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The book contains the necessary material to prepare for the basic level of the USE-2016 in mathematics. The book includes:
40 new author's training tests compiled according to the draft specification of the Unified State Examination-2016 (base level) dated 08/21/2015;
brief theoretical reference book;
responses to all options.
The book will allow students to successfully pass the exam on basic level to get a certificate.
The publication is addressed to graduates educational institutions, teachers, methodologists.
The manual is part of the educational and methodological complex “Mathematics. Preparing for the Unified State Exam”, which includes such books as “Mathematics. 10-11 grades. Simulator for preparing for the exam: algebra, planimetry, stereometry”, “Mathematics. Preparation for the exam-2016. profile level. 40 training options according to the demo version for 2016, etc.

Examples.
Anna was interviewed for a job at two companies. The probability that she will be invited to work in the first company is 0.87, the probability that she will be invited to work in the second company is 0.9. Assuming that the companies work independently of each other, find the probability that the first company will refuse Anna a job, and the second will invite her to work. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.

In order to knit a jumper, the hostess needs 700 grams of beige wool yarn. You can buy beige yarn at a price of 130 rubles per 100 grams, or you can buy undyed yarn at a price of 105 rubles per 100 grams and dye it. One bag of paint costs 60 rubles and is designed for dyeing 300 grams of yarn. Which purchase option is cheaper? In the answer, write how much this purchase will cost.

Table of contents
From the authors
Work instructions
Training tests
Option number 1
Option number 2
Option number 3
Option number 4
Option number 5
Option number 6
Option number 7
Option number 8
Option number 9
Option number 10
Option number 11
Option number 12
Option number 13
Option number 14
Option number 15
Option number 16
Option number 17
Option number 18
Option number 19
Option number 20
Option number 21
Option number 22
Option number 23
Option number 24
Option number 25
Option number 26
Option number 27
Option number 28
Option number 29
Option number 30
Option number 31
Option number 32
Option number 33
Option number 34
Option number 35
Option number 36
Option number 37
Option number 38
Option number 39
Option number 40
Brief theoretical reference
§1. Conventions
§2. Degrees and Roots
§3. Module and its properties
§4. progressions
§5. Logarithms
§6. Probability theory
§7. Trigonometry
§8. Polynomials and their roots
§9. Equations
§10. inequalities
§eleven. Functions
§12. Planimetry
§13. Stereometry
Answers to tests
Literature.

• Mathematics, Solutions with methodological recommendations, Preparation for the Unified State Examination 2016, Profile level, 40 training options, Lysenko F.F., Kulabukhov S.Yu., 2016
• USE 2016, Mathematics, grades 10-11, Thematic training, Lysenko F.F., Kulabukhov S.Yu., 2015
• Mathematics, Preparation for the Unified State Examination, Task with economic content, Task 19 of the profile level, Lysenko F.F., Kulabukhov S.Yu., 2015

New tomography studies show that behind our ability to dance lies a complex neural choreography

Our sense of rhythm is so natural that most of us take it for granted: when we hear music, we unconsciously start tapping our foot or swaying from side to side without noticing it ourselves. However, whatever the purpose of this instinct, it is something new in evolution. Neither in mammals, nor in any other representatives of the animal kingdom, anything like this is observed. We find ourselves subconsciously captured by the rhythm, and this ability is at the heart of dance - a fusion of movement, rhythm and gestures. Dance is accompanied by more synchronization in a group of people than any other human activity; it requires a degree of coordination between people in time and space that does not occur in virtually any other social context.

Despite the fact that dance is a fundamental form of human expression, neuroscientists have paid very little attention to it. Recently, however, scientists have conducted the first tomographic studies of both professional dancers and amateurs. Fundamental questions were raised. How do dancers navigate in space? How do they choose the pace of their steps? How do people learn the complex sequences of movements that form the figures of the dance? The results obtained give some idea of ​​the complex brain coordination required to perform even the simplest dance movements.

Dance is a fundamental form of human self-expression, which probably developed along with music as a way of giving rise to rhythm...

Dancing requires specialized skills provided by the brain. One area of ​​the brain displays the position of the body, helping to direct our movements in space; the other provides synchronization, allowing us to move to the music.

The musical rhythm captures us, and we unconsciously begin to tap our feet - this is how our instinctive tendency to dance manifests itself. This becomes possible due to the fact that certain subcortical areas of the brain exchange information that bypasses the higher auditory areas.

catch the rhythm

Neuroscientists have long studied such simple moves such as rotating at the ankle or tapping with the finger. From this work, we generally already know how the brain controls the simplest actions. However, in order to just jump on one leg - even without trying to simultaneously pat yourself on the head - you need to make calculations in the sensorimotor system that take into account the surrounding space, gravity and balance, intention and timing, as well as and many other factors. Simplifying the picture a bit, it turns out that a region of the brain called the posterior parietal cortex (closer to the back of the brain) translates visual information into motor commands and sends signals forward to the areas responsible for planning movements - the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area. Next, the generated commands are transmitted to the primary motor cortex, which generates nerve impulses that go to the spinal cord and then to the muscles, causing them to contract.

At the same time, the sensory organs in the muscles themselves provide feedback with the brain, informing it about the exact location of body parts in space using signals that travel along nerve fibers through the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex. Subcortical structures - the cerebellum at the back of the brain and the basal ganglia deep within it - also help correct motor commands based on sensory feedback and provide greater precision in the movements produced. Whether these mechanisms are capable of providing such a graceful movement as, say, a dance pirouette remains unclear.

To investigate this issue, we conducted the first tomographic study of dance movements. In collaboration with our colleague Michael J. Martinez of the Center for Health Sciences at the University of Texas at San Antonio, we recruited non-professional tango dancers as test subjects. The brains of five men and the same number of women were scanned using a positron emission tomograph (PET), which records changes in cerebral blood flow that occur as a result of changes in brain activity. Researchers interpret increased blood flow in an area of ​​the brain as a sign of greater activation of the neurons located in it. Our subjects lay on their backs inside the scanner, and their heads were fixed, but they could move their legs and drive them along an incline. First, we asked them to perform a “square” of classic Argentinean tango salida with their feet, while the movements had to be performed to the recording of instrumental tango music, which the subjects listened to through headphones. Then we scanned in a different situation, where our dancers simply tensed their leg muscles to the beat of the music, but did not move. By subtracting the brain activity caused by simple muscle tension from the activity during the “dance”, we were able to identify the areas of the brain needed to guide the legs in space and create specific sequences of movements.

As expected, the subtraction made it possible to exclude many basic motor areas of the brain from consideration. However, that part of the parietal cortex remained, which is involved in the perception of space and orientation in it, both in humans and in other mammals. During dance, the perception of space is predominantly kinesthetic: you feel the position of your torso and limbs at any given time, even if your eyes are closed, which is made possible by sensory formations in the muscles. These organs transmit information to the brain about the angle of rotation in each joint, about the tension of each muscle, and on this basis the brain creates a clear idea of ​​the position of the whole body and its parts. To be more precise, we saw activation of the precuneus, an area of ​​the parietal lobe located near the place where the kinesthetic representation of the legs is located. We believe that the precuneus contains a kinesthetic map that allows people to sense the position of their body in space as they move among surrounding objects.

Whether you're waltzing or just walking in a straight line, the precue helps you chart your path by doing its calculations relative to the center of your body, ie. in the so-called "egocentric" coordinate system.

We then compared the patterns of brain activity obtained during the dance with tomograms taken when the subjects performed tango movements in the absence of music. By excluding the areas of the brain that were activated in both situations, we hoped to identify the areas needed to synchronize movements with music. Again, the subtraction eliminated virtually all of the motor areas of the brain. The main difference was observed in the part of the cerebellum that receives input from spinal cord, - in front of the worm. Although given area was involved in both situations, dance movements synchronized with music led to a significantly more pronounced increase in blood flow in this area than the same movements performed by the subjects in their own rhythm.

Preliminary results support the hypothesis that this part of the cerebellum serves as a kind of conductor, watching the information from different areas of the brain and helping to coordinate the actions performed. The cerebellum as a whole satisfies the criteria of a neural metronome well: it receives many sensory inputs from the auditory, visual, and somatosensory cortical systems (this is necessary in order to be able to adjust movements to a variety of signals, from sounds to visual stimuli and touch), and contains sensorimotor mapping of the whole body.

Unexpectedly, the second analysis shed light on the natural tendency of people to unconsciously tap their feet to the beat of music. When comparing tomograms obtained with synchronized movements and movements performed in their own rhythm, we found that relatively low level auditory pathway, namely the subcortical structure called the medial geniculate body (MKT), was highlighted only in the first case. At first, we thought that this result simply reflected the presence of a sound stimulus—i.e. music under synchronized conditions, but an additional brain scan forced us to reject this interpretation: when our subjects listened to music but did not move their legs, we did not detect any changes in blood flow in the MCT.

Thus, we concluded that MCT activity was specifically related to synchronization, and not just listening to music. This discovery allowed us to formulate a hypothesis, according to which, with unconscious subordination to the rhythm, auditory information enters directly into the cerebellum, bypassing higher levels- auditory areas of the cerebral cortex.

Moving parts of the brain

In order to identify the areas of the brain that control dance, researchers first needed to understand how the brain allows us to perform voluntary movements. Here is a simplified diagram of the process. Fine-tuning (right) is partly due to the muscles sending signals back to the brain. The cerebellum uses the feedback from the muscles to maintain balance and make movement more precise. In addition, the basal ganglia collect sensory information from various areas of the cortex and transmit it through the thalamus to the motor areas of the cortex.

Fine-tuning (right) is partly due to the muscles sending signals back to the brain. The cerebellum uses the feedback from the muscles to maintain balance and make movement more precise. In addition, the basal ganglia collect sensory information from various areas of the cortex and transmit it through the thalamus to the motor areas of the cortex.

Motor planning (left) takes place in the frontal lobe, which contains the premotor cortex (not visible in the figure) and the supplementary motor area, which evaluate signals (arrows) from other areas of the brain and carry information such as body position in space and memory of previous actions. These two areas then communicate with the primary motor cortex, which determines which muscles to tense (and how much) and sends the appropriate commands through the spinal cord down to the muscles.

Do you think you can dance?

When we observe and learn dance moves, other areas of the brain are also involved. Beatriz Calvo-Merino and Patrick Haggard of University College London investigated whether certain areas of the brain are activated when people watch other performers perform dance moves that they themselves know. Or, to put it another way, are there areas of the brain that turn on in ballet dancers when they watch ballet and not, say, capoeira (an Afro-Brazilian martial art that looks like a dance and is performed to music)?

To investigate this issue, a team of scientists used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study the brains of ballet dancers, capoeiristas, and non-dancers while they watched three-second silent video clips of ballet steps or martial arts moves. The researchers found that the presence of their own experience in the subjects had strong influence on the activation of the premotor cortex: activity in it increased only in those cases when the participants in the experiment watched a dance that they themselves could perform. This fact is explained by another work. Scientists have found that when people follow simple actions, areas in the premotor cortex involved in performing these movements turn on, which indicates that we mentally repeat what we see, and this probably helps us learn and understand new movements. Researchers are currently investigating how important such mental imitation is to humans.

Fancy footwork

In order to identify areas of the brain that are important for dancing, the authors turned to tango performers with a proposal to undergo an examination on a tomograph. The subjects were asked to take a horizontal position in it, and their head was fixed. They listened to tango music through headphones and moved their feet along the sloping ground.

