pain of condemnation from society in case of disobedience to specific weights.

The military caste (buke, samurai) lived according to their own customary law (buke-ho). The “code of chivalry” operating within the caste was based on the idea of absolute devotion of the vassal to the overlord: the vassal had no guarantees against the arbitrariness of his overlord. In 1232, the Collection of customs of the military caste was compiled, containing the norms of criminal law and the "code of honor" of the samurai.

The laws of feudal Japan detailed the rights and obligations of vassals and overlords, especially samurai. In the Yasutoke Hojo vault (XIII century), a samurai who swore an oath to his overlord had to make an incision on his finger and moisten the signature with his blood. The moral code obliged the samurai to be faithful to his master, modest, courageous, ready for self-sacrifice. A real samurai, going on a military campaign, made three vows: forget your home forever, forget about your wife and children, forget about your own life.

Each social group had to perform strictly defined functions in the state, and the duties of each were periodically specified in the collections of ritsu-ryo. It is characteristic that punitive norms were designated by the term "ritsu", administrative-applicable - by the term "ryo".

The ideas and appeals of the Shotoku constitution of 604 were embodied in subsequent legislation, which contributed to overcoming clan fragmentation and the formation of a single centralized state. Taiho-ryo (701) and Yoro ritsu-ryo (718) are known from the most famous legal collections of Japan in the early Middle Ages. Taiho is mostly devoted to the regulation of land relations, and Yoro - to criminal and administrative regulations.

Taiho-ryo is a collection of thirty laws governing a wide range of tax and labor duties, the duties of officials, as well as general recommendations for the fair implementation of the public duties of the ruler and the people and the observance of traditional moral and ethical requirements.

Yoro ritsu-ryo regulates mainly the sphere of government, including the judiciary. The most serious crimes here include encroachments on the bearers of state-imperious duties, as well as on relatives in the ascendant line. Solidary responsibility along with personal and official is approved; the degree of complicity in the execution of criminal acts differs. For privileged classes, mitigation of punishments is provided.

During the period of the third Tokugawa shogunate, lawmaking revived, the largest achievement of which was the Law of 18 articles of Ieyasu Tokugawa, which regulated the status of the emperor and daimyo, as well as the legal statuses of the four main classes of Japanese society: samurai - si: peasants - but; artisans - to; merchants - that's it.

The Code of 100 Articles, adopted in 1742, had the main merit of summarizing the main content of recognized laws, including Taiho and Yoro.

Ming China was born and died in the crucible of the great peasant wars, the events of which were orchestrated invisibly by secret religious societies like the White Lotus. In this era, the Mongol domination was finally abolished and the foundations of the economic and political systems, corresponding to traditional Chinese ideas about the ideal statehood.

The peak of the power of the Ming Empire fell on the first third of the 15th century, but by the end of the century, negative phenomena began to grow. The entire second half of the dynastic cycle (XVI - first half of the XVII centuries) was characterized by a protracted crisis, which by the end of the era acquired a general and comprehensive character. Started with changes in the economy and social structure The crisis manifested itself most visibly in the field of domestic policy.

The first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), began to pursue a far-sighted agrarian and financial policy. He increased the share of peasant households in the land wedge, strengthened control over the distribution of state lands, stimulated military settlements patronized by the treasury, resettled peasants on empty lands, introduced a fixed taxation, and provided benefits to poor households.

His son Zhu Di tightened the police functions of power: a special department was established, subordinate only to the emperor - Brocade robes, denunciation was encouraged. In the XV century. there were two more punitive-detective institutions.

The central foreign policy task of the Minsk state in the XIV-XV centuries. was to prevent the possibility of a new Mongol attack. There were no military clashes. And although peace was concluded with Mongolia in 1488, the raids continued even in the 16th century. From the invasion of the country by the troops of Tamerlane, which began in 1405, China was saved by the death of the conqueror.

In the XV century. activated south direction foreign policy. China interferes in Vietnamese affairs, seizes a number of areas in Burma. From 1405 to 1433 seven grandiose expeditions of the Chinese fleet under the leadership of Zheng He (1371 - about 1434) are made to the countries of Southeast Asia, India, Arabia and Africa.

In different campaigns, he led from 48 to 62 only large ships. These voyages were aimed at establishing trade and diplomatic relations with overseas countries, although all foreign trade was reduced to the exchange of tribute and gifts with foreign embassies, while a strict ban was imposed on private foreign trade activities. Caravan trade also acquired the character of embassy missions.

Government policy regarding internal trade was not consistent. Private trading activities were recognized as legal and profitable for the treasury, however public opinion considered it unworthy of respect and required systematic control by the authorities.

The state itself led an active domestic trade policy. The treasury compulsorily purchased goods according to low prices and distributed the products of state crafts, sold licenses for trading activities, maintained a system of monopoly goods, maintained imperial shops and planted state "commercial settlements".

During this period, bank notes and small copper coins remained the basis of the country's monetary system. The ban on the use of gold and silver in trade, although weakened, but, however, rather slowly. More clearly than in the previous era, the economic specialization of the regions and the trend towards the expansion of state crafts and trades are indicated. Craft associations during this period gradually begin to acquire the character of guild organizations. Written charters appear inside them, a prosperous stratum arises.

From the 16th century the penetration of Europeans into the country begins. As in India, the championship belonged to the Portuguese. Their first possession on one of the South Chinese islands was Macau (Maomen). From the second half of XVII V. the country is flooded by the Dutch and the British, who assisted the Manchus in conquering China. At the end of the XVII century. in the suburbs of Guangzhou, the British founded one of the first continental trading posts, which became the center for the distribution of British goods.

In the Ming era, neo-Confucianism occupies a dominant position in religion. From the end of the XIV century. the desire of the authorities to put restrictions on Buddhism and Taoism is traced, which led to the expansion of religious sectarianism. Other striking features of the religious life of the country were the Sinification of local Muslims and the spread of local cults among the people.

The growth of crisis phenomena at the end of the 15th century. begins gradually, with a gradual weakening of imperial power, the concentration of land in the hands of large private owners, and the aggravation of the financial situation in the country. The emperors after Zhu Di were weak rulers, and temporary workers ran all the affairs at the courts. The center of the political opposition was the Chamber of Censors-Procurators, whose members demanded reforms and accused the arbitrariness of the temporary workers.

Activities of this kind met with a severe rebuff from the emperors. A typical picture was when another influential official, submitting an incriminating document, was simultaneously preparing for death, waiting for a silk lace from the emperor with an order to hang himself.

The turning point in the history of Ming China is associated with a powerful peasant uprising of 1628-1644. led by Li Zichen. In 1644, Li's troops occupied Beijing, and he himself declared himself emperor.

The history of medieval China is a motley kaleidoscope of events: a frequent change of ruling dynasties, long periods of domination by conquerors who, as a rule, came from the north and very soon dissolved among the local population, having adopted not only the language and way of life, but also the classical Chinese model of governing the country, which took shape during the Tang and Sung eras.

Not a single state of the medieval East could achieve such a level of control over the country and society, which was in China. Not the last role in this was played by the political isolation of the country, as well as the ideological conviction that prevailed among the administrative elite about the chosenness of the Middle Empire, whose natural vassals are all other powers of the world.

However, such a society was not free from contradictions. And if religious and mystical convictions or national liberation ideals often turned out to be the motives for peasant uprisings, they did not in the least cancel, but, on the contrary, intertwined with the demands of social justice.

It is significant that Chinese society was not as closed and rigidly organized as, for example, Indian. The leader of a peasant uprising in China could become an emperor, and a commoner who survived state exams to an official position, could start a dizzying career.