In one such experiment, the machine scanned the brain under two different conditions: when the dancers tensed their leg muscles to the beat of the music, but did not move their limbs, and when the subjects performed the basic steps of the tango (cut-in) with their feet, again in time with the music. When the authors subtracted brain activity associated with simple muscle tension (upper tomogram) from the results obtained during the performance of tango, a part of the parietal cortex called the precuneus remained isolated.

In subsequent work, Calvo-Merino and her colleagues compared the activity in the brains of male and female ballet performers while they watched videotapes of either dancers or female dancers performing movements found only in male or female parts, respectively. And again, the highest level of activity in the premotor cortex occurred in those cases when men saw men's ballet steps, and women, respectively, women's.

The ability to mentally reproduce movements is absolutely essential for learning motor skills. In 2006, Emily S. Cross and Scott T. Grafton of Dartmouth College investigated whether activity in areas responsible for mental imitation is increased at the very moment of learning. Over the course of several weeks, researchers conducted weekly brain scans of dancers who were learning the complex sequence of modern dance moves. During their brain scans, the subjects watched five-second clips showing either the movements they were mastering or completely different ones. After each video clip, participants rated how well they thought they could perform the movements they had just seen. The data obtained confirmed the results of Calvo-Merino and her colleagues. Activity in the premotor cortex increased during training and indeed correlated with the subjects' self-assessments of whether they could perform a given piece of dance.

Both researchers emphasize the fact that learning a complex sequence of movements activates, in addition to the motor system of the brain that controls muscle contractions, also the motor planning system, which carries information about the ability to perform each specific movement. How better man mastered any complex step, the easier it is for him to imagine what he will feel when performing it, and, probably, the easier it becomes to perform it in practice.

Our research shows that the ability to mentally play a sequence of dance moves—either a tennis serve or a golf swing—is not based solely on vision, as the work described above might suggest, but is equally kinesthetic as well. True mastery of movement requires feeling your muscles - a motor image that is formed in the areas of the brain responsible for planning movement.

Front of the worm

This area of ​​the cerebellum receives information from the spinal cord and works like a metronome, helping to synchronize dance steps with the music.

Medial geniculate body

This area, being a way station in the auditory pathway, seems to help set the rhythm of the brain's metronome and underlies our tendency to involuntarily tap our foot or sway to the sound of music. We react unconsciously, because this area of ​​the brain is connected to the cerebellum and transmits information about the rhythm there without informing the higher auditory cortex.

Fore cunee

Contains a sensory map of the body and helps chart the dancer's path in an egocentric coordinate system.

The social role of dance

Perhaps the most intriguing question for a neuroscientist is why people dance at all. Obviously, music and dance are closely related to each other; it often happens that the dance itself creates sound. Aztec dansantes in Mexico City wear spats on which are attached the fruit of the ayoyotl tree, called chachayotes, which produce a characteristic sound with every step. In many cultures, people wear or attach various noise-producing devices to their clothes while dancing, from mallets to castanets and rosaries. In addition, dancers usually clap, click and stomp. Based on this, we put forward the hypothesis of "bodily percussion", according to which the dance developed initially as a process of extracting sounds. We also suggested that dance and music, especially percussion, developed together as complementary ways of generating rhythm. The first percussion instruments may well have been decorations for dancers - like the Aztec chachayotes.

However, unlike music, dance has enormous opportunities for image and imitation, which indicates its ability to play a role. early form speech. Indeed, dance is essentially a sign language. It is interesting to note that when the subjects performed any motor tasks in our study, we saw the activation of the area of ​​the right hemisphere, symmetrical with respect to Broca's area of ​​the left hemisphere. Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and is classically associated with speech production. In the last ten years, it has been revealed that Broca's area also contains representation of the hands.

These discoveries confirm the so-called gestural theory of the evolution of speech, whose proponents argue that speech initially arose as a gestural system, and only later became a sound system. Our study has shown that leg movements activate the right hemispheric homologue of Broca's area, which supports the idea that dance originated as a form of representational communication.

However, what could be the role of the homologue of Broca's area in the dance? In 2003, Marco Iacoboni of the University of California at Los Angeles used magnetic stimulation of the brain to disrupt either Broca's area itself or its homologue. In both cases, the subjects' ability to copy movements with the fingers of their right hand worsened. The Jacoboni group concluded that these areas are extremely important for imitation, which is a key component of learning and necessary for the spread of culture. We put forward our own hypothesis. Although there were no imitative movements per se in our study, both tango performance and finger repetition require the brain to right order positioned the individual components of the movement. Just as Broca's area allows us to correctly place words and phrases one after another, its homologue seems to be able to connect elementary movements into a smooth sequence.

We hope that subsequent tomographic studies will provide insight into the brain mechanisms behind dance and its evolution, which is closely intertwined with the advent of both speech and music. We see dance as a union of the representative capacity of language and the rhythm of music. Such interaction allows people not only to tell stories with their bodies, but also to do so by synchronizing their movements with the movements of other people, which contributes to the social attraction of people to each other.

Aztec dansantes in Mexico City wear spats with chachayotes that rattle with every step. In many cultures, dancers wear various sounding objects on the body and attach to clothing. Probably dance and music developed together as a way of giving rise to rhythm. However, unlike music, you can clearly express your thoughts with the help of dance.

Steven Brown is Director of the NeuroArts Lab in the Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behavior at McMaster University in Ontario. His research focuses on the brain mechanisms of human communication, including speech, music, gestures, dance, and emotions. Lawrence M. Parsons is Professor of Psychology at the University of Sheffield in England. His research spans the study of cerebellar function and the neurophysiology of duet performance, turn-taking and deductive reasoning.

Imagination is always a certain departure from reality. But in any case, the source of imagination is objective reality.

Imagination is a figurative construction of the content of a concept about an object (or designing a scheme of actions with it) even before the concept itself is formed (and the scheme receives a distinct, verifiable and realizable expression in a specific material).

It is characteristic of the imagination that knowledge has not yet taken shape in a logical category, while a kind of correlation of the universal and the individual at the sensory level has already been made. Thanks to this, in the very act of contemplation, an individual fact is revealed in its universal perspective, revealing its integral meaning in relation to a particular situation. Therefore, in terms of imagination, a holistic image of the situation is built before a dissected and detailed picture of what is being contemplated.

The leading mechanism of imagination is the transfer of some property of the object. The heuristic of transference is measured by how much it contributes to the disclosure of the specific integral nature of another object in the process of its cognition or creation by a person.

In psychology, voluntary or involuntary imagination is distinguished. The first manifests itself, for example, in the course of a purposeful solution of scientific, technical and artistic problems in the presence of a conscious and reflected search dominant, the second - in dreams, the so-called unchanging states of consciousness, etc.

Dream forms a special form of imagination. It is directed to the sphere of a more or less distant future and does not imply the immediate achievement of a real result, as well as its complete coincidence with the image of the desired one. At the same time, a dream can become a strong motivating factor in creative search.

4.1. Types of imagination

There are several types of imagination, among which the main ones are passive and active. The passive, in turn, is divided into voluntary (dreaming, dreams) and involuntary (hypnotic state, dream fantasy). Active imagination includes artistic, creative, critical, recreative, and anticipatory. Close to these types of imagination is emiatia - the ability to understand another person, to be imbued with his thoughts and feelings, to sympathize, rejoice, empathize.

Under conditions of deprivation, they increase different types imagination, therefore, apparently, it is necessary to give their characteristics.

Active imagination is always aimed at solving a creative or personal problem. A person operates with fragments, units of specific information in a certain area, their movement in various combinations relative to each other. Stimulation of this process creates objective opportunities for the emergence of original new connections between the conditions fixed in the memory of a person and society. There is little daydreaming and "groundless" fantasy in the active imagination. Active imagination is directed to the future and operates with time as a well-defined category (that is, a person does not lose a sense of reality, does not put himself outside of temporary connections and circumstances). Active imagination is directed more outward, a person is mainly occupied with the environment, society, activity and less with internal subjective problems. Active imagination, finally, is awakened by the task and directed by it, it is determined by volitional efforts and lends itself to volitional control.

Recreating imagination is one of the types of active imagination, in which people construct new images, ideas in accordance with the stimulation perceived from the outside in the form of verbal messages, diagrams, conditional images, signs, etc.

Despite the fact that the products of the recreating imagination are completely new images, previously not perceived by a person, this type of imagination is okozan on previous experience. K. D. Ushinsky considered the imagination as a new combination of past impressions and past experience, believing that the recreating imagination is the product of the influence of the material world on the human brain.

Fundamentals of psychology

Primarily recreative imagination is a process in which there is a recombination, a reconstruction of old perceptions in a new combination of them.

Anti-swallowing imagination underlies a very important and necessary human ability - to anticipate future events, to foresee the results of one's actions, etc. Etymologically, the word "foresee" is closely related and comes from the same root with the word "see", which shows the importance of understanding the situation and transferring certain elements of it into the future on the basis of knowledge or prediction of the logic of the development of events.

Thus, thanks to this ability, a person can see with his "mind's eye" what will happen to him, to other people or things around him in the future. F. Lersh called this the Promethean (looking ahead) function of the imagination, which depends on the magnitude of the life perspective: what younger man, the more And the orientation of his imagination forward is more vividly represented. In the elderly and old people, the imagination is more focused on the events of the past.

creative imagination- this is a kind of imagination, during which a person independently creates new images and ideas that are of value to other people or society as a whole and which are embodied (“crystallized”) into specific original products of activity. Creative imagination is a necessary component and basis of all types of human creative activity.

Images of creative imagination are created through various methods of intellectual operations. In the structure of creative imagination, two types of such intellectual operations are distinguished. First - operations through which ideal images are formed, and the second- operations on the basis of which the finished product is processed.

One of the first psychologists to study these processes. T. Ribot distinguished two main operations: dissociation and association. Dissociation - a negative and preparatory operation, during which the sensually given experience is fragmented. As a result of this preliminary processing of experience, its elements are able to enter into a new combination.

Without prior dissociation, creative imagination is unthinkable. Dissociation is the first stage of creativity

207

imagination, the stage of preparing the material. The impossibility of dissociation is a significant obstacle to creative imagination.

Association- creation of a complete image from the elements of isolated units of images. Association gives rise to new combinations, new images. In addition, there are other intellectual operations, for example, the ability to think by analogy with a particular and purely random similarity.

Passive imagination is subject to internal, subjective factors, it is tendentious.

Passive imagination is subject to desires, which are thought to be realized in the process of fantasizing. In the images of passive imagination, the unsatisfied, mostly unconscious needs of the individual are “satisfied”. The images and representations of the passive imagination are aimed at strengthening and preserving positively colored emotions and at the displacement, reduction of negative emotions and affects.

During the processes of passive imagination, an unreal, imaginary satisfaction of any need or desire occurs. In this, passive imagination differs from realistic thinking, which is aimed at real, and not imaginary, satisfaction of needs.

The materials of passive imagination, as well as active, are images, representations, elements of concepts and other information gleaned through experience.

Synthesis, realized in the processes of imagination, is carried out in various forms:

Agglutination - "gluing" of various incompatible qualities, parts in everyday life;

Hyperbolization - exaggeration or understatement of the subject, as well as a change in individual parts;

Schematization - separate representations merge, differences are smoothed out, and similarities stand out clearly;

Typification - highlighting the essential, repeating in homogeneous images;

Sharpening - emphasizing any individual features.

Mental One of the most obvious forms

experiment manifestation of imagination in science is a thought experiment. Aristo-

psychology

tel, proving the impossibility of emptiness in nature, that is, using a thought experiment to reject the existence of certain phenomena. The widespread use of the thought experiment apparently begins with Galileo. In any case, E. Mach in his "Mechanics" believes that it was Galileo who was the first to give a sufficient methodological indication of a thought experiment as a special cognitive formation, qualifying it as an imaginary experiment.

A thought experiment cannot be reduced to operating with concepts, but is a cognitive formation that arises on the basis of imagination in the process of rational cognition.

A thought experiment is a type of cognitive activity that is built according to the type of a real experiment and takes on the structure of the latter, but develops entirely in an ideal plan. It is in this fundamental point that the activity of the imagination is manifested here, which gives reason to call this procedure an imaginary experiment.

A thought experiment is an activity carried out in an ideal plan, contributing to the emergence of new heuristic possibilities in the cognizing subject, both in the logical-conceptual and in the sensory-figurative reflection of reality. Thought experiment, replacing in some way the material one, serves as its continuation and development. The subject can perform, for example, an indirect verification of the truth of knowledge, without resorting to real experimentation, where this is difficult or impossible. In addition, a thought experiment allows us to explore situations that are not practically realizable, although they are fundamentally possible.

Since a thought experiment proceeds in an ideal plan, the correctness of the forms of mental activity plays a special role in ensuring the real significance of its results. At the same time, it is obvious that mental experimentation is subject to logical laws. Violation of logic in operating with images in a thought experiment leads to its destruction. In a mental experiment, activity unfolds on an ideal plane, and the specific grounds for objectivity in this case are the logical correctness of operating with images, on the one hand, and the activity of the imagination, on the other. Moreover, the decisive role, as it should be in ex-

Psychology of cognitive processes

perimente, belongs here to the "sensuous" side, that is, to the imagination.

A thought experiment, therefore, differs from a real experiment, on the one hand, in its, so to speak, ideality, and on the other hand, in the presence of elements of the imagination in it as the basis for evaluating ideal structures.

So, with the help of imagination, rather rigidly guided by logic, Galileo imagines a situation in which the causes that hinder the free movement of the body are completely eliminated. Thus, he crosses the line of the really possible, but on the other hand, with all possible obviousness, he demonstrates the feasibility of inertial motion - the body will maintain its motion indefinitely.

The productive power of the imagination presented here a situation that was impossible from the point of view of Aristotelian physics. And Galileo was aware of the fact that Aristotelian physics is opposed by the imaginary result of a thought experiment - a body that continues to move in the absence of driving forces is something impossible from the point of view of physics.

Thus, it is the logical opposition of competing theories that forms the context in which unacceptable (from any of the competing positions) assumptions and “crazy” hypotheses turn out to be quite acceptable. In short, imagination is permissible in every sense of the word.

CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. What are the stages of solving mental problems?

2. How does thinking develop in ontogeny?

3. How is the egocentrism of thinking manifested?

4. What is common and what is the difference between thinking and imagination?

5. What mental processes are necessary for cognitive activity?

6. How can you activate the mental and creative activity?

7. What is a thought experiment?

8. Why does a person need imagination?

9. Develop a structural-logical diagram for the material being studied, compare with the above diagrams.

Fundamentals of psychology 2Yu

LITERATURE

1. Alekseeva A., Gromova L. Do not misunderstand me, or a book on how to find your style of thinking, how to use intellectual resources effectively. SPb., 1993.

2. Eysenck. Find out your own IQ. Kostroma, 1993.

3. Brushlinsky A.V., Polikarpov V.A. Thinking and communication. Minsk, 1990.

4. Vorobyov A. N. Intelligence training. M., 1989.

5. Glezer V.D. Eye and mind. SPb., 1993.

6. Kirnos D.I. Individuality and creative thinking. M., 1992.

7. Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of technical thinking. M., 1976.

8. Orlov Yu.M. Sanogenic thinking. M., 1993.

9. Petukhov V.V. Psychology of thinking. Moscow State University, 1987.

10. Tikhomirov O.K. Psychology of thinking. M., 1984.

11. Scott D. The power of the mind. SPb., 1993.

12. Reader in psychology. Psychology of thinking. Moscow State University, 1989.

13. Dune D. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking. M., 1997.

14. Russell K. Improve your intelligence. Tests for 14-16 years old. Minsk, 1996.

15. Vygotsky L. S. Imagination and creativity in childhood. SPb., 1997.

16. Dyachenko O. M. Gifted child M., 1997.

17. Piaget E. Speech and thinking of the child. SPb., 1997. "

18. Stern W. Mental talent. SPb., 1997.

19. Yurkevich V.S. Gifted child. Illusions and reality. M., 1996.

20. Cold M.A. Psychology of intelligence. M., 1997.

21. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. M., 1998.

22. Dueetsky A. Ya. Yulustina E. A. Psychology of imagination (fantasy). M., Smolensk, 1997.

23. Zeigarnik V.L. Pathopsychology of thinking. Moscow State University, 1987.

24. Tunik E.V. D. Johnson Creativity Questionnaire. SPb., 1997.

25. Tsvetkova L.S. Brain and intellect (impairment and restoration of intellectual activity). M., 1995.

26. Gifted children. M., 1994.

211 Psychology of cognitive processes

The most important achievement A person that allowed him to use universal human experience, both past and present, was speech communication, which developed on the basis of labor activity. Speech is language in action. Language is a system of signs that includes words with their meanings and syntax - a set of rules by which sentences are built. The word is a kind of sign, since the latter are present in various kinds of formalized languages.

The objective property of a verbal sign, which determines our theoretical activity, is the meaning of the word, which is the relation of the sign (the word in this case) to the object designated in reality, regardless of how it is represented in individual consciousness.

Unlike the meaning of a word, personal meaning is a reflection in the individual consciousness of the place that a given object (phenomenon) occupies in the system of human activity. If meaning unites socially significant features words, then the personal meaning is the subjective experience of its content.

The following main functions of the language are distinguished: 1) a means of existence, transmission and assimilation of socio-historical experience; 2) means of communication (communications); 3) an instrument of intellectual activity (perception, memory, thinking, imagination). Performing the first function, the language serves as a means of encoding information about the studied properties of objects and phenomena. Through language, information about the surrounding world and the person himself, received by previous generations, becomes the property of subsequent generations.

Performing the function of a means of communication, the language allows you to influence the interlocutor - direct (if we directly indicate what needs to be done) or indirect (if we tell him information that is important for his activities, which he will be guided by immediately and at other times in relevant situation).

The function of language as an instrument of intellectual activity is connected primarily with the fact that a person, performing any activity, consciously plans his actions. Language is the main planning tool

Fundamentals of psychology

intellectual activity, and in general the solution of mental problems.

Speech has three functions: significative (designations), generalizations, communications (transfer of knowledge, relationships, feelings).

Significant function distinguishes human speech from animal communication. A person's idea of ​​an object or phenomenon is associated with a word. Understanding V The process of communication is based, therefore, on the unity of the designation of objects and phenomena, perceiving and speaking.

Generalization function connected with the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, given object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features.

The third function of speech is function communications, i.e. the transfer of information. If the first two functions of speech can be considered as internal mental activity, then the communicative function acts as an external speech behavior aimed at contacts with other people. In the communicative function of speech, three sides are distinguished: informational, expressive and volitional.

Information side manifests itself in the transfer of knowledge and is closely related to the functions of designation and generalization.

expressive side speech helps to convey the feelings and attitudes of the speaker to the subject of the message.

Volitional side intended to subjugate the listener to the intention of the speaker.

5.1. Types of speech activity and their features

IN Psychology distinguishes between two main types of speech: external and internal. External speech includes oral(dialogical and monologue) and written. Dialogue is a direct communication between two or more people.

Dialogic speech- this speech is supported; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it).

213 Psychology of cognitive processes

A type of dialogic communication is conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.

monologue speech- a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. It also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, so the speaker has an active, expressive-mimic and gestural effect. In monologic speech, in comparison with dialogic speech, the semantic side changes most significantly. Monologue speech is coherent, contextual. Its content must first of all satisfy the requirements of consistency and evidence in the presentation. Another condition, inextricably linked with the first, is grammatically correct construction offers.

The monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. He makes a number of demands on the pace and sound of speech.

The content side of the monologue should be combined with the expressive side. Expressiveness is created both by linguistic means (the ability to use a word, phrase, syntactic construction, which most accurately convey the speaker's intention), and non-linguistic communication means (intonation, a system of pauses, dismemberment of the pronunciation of a word or several words, performing in oral speech the function of a kind of underlining, facial expressions and gestures).

Written speech is a type of monologue. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. "This is due to the fact that written speech implies a lack of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, written speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence.

inner speech is a special kind of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, internal speech, on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. Therefore, inner speech is extremely situational; in this it is close to To dialogical. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.

psychology

The translation of external speech into internal (internalization) is accompanied by a reduction (contraction) of the structure of external speech, and the transition from internal speech to external (exteriorization) requires, on the contrary, the deployment of the structure of internal speech, building it in accordance not only with logical, but also grammatical rules.

informative speech depends primarily on the value of the facts reported in it and on the ability of its author to communicate.

Speech intelligibility depends, firstly, on its semantic content, and secondly, on its language features and, thirdly, on the relationship between its complexity, on the one hand, and the level of development, range of knowledge and interests of the audience, on the other.

Expressiveness of speech involves taking into account the situation of the speech, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct intonation, the ability to use words and expressions of figurative and figurative meaning.

6. Intelligence

Currently, there are at least three interpretations of the concept of intelligence:

1. Biological interpretation: "the ability to consciously adapt to a new situation."

2. Pedagogical interpretation: "ability to learn, learnability."

3. Structural approach formulated by A. Binet: intelligence as "the ability to adapt means to ends." From the point of view of the structural approach, intelligence is a combination of certain abilities. The totality of human cognitive processes

defines his intelligence.

"Intelligence is a global ability act intelligent, rational thinking and cope well with life circumstances"(Wexler), i.e.

Intelligence regarded as an ability human adapt to the environment.

Most researchers came to the conclusion that the level of general intellectual activity is constant for the individual. “The mind retains its power unchanged,” Spearman noted. In 1930 This was confirmed by Lashley's animal experiments. 3 more. Freud introduced the term "psychic energy", and subsequently appeared

Psychology of cognitive processes

elk the concept of G-factor (from the word General), as a general fund of mental activity. A. F Lazursky formulated three main levels of activity:

1. The lowest level. The individual is unsuitable, the environment suppresses the weak psyche of a poorly gifted person.

2. Average level. A person adapts well to the environment and finds a place corresponding to the internal psychological warehouse (endopsyche).

3. Top level. Characterized by the desire to remake the environment.

What is the structure of intelligence? There are various concepts that have tried to answer this question. So, at the beginning of the century, Spearman (1904) formulated the following postulates: intelligence does not depend on other personal traits of a person; intelligence does not include non-intellectual qualities (interests, achievement motivation, anxiety, etc.) in its structure. Intelligence acts as a general factor of mental energy. Spearman showed that the success of any intellectual activity depends on a certain general factor, a general ability, so he singled out general intelligence factor (factor G) And factor S, serving as an indicator of specific abilities. From Spearman's point of view, each person is characterized by a certain level of general intelligence, which determines how this person adapts. To environment. In addition, all people have developed specific abilities to varying degrees, manifested in solving specific problems. Subsequently, Eysenck interpreted the general factor as the speed of information processing by the central nervous system(mental pace). To assess and diagnose the general factor of intelligence, Eysenck's high-speed intellectual tests, the Progressive Matrices test (D. Raven), and Cattell's intelligence tests are used.

Later Thurstone (1938) with the help of statistical factor methods explored various aspects of general intelligence, which he called primary mental powers. He identified seven such potencies:

1) counting ability, i.e., the ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic;

2) verbal (verbal) flexibility, i.e. lightness, With which a person can explain himself using the most appropriate words;

3) verbal perception, i.e. the ability to understand spoken and written language;

Fundamentals of psychology

4) spatial orientation, or the ability to imagine various objects and forms in space;

5) memory;

6) the ability to reason;

7) speed of perception similarities or differences between objects and images.

Intelligence factors, or primary mental potencies, as shown by further studies, correlate, are connected with each other, which indicates the existence of a single general factor.

Later, Guilford (1959) singled out 120 factors of intelligence, based on what mental operations they are needed for, what results these operations lead to and what their content is (content can be figurative, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). Under the operation, Guilford understands the ability of a person, or rather, mental process- concept, memory, divergent productivity, convergent productivity, evaluation. Results - the form in which information is processed by the subject: element, classes, relationships, systems, types of transformations and conclusions. Appropriate tests have now been selected to diagnose more 100 factors identified by Guildford.

According to Cattell (1967), each of us already has With birth available potential intelligence, which underlies our ability to think, abstract and reason. Around the age of 20, this intelligence reaches its greatest flowering. On the other hand, it forms "crystal" intelligence, made up of various skills And knowledge that we acquire as we accumulate life experience. "Crystal" intelligence is formed precisely when solving problems of adaptation to the environment and requires the development of some abilities at the expense of others, as well as the acquisition of specific skills. Thus, "crystal intelligence" is determined by the measure of mastering the culture of the society to which a person belongs. Potential or free intelligence factor correlates With factor of "crystalline or connected intelligence", since potential intelligence determines the primary accumulation of knowledge. From Cattell's point of view, potential or free intelligence is independent of culture. Its level is determined by the level of development of the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex. Partial-

Psychology of cognitive processes

Rice. 3.2. The structure of intelligence according to Guilford. His cubic model identifies 120 specific abilities based on three dimensions of thinking: what we think about (content), how we think about it (operation), and what mental action leads to (result). For example, when memorizing Morse code signals (EI2), when memorizing semantic

transformations required to conjugate a verb in a particular tense (VDU), or in evaluating measurements in behavior when it is necessary to go to work along a new path (AV4), very different types of intelligence are involved.

Specific or particular factors of intelligence (for example, visualization - manipulation of visual images) are determined by the level of development of individual sensory and motor areas of the brain. Cattell attempted to construct a culture-free test on a specific spatial-geometric material (a "culture-free intelligence test").

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Learning in psychology is a change in behavior that appears as a result of the regular interaction of the body with environment. The basis of learning is the formation conditioned reflex characteristic of both humans and animals. However, a person is also characterized by voluntary learning - of himself or others, a type of which is the so-called sequential learning or the formation of complex speech and movement skills.

“All the endless variety of external manifestations of brain activity is finally reduced to a single phenomenon - muscle movement”.
AND.M. Sechenov

This type of learning is the mastering of a series of motor reactions or behavioral acts and includes three stages:

1. Instruction is the definition of the task assigned to the student, and an explanation of the ways to solve it.
2. Training is the execution of actions controlled by consciousness, at first at a slower pace, and then at a faster pace.
3. Automation of action is the achievement of a state when movements are made so accurately and at high speed that they no longer require conscious control, they can be performed "on the machine". In this case, we can talk about the formed skill.

This way of learning is used in all types of learning that involve the acquisition of a series of motor skills, whether it be music, sports, dancing, or any everyday skills like tying shoelaces or buttoning up buttons.

Discovery of the ideomotor effect

In the middle of the 19th century, two brilliant scientists independently conducted similar experiments and came to the same conclusions. These scientists were the chemist Chevrel from France and English physicist Faraday. They conducted an experiment with the so-called pendulum - this is a small load suspended on a thread, held by the fingers of the hand. If you imagine how the thread swings back and forth or in a circle, after a while the pendulum will actually begin to make such movements with increasing amplitude. From the outside it may look magical, but in reality there is nothing mystical here.

The reason for the movements of the pendulum is the so-called ideomotor acts - these are mental representations of any movement being made, implemented by the corresponding muscle group. These acts are involuntary and unconscious, weakly expressed - so much so that they are invisible to the naked eye. However, the muscles still make micromovements, barely noticeable, but enough to be fixed by special equipment.

What is ideomotor training

The ideomotor effect was described by I.P. Pavlov: "When you think of a certain movement, you unwittingly produce it." Ideomotor training has gained great popularity in the training of professional athletes, training law enforcement officers.

The experiment with the pendulum confirms the existence of the ideomotor effect, in addition, its manifestation depends on individual features psyche. Someone is better at swinging the pendulum, staring at it, others just need to think and imagine it in their imagination. This occurs depending on the predominance of the visual or motor way of orientation in space. For those who have a dominant visual mode, image vision is important, and the predominant motor orientation relies on body sensations and the direction of gravity.

Also, the ideomotor effect is confirmed by the Carpenter effect:

"Any perception or representation gives rise to a propensity for a similar perception or representation". In the same simple terms, any imaginary movement causes a motor reaction of the body, perceived by the brain as real. This is the ideomotor effect.

Ideomotor training and learning in terms of neurophysiology

The brain is the organ in which the formation of the future action takes place and signals are transmitted to the muscles, where the planned movements are realized. The question of the neurophysiological mechanisms of the impact of mental training at the moment remains open, there are only theories on this score.

In modern neurophysiology, there is a system-selection concept of learning and the theory of functional systems. It consists in the fact that in early ontogenesis, the parts of the system localized in different areas of the body, which are responsible for the actions necessary for survival, tend to accelerate maturation. That is, the area in the cerebral cortex responsible for movement, and nerve cells, and muscles of the limb controlled by it. Neurons initially have their own specificity, and do not acquire it, being universal. There is also a reserve of neurons, or so-called "silent" cells, subsequently used for various purposes. The specialization of neurons is constant, they never "forget" what they have learned, and newly emerging specializations of neurons also become permanent. From this point of view, the formation of new structures occurs not due to an increase in the conductivity of cells and "blazing paths", but due to the formation of new systems from jointly activated neurons, which may be located in different parts of the brain and not be directly connected to each other. Creation new system to achieve a specific result is the most important learning mechanism.

The ideomotor effect can be explained by the hypothesis L. Pickenhaina about the so-called "internal feedback", which can be called the neurophysiological basis of this phenomenon. L. Pickenhain, studying the structure of a motor act, comes to the conclusion that real and mental movements are based on similar mechanisms, the difference is only in the return signal about the performed action. With ideomotor training, such a signal is absent, but the effect of performance still occurs. Experimentally, the existence of so-called internal feedbacks that occur at different levels of the motor system was revealed.

There " occurs on a short time as if a copy of the efferent movement command, which is available for comparison with feedback signaling from lower levels of coordination» ( Pickenhain, 1980).

These connections are present during any movements, but during ideomotor movements, the volume of the levels of the system included in the action depends on the realism of the representations, that is, it can be controlled, but the initial image is needed, which can be relied on in the imagination. Therefore, the effectiveness of such training depends on the presence of real experience of such actions.

Performing ideomotor training: the secrets of success

Researchers this method It has been repeatedly mentioned that the greatest success can be achieved by combining mental training with real physical exercises. In other words, it will be very difficult to lose weight just by imagining running on a treadmill and aerobic exercise. But if you combine both, then the effectiveness of the exercises will be much higher. In addition, there are conditions under which the efficiency increases significantly:

1. It is necessary to mentally reproduce the movement as accurately as possible, trying to get closer to reality.
2. It is necessary to connect bodily sensations to the mental representation, not just imagine actions in the mind, but, as it were, let them pass through oneself.
3. The effect of mental training increases significantly if you wrap ideas in clear verbal formulations and pronounce them to yourself before or during the movement.
4. Starting to learn any element of the movement, you must first imagine it in slow motion, trying to better track and remember all the nuances.
5. During training, it is desirable to take a pose close to the actual physical position in which the action is performed.
6. 6. Sometimes, during ideomotor exercises, the body begins to move involuntarily - it is “led” following an imaginary action. This is a good signal, it means the establishment of a strong connection between the programming and executing systems. At the same time, there is also a reverse type of training - an imitation of a complex action, which is performed, for example, during a warm-up. Combined, these two types of training can give a great effect.
7. No need to think about the result during the action, it is better to focus on the process. Orientation to the result creates a dominant in the brain that interferes with the training process. There is an effect called "very much wanted and overdone."

The physical execution of the movement can be started when the ideomotor image becomes very clear, bright and constant, the corresponding muscles “warm up”.

It is very important to control the execution of the action so that it is correct and without errors, because it will be more difficult to correct them in the future. It is much easier to work out a complex exercise correctly in ideomotor training than to recover from an injury later.

The use of ideomotor training

Auto-training is based on the ideomotor effect, it is applicable for self-regulation and the development of certain skills, for example, speed reading techniques. Also, ideomotor training is widely used in sports: due to the mental repetition of movements, the athlete quickly masters and improves their technique, it also helps to tune in before doing exercises, which makes training more effective. This method is especially widely used in gymnastics, aerobics, wrestling, yoga and dancing. The ability to see yourself from the outside in your imagination is a great help in developing coordination and improving the accuracy of movements. Sometimes coaches use this method to bring the tension of certain muscle groups to the required level, to create the necessary emotional mood before sports competitions.

Another important application of ideomotorics is recovery from the consequences of severe injuries and strokes, when the body “forgets” previously known actions and has to be relearned. Sometimes learning is directly impossible due to mobility limitations, but if the memory stores these skills, mental training can help restore them.

Ideomotor training is indispensable for professional musicians. For example, there are situations when it is necessary to train, but there is no instrument at hand, and then ideomotor training may well become an affordable alternative to a real rehearsal.

Also, in principle, any skill necessary for life can be formed in this way. Ideomotor training allows you to master more skills in a short time and do it more efficiently, and you can practice them in almost any conditions, because they only need your own imagination, free time and nothing more.

Ideomotor training allows you to raise the bar of your possible maximum: by imagining a complex action in your imagination, then it becomes possible to implement it in reality.

List of used literature:

• 1. Ashmarin B. A. "Theory and methods of pedagogical research in physical education (manual for students, post-graduate students and teachers of physical culture institutes)". - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1978, 224 p.
• 2. Zabelsky S. Yu. “The system of bioeconomical psychomotor health improvement. Innovations in the training of specialists in physical education and sports." - Stavropol: Service school, 2005, 24 p.
• 3. Lobzin V.S., Reshetnikov M.M. Autogenic training. M., 152 p.
• 4. Leonova A. B., Kuznetsova A. S. "Psychic technologies for managing the human condition." - M.: "Meaning", 2007
• 5. Karvasarsky D. B. "Psychotherapeutic Encyclopedia". - S.-Pb.: "Peter", 2006 Alexandrov Yu. I. "Learning and memory: a systemic perspective." Laboratory of neurophysiological foundations of the psyche named after V.B. Shvyrkova, Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.

Editor: Chekardina Elizaveta Yurievna

In ancient times, Russian priests noticed that the human psyche works better in special, altered states of consciousness, which manifest themselves primarily by the automaticity of the actions performed, the weightlessness of the body, the fatiguelessness and rationality of movements. And since the Russians

were a military caste and priestly class in most countries of the Ancient World, then the secrets discovered by the priests, as in modern times, first of all came to the military.

The training of a professional warrior lasted for many years and its goal was the daily training of all the basic military techniques of attack and defense to such an extent that the practical skill became automatic, i.e. performed instantly, adequately and unconsciously. Samples of such art have survived to our time, when a Cossack in an instant could cut down a tree with a saber at full gallop and it continued to stand without moving, and the swing of the saber was so lightning fast that the eye of the observer simply did not see it. Neither before nor after did the Cossack feel his body or horse, his consciousness was inspired and unusually clear.

So, the ancient Russian priests decided to use trance states to speed up military training and improve the fighting qualities of Russian soldiers. And, indeed, the use of trance sharply reduced the terms of combat training and dramatically increased the military qualities of Russian soldiers - they could fight for several days, defend themselves and pursue the enemy, they never got tired and always won, and to a large extent

outnumbered and practically without loss, since no one could defeat the war-Rus. This state - the "Russian spirit", was able to educate all soldiers, up to Christianization under the Great Kagan Vladimir, in 988.

Over time, the "trance movement" spread to all other aspects of life - ritual dances, drawing, poetry, literature, sculpture, theater, sports, dowsing, etc.

The discovery of Russian priests quickly spread throughout to the ancient world and was eventually developed in the martial art and culture of most peoples of the world.

The psychotechnique of entering a trance consisted in achieving weightlessness through the "emergence of hands", and then moving on to the necessary activity - writing, drawing, eating, fighting, sex, oratory, etc.

The greatest contribution to ideomotor psychotechnics was made by the abbot of the Shaolin monastery, Bodhidharma, who called it "ch'an". It was in China, Japan and other easternmost countries, where Christian ideologists had not yet been able to reach, that the ancient Russian art of the trance movement was partially preserved in the form of various martial, mystical, health and religious systems.

Other peoples have ideomotor psychotechnics, i.e. the technique of entering a trance through automatic movements has been preserved in the form of various simple rhythmic and monotonous movements, accompanied by special rhythmic music or singing.

An example of the applied use of ideomotor psychotechnics was the ancient dowsing, when, in order to search for water or ore, they took a split vine in their hands, then they tried to raise their hands with the vine put forward, then, feeling the general weightlessness and the special euphoria of trance and expected good luck, they began to look for water or ore hidden in the ground, expecting that over the place where they are hidden, the hole will ideomotorally tremble down.

In the Middle Ages, ancient ideomotor psychotechniques of divination and divination spread throughout the world through ideomotor (automatic) writing and ideomotor (automatic) speech. Then Christian ideomotor psychotechniques of entering a trance by "surfacing hands" appeared in the Athos monastery. Then ideomotor psychotechnics appeared in the systems of mystics (Blavatsky, Gurdjieff, Uspensky, etc.), scientists (Bekhterev, Platonov, Kandyba, etc.), as well as among spiritualists (involuntary tapping, pressure, twitching, etc.), psychics ( pendulums, frames, etc.) and psychiatrists (Aliev, Erickson, etc.).

Fans of spiritualism believed that there is life after death, and at a spiritualistic seance one can "hear the voices" of dead people, see their "spirit", etc. In order to establish connections with the "spirits" of the dead, they resorted to the help of special tools, for example, an Ouija board with the alphabet printed and the words "yes" or "no" (as in dowsing). The medium asked a question, then put his hand on a pointer or a glass cup turned upside down, and due to the ideomotor (automatic, unconscious) movements of the medium, the medium “independently” moved from letter to letter, adding up the words of the “answer” (mediums believed that their hand was leading "spirit" of the deceased).

In the version of ideomotor (automatic, unconscious) writing, the medium held a pen or pencil over a sheet of paper in relaxed fingers and then, entering a trance, began to write or draw something, believing that the “spirit” of the deceased was doing this with his hand. There are cases when a medium wrote down several texts at the same time, with both hands and on different languages! Sometimes (for example, in France) a "tablet" was used for ideomotor writing - a plate on rollers with a hole for a pencil.

Some mediums who mastered the psychotechnics of ideomotor speech claimed that the spirit of God or some person had entered into them and spoke through them, often with a slightly or greatly changed voice and manner of pronouncing. And sometimes the ideomotor speech of a medium or a soothsayer (Wang and others) is difficult to understand and looks like a painful delirium that needs a special "decoding".

The phenomena of ideomotor art are interesting: ideomotor painting, when the medium believed that some particular artist was his hand, and ideomotor music or composition, when the medium believed that the "spirit" of some famous musician or composer had entered into him and played or composed and writes music. The same is true with ideomotor sculpting of sculptures, etc.

Currently, ideomotor psychotechniques are used in psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, self-regulation and in SC science: SC creativity, SC sports, SC autotraining, SC medicine, SC pedagogy, etc.

The literature describes cases when people with high sensitivity unmistakably detected groundwater, ore veins using a water-detecting (ore-detecting) twig. As early as the end of the 11th century. Lebrun believed that the reason for the movement of a water-seeking twig is the will of a person, and the direction is determined by his desires. Later, M. Chevrel (In 1853) also pointed out that the expectation of a certain oscillation from the side of the twig is the main reason for this oscillation. Kircher then determined that the twig does not lean towards water or metal unless it is in the hands of a person. According to M. Chevrel, A. Lehmann, N.A. Kashkarov, experienced seekers can recognize the location of a source or ore vein by the characteristics of soil and vegetation, and the thought that has arisen is manifested in the movement of a twig.

In the last century, a kind of "psychic epidemic" - table-turning - began to spread rapidly in America. Its essence was as follows: the participants of the session sat around the table, putting their hands on it, and intently awaited "messages from the other world." Thought impulses, imperceptible

eye, transmitted various movements, crackles to the table, which was perceived as the answers of "spirits". "Table-turning" has become a fashion that has captivated hundreds, thousands and hundreds of thousands of people. However, it was at this time that sober-minded scientists began to investigate the nature of all "mysterious" phenomena in which a connection between thought and movement was found. Then the term "ideomotor act" (W. Carpenter) was introduced, which was used in empirical psychology to designate motor reactions that automatically arise after the idea of ​​movement.

The first studies and theoretical substantiation of ideomotor reactions were made by prominent scientists: M. Faraday, M. Chevrel, J. Brad, D. Mendeleev, V. Carpenter and others.

In a simple experiment with holding a cord in his hand, to the end of which a load is suspended, M.Chevrel discovered that with intense "thinking" about the movement of the pendulum clockwise, the load begins to move in this direction, describing a circle. The subject makes barely noticeable movements with his hand, without noticing them himself. M. Faraday in experiments with the help of physical registration proved that the hands of the participants in spiritualistic sessions inform the table of a series of unconscious ideomotor impulses. This was also confirmed by J. Brad, who noted that the table starts to move only when the participants in the session are waiting for it: if their attention is distracted, then there is no movement. D.I. Mendeleev on the manometric table accurately registered each, even the weakest pressure on him, and thereby proved the existence of an ideomotor act. The American doctor G.Bird published a small brochure "On the Psychological Foundations of Mind Reading". Then W. Carpenter in England and W. Preyer in Germany, independently of each other and not knowing about G. Bird's brochure, gave identical explanations for this phenomenon.

Exploring the relationship between facial expression and the activity of facial muscles, P.F. Lesgaft also described ideomotor reactions. In the 90s of the last century, the commission of the Russian Society experimental psychology came to the conclusion that the so-called mind-reading is nothing but

as "muscle reading", i.e. deciphering minimal muscle movements. Later, A. Lehmann, using a kymograph, recorded the curves of the ideomotor act, and I.M. Sechenov, observing himself, established a connection between internal and external speech and the presence of ideomotor speech movements.

IN scientific papers I.M. Sechenov (1863), L. Levenfeld (1903), I.R. Tarkhanov (1904), V.M. Bekhterev (1925), I.P. and self-hypnosis affect the vascular-motor system, various bodily and many vegetative processes and cause hallucinations, hysteroid convulsions, often fatal. So, with the imagination of frost even in the heat

"goosebumps" appeared, at the memory of the disgusting - nausea and grimaces, at the thought of the terrible - trembling in the body, stigmas, seizures. A case is described when a girl who fell into religious ecstasy developed bleeding ulcers on her arms and legs exactly in those places that corresponded to the wounds of the crucified Christ.

M.F. Andreeva recalled that when Gorky described the scene of the murder of a woman in the story "The Town of Okurov", he vividly imagined her pain, sensations, wound to such an extent that he fainted, and he formed a stigma at the site of the alleged wound which lasted for several days.

Gradual turning of the eyeball at the thought of an object that is out of sight; response sound kinetics of the body, the listener to the words of the speaker or singer; involuntary, barely noticeable movement of the fingers of pianists, reproducing the melody in the mind; sweating, increased heart rate when experiencing observed or imagined stressful situations; an obsessive thought about failure before a performance by an artist, an athlete and its realization in erroneous actions; micromovements of the body and face of a person who seeks to hide his desires, actions - all these phenomena are caused by ideomotor acts (reactions), involuntary movements that automatically arise after the idea of ​​them.

Studies of ideomotor acts have given rise to the most

various theories. Thus, according to James's voluntaristic theory, the thought of movement causes it directly, mechanically. This theory defends the thesis about the transmateriality of mental processes that make up a dynamic whole, in which there is a cycle of thoughts and movements that form an ideomotor act. The ideomotor act turns out to be completely divorced from the materialistic foundations of the psyche and acts as an external expression of the non-material soul, opposed to the material world. In contrast to this position, I.R. Tarkhanov interpreted the ideomotor act in the spirit of natural-scientific materialism. He was looking for the neurodynamic basis of the process, which he saw in the "aggravation", "strengthening" of motor traces that remain in the central nervous system of a person in a latent state of tension and manifest themselves in the form of real muscle movements. Attempts to interpret ideomotor reactions from idealistic and mechanistic positions were subjected to well-deserved criticism from K. Kornilov, S. Rubenstein and other Russian psychologists.

I.K.Spirtov in 1914, using the Lehmann apparatus, the principle of which is based on increasing the amplitude of movement by means of a special system of levers, recorded the slightest movements of the hand that occur during motor representations. The researcher was faced with the task of verifying the existence of an ideomotor act and identifying the conditions conducive to its greater manifestation.

In particular, a number of experiments involved a man whose arm was amputated above the elbow joint. The researcher suggested that he "make movements" with a non-existent part of the arm and studied the bioelectric potentials of the muscles of the stump and a healthy arm. The potentials had the same value. It was found that for the emergence of an ideomotor reaction, it is not enough just to focus on the representation of movement. It is necessary to have an interest caused either by a target setting for an imaginary action, or by its special emotional coloring.

In 1924, R. Allers and F. Sheminsky also showed that during the psychomotor representation of the clenching of the fist, the same action currents arise in the muscles as during the actual contraction of the muscles of the hand, squeezing it into a fist.

In the 1930s, E. Jacobson, with experiments using electrocardiographic recording of excitation impulses, described galvanographic changes in muscles that occur during imaginary actions. The galvanometric picture of muscle potentials turned out to be almost completely identical with

imaginary and real action (in the first case, only a lower voltage is detected). This issue was studied in particular detail by E. Jacobson in connection with the problem of exercising the muscular sense. The necessity of motor representations for the appearance of an ideomotor act was proved. At the same time, it was noted that impulses are sent to the muscles along the pyramidal nerve pathways by those cortical neurons, with the activity of which the experienced motor representation is associated.

Investigating the neuromuscular reactions to imaginary work in subjects well trained in muscle relaxation, E. Jacobson noted that the idea causes a real, albeit weak, contraction of the working muscles. Muscle tension is felt, but movement is not noticed. Micromovements of the hand correspond to the nature of the presented action: when presenting a single throw of the ball on the mecha-

On the chart, a single muscle contraction is noted; when rhythmic movements are presented, rhythmic muscle contractions are recorded. During the "work" of one hand, the muscles of the other remain passive.

Ideomotor acts perfectly illustrate the idea of ​​I.M. Sechenov that a thought is a reflex, more or less inhibited in its last, motor part, a reflex with a weakened end, and the arc of such a reflex passes through the neurons of the "mental organ" - the cerebral cortex . I.M. Sechenov showed that stimulation of afferent cells certainly causes corresponding movements.

Numerous studies of domestic and foreign physiologists and clinicians show that during the period of direct preparation for the upcoming activity, under the influence of only motor representations, the functional state of many body systems that participate in the actual implementation of the motor act changes. So, when you imagine the action, blood circulation increases (IR Tarkhanov, 1904, E. Weber, 1810). If a person hypnotized during light work is told that it is heavy, then fatigue and shifts in the cardiovascular, respiratory and other systems develop according to suggested, and not real work (D.N. Shatenshtein, 1936). "Imaginary drinking" affects not only the functioning of the central and reflex apparatus that regulate the phenomenon of "thirst", but also all the distribution of water in the body (K.M.Bykov, AD.Slonim, 1958). It was found that a two-minute imaginary work changed the motor chronaxy of the subjects (i.e., excitability and lability of the peripheral nervous system upwards (V.V. Efimov, A.D. Zhuchkova, 1937). Comparison of frequency and amplitude ratios in those obtained simultaneously with muscle work in electroencephalograms and electromyograms shows a change in brain potentials in connection with the mere idea of ​​​​work and in a state of readiness for it (P.I. Shpilberg, 1941).

In 1944, L.L. Vasiliev and E.Yu. Belitsky once again experimentally confirmed the presence of an ideomotor act and identified the types of ideomotor reactions. Registration of torso swaying on the pneumatic platform showed that the types of ideomotor reactions generally correspond to the types of suggestibility. Four years later, A.V. Penskaya, studying the recording of tremor in blind and sighted people, came to the conclusion that all healthy subjects, both sighted and blind, are more or less capable of ideomotor reactions. This was confirmed by further studies of bioelectric phenomena in the motor zone of the cerebral cortex and in muscles during an ideomotor act (Yu.S. Yusevich, 1949; M.S. Bychkov,

1953; A.N. Sokolov, 1957; A.I. Roitbakh, Ts.M.Dedabrishvili, I.K-Gotseridze, 1960; A.Ts.Tsuni, Yu.Z.Zakharyants, E.N.Surkov, 1961).

Studies have shown that the currents of ideomotor excitation of muscles, both in quantitative characteristics and in the shape of the curve, are similar to the action currents during real movements. So, on the electroencephalograms (EEG) of the motor zone obtained during an ideomotor act, a lot of very slow waves of large amplitude appear, giving the EEG the appearance of a curve typical of muscle ideomotor and real currents. This indicates that the excitation during an imaginary action is to a certain extent similar to the excitation during a real action. The similarity of muscle and brain rhythms indicates their probable constant interaction in the process of ideomotor, which, as it were, includes both the brain and muscles into a single working system.

A theoretical explanation of the physiological mechanisms of ideomotor reactions was given by I.P. Pavlov. He wrote: "It has long been noticed and scientifically proven that once you think about a certain movement (i.e., you have kinesthetic ideas), you involuntarily, without noticing it, are produced."

Kinesteric cells of the cerebral hemispheres, excited by movement from the periphery, can be irritated centrally and send impulses through the corresponding cell to the peripheral organ. When irritated by the weak electric shock certain points on the surface of the motor area of ​​the cerebral cortex, there are strictly defined skeletal movements. Therefore, "a kinesthetic cell, irritated by certain passive movements, produces the same movement when irritated not from the periphery, but centrally."

IP Pavlov noted that kinesthetic cells can communicate with any other cells (auditory, gustatory, etc.) and the process between them can "move back and forth." Due to this connection of the kinesthetic cells of the motor analyzer with the cells of many other analyzers, the visual perception of objects and the perception of speech cause the traces of an entire system of temporary connections to be revived in the area of ​​the motor analyzer, corresponding to the system of previously performed movements. As a result, according to the mechanism of central excitation of the kinesthetic cells of the cortex, the idea of ​​these movements arises.

The resulting excitation of kinesthetic cells spreads to the cells of the motor, speech-motor and other analyzers. From here, impulses are transmitted to the "working organs" - muscles, internal organs and cause appropriate external reactions.

Thus, the basis of the ideomotor act is motor representations. At the same time, not only unconsciously arisen, but also consciously evoked representations pass into minimal movements. This repeated conscious excitation of certain kinesthetic cells, both during the performance of real work and during its mental reproduction, reinforces and enhances intercentral relationships, which contributes to a more rapid formation of a motor stereotype.

In the light of I.P. Pavlov's teachings on the first and second signal systems, the mechanisms and features of trace phenomena in the motor analyzer are found, acting, in particular, in the form of an ideomotor act.

Based on the teachings of A.A. Ukhtomsky about the dominant, the excitation of kinesthetic cells in the cortex associated with motor representations can be characterized as a dominant focus, which is amplified and reinforced by additional muscle impulses as a result of those minimal muscle contractions that occur during an ideomotor act.

The conditioned reflex nature of ideomotor reactions is confirmed by the results of a number of electroencephalographic (EEG) studies. In this case, the ideomotor act can be represented as a chain of isorhythmic reactions closing in a ring. Central excitation of the motor cortex

large hemispheres of the brain causes microcontractions of the muscles, while the resulting excitation of proprioreceptors becomes a source of peripheral impulses to the cerebral cortex. Thus, four main elements of the mechanism of the ideomotor act can be distinguished:

1) preliminary perception of movement and the associated excitation of kinesthetic cells;

2) the appearance of an image of a motor representation and the excitation associated with it, similar to that which took place during perception;

3) excitation in motor cells, arising on the basis of their temporary connections with kinesthetic cells;

4) transmission of excitation to the muscle and response working reaction.

From the point of view of neurophysiology, the training effect of representation is a consequence of fixing certain connections in a functional dynamic system during repeated mental performance of specific actions in the same way as it happens with their repeated practical repetition.

Consequently, the training effect of representations is associated with the reinforcement of the motor dominant in the nerve centers and with the additional effect of the reverse afferentation that occurs during the actual execution of the movement.

All this shows how strongly motor representations influence the change in the functional state of many body systems and the bodily manifestations of a person. At the same time, the results obtained after the presentations are similar to the results obtained after the real perception of objects,

things, phenomena, feelings, movements and actions. All this points to the enormous possibilities of using ideomotorics in various areas of human activity.

The problem of ideomotorism occupies a significant place in pedagogical research related to various types of human activity: SC therapy, art, aviation; sports and others.

G. Ruben-Rabson (1941) came to the conclusion that ideomotor training improves the memorization of piano playing technique. The remarkable Russian pianist I. Hoffman wrote that, just as the action of a finger is determined primarily in the mind, so each passage must be completely prepared mentally before it is tried on the piano.

Cases are described when musicians, deprived of an instrument for one reason or another, mastered the program ideomotorically, on the basis of internal hearing, and subsequently performed with high technical skill. The well-known pianist I.I. Mikhnovsky believes that not particularly difficult things can be prepared for performance without an instrument, provided that they do not contain any unmastered techniques, and a thing prepared in this way is remembered in all details more firmly, due to the fact that "mechanical mastery of any details only with the help of fingers" is excluded.

The system of education of an actor created by K.S. Stanislavsky is largely based on ideomotor. The imaginary image and the experience associated with it act as a stimulus for stage reincarnation. The study of the mental foundations of the stage reincarnation of an actor shows that a fixed attitude is being developed to an imaginary situation and an attitude towards it is created, which would be the case if this situation were real. S. Gippius (1967) gives examples of actor's training, which improves the plasticity of the nervous system and allows you to consciously reproduce the work of the mechanisms of vital action - the mechanism of perception and reaction of switching mechanisms.

Describing the essence of psychological experiments, V. Messing (1961) noted that he is guided by ideomotor signals, which the conductor involuntarily gives him, thinking hard about the upcoming mysterious movements. Ideomotor acts of a person were widely used in their performances by hypnotists and artists: Brodie, Feltsman, Cooney, Dadashev, Ignatenko and others.

As noted above, a vivid representation of any movement, the concentration of attention on it cause the involuntary implementation of this movement. In production, ideomotor acts are often the cause of many erroneous actions and even accidents. K.K. Platonov (1962) gives interesting examples when a driver's student has the thought: "Now I'll run into a pole" - sometimes it is realized in erroneous movements instead of corrective ones. There is reason to believe that some cases of collision of aircraft in the air, as well as arbitrary premature pulling out of the ring during parachute jumps, are caused by a similar manifestation of ideomotor. At the same time, numerous experiments indicate a significant influence of kinesthetic ideas and sensations on the correct regulation of working movements.

A number of studies show the possibility of using ideomotor reactions to create bioelectric control systems. So, for the purposes of control, the biocurrents of skeletal muscles, as well as the cardiac muscle and muscles that control respiratory movements, were used.

In 1956, a prosthesis of a metal human hand was designed, controlled by the biocurrents of the muscles that flex and extend the fingers.

The Polytechnical Museum has a model of an electric train that anyone can "mentally" control: an ingenious mechanism and a person's hand are connected by a thin wire through which biocurrents are transmitted.

The founder of cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, wrote about the possibility of a completely new, direct contact between a person and a machine, about creating systems in which unprecedented mechanical structures would obey the brain, like the muscles of a living hand.

In aviation great importance is given to the development of "flying feeling". The researchers point out the importance of pilots' preliminary "drawing of the flight" and note that imaginary flights contribute to the automation of the sequence of actions and the procedure for developing flight skills among cadets.

The method of deliberate presentation is used both in the initial formation and improvement, and in the restoration of flight skills after a break in flight.

There are reports in the literature about training with imaginary movements in medical practice.

So, N.A. Popova (1955), describing the method of restoring motor functions in patients with central paralysis of vascular origin in patients, reports the great effectiveness of this method. And the method of using ideomotor movements developed by Z.M. Ataev (1973) helps to restore the functions of the injured limb even in cases where the reproduction of movements is difficult or impossible, for example, with plaster immobilization. Ideomotor plays an important role in sports activities. Back in 1899, the American scientist D. Anderson tried to find out whether it was possible to prepare the muscles for performing gymnastic exercises, if the movements were only imagined, but practically not performed. Numerous experiments have given positive results.

In subsequent years, this position was experimentally tested and confirmed by a large number of studies on psychomotor in different countries. It has been convincingly proven that ideomotor training helps to increase attention to the activity and its awareness, as a result of which the quality of the exercises improves, the accuracy of movements increases, the learning process accelerates and it becomes possible to initially master an unfamiliar action without its practical implementation.

First experimental work on ideomotor practice in the training process of athletes were carried out in the USSR. A.Ts.Puni, starting from 1940, for many years conducted research on athletes of various specialties. He noted that the performance of sports exercises both in the process of training and at competitions is much more effective when practical implementation exercises are preceded by "mental" execution. According to his research, as a result of training by imagining movement, the tested athletes increased: speed

movement by 34%, accuracy ranging from 6.4 to 16.8% and muscle strength of the hand by 34%. In 1967, A.Ts.Puni put forward a position on the polyfunctional nature of the representation of movement.

In 1943, R. Wendel, R. Davis and G. Clagston revealed the effect of ideomotor training in archery, throwing a spear at a target and determined that this training brings the same effect as practical training. Later, A.Ts.Puni (1948) observed an increase in the distinctness of motor-muscular sensations and ideas in fencers and skiers.

L-Halverson (1949), after conducting research on basketball players who studied throwing a ball into a basket with one hand, concluded that approximately 500-time ideomotor reproduction of this action increased the result by 13.4%. W. Twinning in 1947 conducted similar studies on athletes throwing a ring at a target. In the control group, where special training was not carried out, there was no improvement in the result. In the same study, the group of subjects who used only ideomotor training increased their results by 36%, and the group that trained practically - by 37%. In 1952, V. Sgidle in baseball received an improvement in the results in groups, respectively, by 7.6; 9;

15.3%. According to E. Trussell (1953), the combination of one week of ideomotor training with two weeks of physical training while juggling a tennis ball gave the same result as physical training for three weeks. R.S. Abelskaya (1955) - after mentally replaying actions in the process of solving tactical problems - and R. Wilson (1960) - received similar results from tennis players when learning to strike from the left and right.

Many works indicate that effective improvement can only be achieved with a combination of ideomotor and physical training. At the same time, the influence of ideomotor training on the formation of skills is most effective when the student is previously familiar with the exercises and actions or has a certain motor experience. At the same time, separate studies (D. Jones, 1963;

A.A. Belkin, 1965) show that only through ideomotor training one can master a new exercise (a completely unfamiliar action) in a deep form without first performing it. But this ability is possessed only by individual highly qualified athletes. A number of studies have established that ideomotor training makes it possible to identify errors or redo an already learned motor skill, and may be accompanied by an effect if the mental performance of an action is not accurate and thorough enough.

The ideomotor method, with proper organization in each sport, can significantly increase "muscular endurance" (I. Kelsey, 1961), sports performance (G. Tivald, 1973) and help maintain the technique of complex exercises after a break in training (V.Ya. Dymersky, 1965; A.A. Belkin, 1969).

Ideomotor is effective in the psychoregulation of the emotional states of athletes before competitions (A.V. Alekseev, 1968).

So, the brain is the organ where the program of the future movement is formed, and the rest of the body systems, primarily the musculoskeletal system, carry out the planned program. The quality of the final result of our activity depends on how successfully the programming and executing systems function, and on how well they are interconnected.

In order for the mental images of the future movement to be embodied with maximum efficiency, it is necessary to use them correctly. Moreover, to use it quite consciously, actively, and not just rely on the processes that nature has endowed our body with. Representation, as a mental process, obeys certain laws.

First position- the more accurate the mental image of the movement, the more accurate, "cleaner" the movement performed.

Second position- only such a representation is called ideomotor, in which the mental image of movement is necessarily associated with the muscular-articular feeling of a person.

Mental representations can be "visual". In this case, a person sees himself as if from the outside, as if on a TV screen. It should be well understood that such "visual" representations have a very small training effect. After all, in this case, the impulses born in the brain are almost not transmitted to the muscles that must perform the intended movement. Therefore, the work goes as if in vain, there is not enough activity in the corresponding muscles. This can also be verified by experiment with a hanging load. Mentally imagine yourself as if in a "mirror", "look" at yourself from the side and try, looking at that "mirror" load hanging from the side, to imagine that it is swinging - it will turn out much worse.

The mismatch between the programming organ - the brain and the executing apparatus - muscles and joints is especially noticeable when observing the naked body of a person sitting motionless or lying with eyes closed person. In those cases when he thinks ideomotorically, "passes" ideas about movement "through himself", microcontractions and microrelaxations are quite clearly visible in his muscles. If the representations are purely visual in nature, then no micromovements in the muscles occur, although it seems to a person that he "passes" mental representations through his body. Therefore, by observing a person's muscles during ideomotor training, one can easily find out to what extent his mental representations of a particular technical element achieve the goal.

Third position- studies by a number of authors, in particular A. Puni, Yu. Z. Zakharyants and V. I. Silina, E. N. Surkov and others, proved that the effect of mental representations significantly increases if they are clothed in precise verbal formulations. It is necessary not only to imagine this or that movement, but at the same time pronounce its essence to oneself or in a whisper. In some cases, the words must be pronounced in parallel with the representation of the movement, and in others - immediately before it. What to do

in each case, practice suggests. The fact that words noticeably enhance the effect of mental representation is easily seen during the experiment with an object hanging on the finger. If you do not just imagine that the load begins to sway, let's say back and forth, but start saying the words "back and forth" aloud, then the amplitude of the oscillations will immediately increase.

Fourth position- starting to learn a new element of technique, it is necessary to imagine its performance in slow motion, as we see it when demonstrating a film shot using the rapid method. Slow thinking of a technical element will allow you to more accurately represent all the subtleties of the movement being studied and eliminate possible errors in time.

Fifth provision- when mastering a new technical element, it is better to mentally imagine it in the position that is closest to the actual position of the body at the moment of performing this element.

When a person, doing ideomotor, assumes a pose close to the real position of the body, there are many more impulses from the muscles and joints to the brain, which correspond to the actual pattern of movement. And it becomes easier for the brain, programming the ideal ideomotor idea of ​​movement, to "connect" with the executing apparatus - the musculoskeletal one. In other words, at

a person has the opportunity to more consciously work out the necessary technical element.

That is why exercise equipment is so useful, allowing you to take a variety of poses, especially where movements often occur in the air, after breaking away from the fulcrum. Having been in a state of a kind of weightlessness, a person begins to better feel the subtle elements of movement technique and better imagine them.

sixth position- during the ideomotor thinking of movement, it is sometimes carried out so strongly and clearly that the person begins to move involuntarily. And this is good, as it speaks of establishing a strong connection between the two systems - programming and executing. Therefore, such a process is useful - let the body, as it were, join itself in the execution of the movement that is born in the mind. Such a picture had to be seen most often when exercising with figure skaters. Standing on skates with their eyes closed, they unexpectedly began to move smoothly and slowly following their mental ideomotor representations. As they said, they are "led".

That is why, in cases where ideomotor representations are not realized immediately, with difficulty, it can be recommended to consciously and carefully connect ideomotor representations with the corresponding movements of the body and in this way connect the mental image of the movement with the muscles that perform it.

A few words about the so-called imitations. By imitating, performing as if in a hint a real movement or part of it, a person helps to form a clearer idea of ​​the technical element he needs, going, so to speak, from the periphery, from the muscles, to the center, to the brain. So the imitation of a variety of movements, which can often be seen during a warm-up, is a good help in preparing for this or that difficult exercise.

But, imitating, you need to consciously connect the performed movements with their mental image. If imitations are carried out formally or thinking about something else, imitation actions will not bring benefits.

Seventh position- It is wrong to think about the final result immediately before the exercise. This is one of the more common mistakes.

When concern for the result occupies a dominant position in the mind, it displaces the most important thing - the idea of ​​​​how to achieve this result. So it turns out that, for example, the shooter thinks that he needs to get into the top ten, this thought begins to interfere with accurate ideas about those technical elements, without which it is simply impossible to get into the top ten. That's why he doesn't get in. “I overdid it, I really wanted it,” they say in such cases, forgetting that in order to achieve the desired result, one must not think about it, but rely on the mental images of those actions that lead to this result.

So, the ability to present it ideomotorically and accurately just before the execution of the movement, to name the executed movement with the appropriate exact words - this is the essence of the "ideomotor principle of the construction of movements".

Let's sum up the main results. So, in order to achieve high accuracy of movement, it is necessary:

firstly, to create an extremely accurate mental image of this movement, at least visually at first;

secondly, to translate this image, while maintaining its high accuracy, onto the rails of ideomotor, that is, to make the movement such that, following its mental image, the corresponding muscle groups begin to function (albeit barely noticeable);

thirdly, to choose a programming verbal design for at least the most important - supporting - elements in the movement being worked out.

TO fourth stage- the physical execution of the movement - you can proceed only after the previous conditions are met, after the ideomotor image of the movement becomes accurate and stable and the muscles that are to perform the intended movement are well “stretched”.

Compliance with this principle of building movements, as practice shows, eliminates many complications and gives desired result much faster than the usual "trial and error" method.

And now a few words about SK-ideomotorics. So, it turned out that if the ideomotor idea of

movement through the SC, then the movement acquires a higher accuracy than after ideomotor training carried out in the normal state of consciousness.

There are two types of SC ideomotorics:

1) with the help of a teacher (hetero-SK-ideomotor) and

2) independent (auto-SK-ideomotor).

So let's recap: mental preparation to complex cars

Tomatic motor skills is a daily systematic, purposeful training of brain functions, primarily with the help of words and mental images corresponding to the words, while simultaneously training the ability to control one's attention and one's emotions.

And now a few words about ideomotor tests.

Under the ideomotor test, we understand the test of the ability to perform actions without visual control, only by motor representation, motor feeling. Ideomotor tests make it possible to react and measure the accuracy of spatial, temporal and power characteristics as simple,

as well as complex movements and actions performed by athletes after different options direct preparation for them. Test results can be recorded with devices, special devices and fixtures.

Kinematometers (manual and foot) allow you to get accuracy indicators of motor-muscular differentiation in the elbow, wrist, knee, hip joints when performing simple movements after appropriate ideomotor training. So, the subject sits sideways to the apparatus in a comfortable position and puts his forearm on the bed of the kinematometer. Makes several attempts to abduct the arm in a given amplitude, controlling the movement visually and trying to remember the motor-muscular sensations that occur in the elbow joint.

Then several times (depending on the task) ideomotor reproduces these feelings and performs 3-5 control attempts with closed eyes. The magnitude of the error is taken into account according to the graduated scale of the kinematometer; only the initial position of the subject or instrument changes.

Stopwatches determine the accuracy of ideomotor reproduction of speed, duration, simultaneity, sequence of movements of various parts of the body, individual actions and the exercise as a whole. Comparative analysis temporal parameters of ideomotor and real performance of tasks makes it possible to judge the effectiveness of ideomotor training, the ability of each individual to ideomotor and, indirectly, the state of his fitness and technical readiness for the competition.

Dynamometers (manual or dead with a clock-type indicator designed by Abalakov) show the accuracy of reproducing the statistical and dynamic efforts of the studied muscle groups. The indicator of the accuracy of muscle effort indicates the degree of influence of different types of settings on the effectiveness of the action.

Target screens, height meters, centimeter tapes record data (up to 1 mm), which can be used to judge the training effect of various ideomotor tasks. For example, on a special stand, taking into account the growth of the subject, a sheet of paper is attached with a circle drawn in the middle with a diameter of 15 mm).

The subject, standing at a distance of 0.5 m from the target, after trial attempts and preliminary ideomotor training, performs five injections into the target without visual control. Similarly, a test is carried out for performing a step forward from the main stance along a line drawn on the floor (a distance of 50 cm from the starting position) and raising the leg to a height of 50 cm from a standing position at the support sideways to the height meter. Errors are fixed according to the data obtained after calculating the deviations of the “pricks” points from the center of the circle and the toe of the foot from the control mark on the floor or on the height meter (in mm).

The training effect of movement representation is determined by the improvement of the result in comparison with the performance of control actions with the help of vision and without it.

The device for performing graphic tasks allows you to get graphic products, according to which you can establish the dependence of the effectiveness of writing figures on the training action of ideomotor tasks and indirectly diagnose the state of mental readiness for the upcoming action.

The design of the device is based on a device for conducting a myokinetic test (Mira, Lopez, 1939). The device consists of a stand and a working platform fixed on it, which is installed in two planes (horizontally and vertically) and can be shifted vertically depending on the height of the subject. A protocol-form is attached to the site. Graphic tasks can be: a horizontal line 5 cm long, an equilateral triangle with a side of 5 cm, a right angle, etc. Deviation from template is defined in mm and deg.

The influence of individual abilities and skills in drawing and drawing is excluded by the conditions of the experiment: in this case, the pencil serves not as a drawing tool, but as a scribe recording the movement of the whole hand. The hand must not touch the work platform.

Tremometers (designed by Mede or Verhalo) and special tablets with carved figures included in the electrical network with an electric meter and an electric stopwatch (A.Ts. Puni, V.I. Sekun) allow obtaining objective information about the training degree of ideomotor tasks by the number of errors recorded by the counter from touching the tremometer probe and by the time it takes for the subject to "pass" the figures cut on the front panel of the tremometer and tablets.

The rowing apparatus and graduated screens make it possible to obtain data on the effectiveness of ideomotor training in natural conditions. The rowing apparatus is an installation (length 150 cm, width - 24 cm, weight - 5.2 kg) with a conventional kayak seat and an oar 115 cm long with thin needles or chalk attached to its ends. It can be installed on a flat sandy or wooden (plywood) site. The traces left by the oar after strokes on both sides of the apparatus are measured in cm. In this case, the distance from the beginning of the wiring to its end and from the body of the apparatus to the point of "capture" of the oar is fixed.

A drawn graduated screen and a special device make it possible to register deviations from the exact performance of exercises and jumps after various variants of ideomotor training and adjustment (in degrees and cm). For example, the correct execution of complex jumps with 360 and 720 turns in our studies was considered to be landing in the marked area. The landing point was determined by middle line connecting the heels. The perpendicular reconstructed from this point showed the deviation from the ideal in degrees.

And now a few more words about teaching ideomotor phenomena.

The process of teaching the ideomotor method must be built on the basis of well-known didactic principles, as well as taking into account a number of specific principles:

1. The principle of motivated interest. It involves instilling a serious attitude towards the method. If it is not possible to create a deep and sustainable interest in the method, it will not give the expected effect.

2. The principle of universal efficiency. Actualization of motor representations is an effective means of self-regulation of unfavorable emotions. Ideomotor training brings up a number of necessary intellectual-volitional qualities (the ability to concentrate, intensity and stability of attention, a tendency to introspection, introspection and self-esteem), develops cognitive interest and creative attitude.

3. The principle of dominant efficiency. To the greatest extent, the training effect is manifested in mastering the spatial characteristics of movement, then temporal and, to a certain extent, power. Moreover, the more complex the motor action in terms of its kinematic structure and coordination, the more necessary it becomes to apply ideomotor training.

4. The principle of delayed effect. The first lessons at the initial stage of training are not always accompanied by a training effect. This is due to the lack of a sufficiently complete motion representation program. Beginners to use the ideomotor method in the early stages may lag behind in the pace of learning. However, soon, when motor-muscular representations acquire distinctness and stability, they significantly overtake students who train according to the usual method, without the use of ideomotor.

5. The principle of content efficiency. The content of ideomotor reproduction can be the entire movement or action from beginning to end with all the details and motor components (spatial, temporal and power); all movement (but generalized and curtailed); the most difficult, key moments of action; only its beginning and end. At the same time, against the background of the individual originality of the variants, a stable pattern is revealed: the greatest real training effect of the representation of movement is achieved with ideomotor reproduction in the motor-muscular images of the key moments of the action, its effective essence.

6. The principle of modeling. The effectiveness of ideomotor reproduction is enhanced in conditions of real simulation of actions. By manipulating the model (wire, plastic, graphic, layout), a person seeks to embody the technical model (image of movements) in real movement, fixing the main effective moments or poses in it. At the same time, the trainer can always get the necessary information, what image is being formed or has already been formed in the mind of the student, whether the desired corresponds to the actual. The result of such actions is the creation and consolidation of the optimal model for the student and the coach.

7. The principle of basing. Repeated and prolonged ideomotor reproduction of a movement or action is tiring. nerve centers. As a result, motor representations lose their brightness and clarity, become disordered, vague, which significantly reduces the effectiveness of ideomotor training. Therefore, it is advisable to mentally repeat the ideomotor task 4-5 times, and the task containing complex and lengthy exercises - once.

Psychological technologies for managing the human condition Kuznetsova Alla Spartakovna

2.4. Ideomotor training

2.4. Ideomotor training

Research on the mental reproduction of movements (ideomotor exercises) began a long time ago. Already in 1936, I.P. Pavlov noted: “It has long been noticed and scientifically proven that since you think about a certain movement (that is, you have a kinesthetic idea), you involuntarily, without noticing it, produce it” ( Pavlov, 1951 - 1952, p. 316). This statement is based on experimentally established facts of the similarity of a number of physiological parameters of the state of muscle tissue during real and imaginary performance of the movement. Known, for example, is the “Carpenter effect” (named after the English physiologist who discovered it), which consists in the fact that the potential of the electrical activity of a muscle during mental reproduction of a certain movement is the same as the potential of the same muscle during the actual implementation of this movement ( Hecht, 1979).

A similar effect of real and imaginary movement formed the basis of ideomotor training, understood as "a repetitive process of intense movement representation, perceived as one's own movement, which can contribute to the development, stabilization and correction of skills and accelerate their development in practical training" ( Pickenhain, 1980, p. 116).

Exclusively interest Ask about the psychophysiological and psychological mechanisms of the phenomenon of imaginary movement remains open. L. Pickenhain's hypothesis about the existence of "internal feedback", which is the neurophysiological basis of ideomotor training, seems promising ( Pickenhain, 1980). The author, based on the works of N.A. Bernstein and P.K. Anokhin, considers the structure of a motor act and concludes that all the main points of the execution of a real and mental movement are fundamentally similar, except for one thing - a feedback signal about the results of an action compared with the efferent command of the action program. Obviously, in the case of an ideomotor act, there is no reverse signaling and, at the same time, there is an effect of the performed action.

As a result of experimental studies, the presence of internal feedbacks (in addition to external connections of an extero- and proprioceptive nature) carried out by different levels of the architecture of the motor system was established. According to the author, at each of these levels “a copy of the efferent movement command is formed and for a short time is formed, which is available for comparison with feedback signaling from the underlying levels of coordination” ( there, With. 117).

These internal connections are common to both real and imaginary movement. A specific feature of ideomotor movement feedbacks is the dependence of the volume of levels included in the internal realization of the action on the “liveness” and “closeness to reality” of imaginary movements, and this determines the effectiveness of ideomotor training. From this follows the conclusion that this mechanism for correcting a mental action can be effectively used only if you have the skills of real motor programs.

An important consequence of recognizing the fundamental similarity between the mechanisms for realizing real and mental movement is the inclusion of the vegetative component in the programs of imaginary action. This conclusion was confirmed by the results of an experimental study, which showed a change in the frequency of breathing in the subjects in the process of mentally performing movements with a given frequency, depending on the change in the frequency of movements ( Belkin, 1983; Efimov, 1936).

For analysis psychological mechanisms the phylogenetic aspect of considering the problem of internal feedbacks is of interest: it is argued that in humans, internal feedbacks have become the basis for the development of verbal functions and “ideomotor training in relation to its specific structure stands between the actual performance of a skill and its verbal project » ( Pickenhain, 1980, p. 120).

Until recently, ideomotor training as a method of RPS in the field of optimizing the FS of a working person was not used. This is due to the fact that the independent use of this technique is impossible due to the specifics of the method. The basis of ideomotor training is a similar effect of real and imaginary movement, but only if the imaginary motor act was previously mastered in reality. The methods of ideomotor training are exercises for the mental reproduction of previously mastered motor acts - images of movement, while intensive repetition of the mentally performed movement contributes to the stabilization and consolidation of skills.

At the same time, ideomotor training can be used in those cases when RP training includes the method of neuromuscular relaxation: motor relaxation exercises can be transformed into their mental reproduction. Below is the text of the ideomotor training session, developed by A.B. Leonova.

Text session ideomotor workout 6

Get comfortable, relax. Try to distract yourself from your affairs, from disturbing thoughts - from everything that bothers you. You have come to rest, gain new strength and vigor.

Follow your breath. Take a slow breath in and out. Another deep breath in and out. Once again, take a deep breath and slowly exhale. You breathe slowly and evenly. You breathe calmly and freely.

Take your fullest, deepest breath. Hold your breath. Mentally draw in the wall of the abdomen, exhale. In the upper part of the abdomen, under the ribs, a feeling of warmth arises, warming the organs of the chest and abdomen. Let's try to reinforce this impression by repeating the exercise.

Now let's move on to doing well-known exercises for relaxing different parts of the body. Let's try to perform them mentally, figuratively representing each movement, leading to a strong contraction of the muscles and their subsequent relaxation.

Let's focus on the legs first. Mentally perform exercises to relax the muscles of the feet and legs. Imagine lifting your heels, pulling them up, tensing your calves, and then relaxing your legs as you gently lower your heels. You feel a warm sensation in the muscles of your lower legs. Try to keep this feeling going. Let's do the exercise mentally again.

Now we move on to relaxing the opposite muscle group. Imagine that high, as high as possible, you lift your socks up. Mentally strain the arch of the foot, the muscles of the lower leg and relieve tension. Legs up to the knees are filled with pleasant, heavy warmth. You seem to mentally immerse your feet in warm water. You enjoy this feeling of warmth and relaxation.

We move on to relaxing the upper legs and lower torso. Imagine that you stretch your legs straight out in front of you. The legs are straightened, the socks are pulled back, the muscles of the thighs and lower abdomen are tense. Mentally relieve stress. A warm wave rises above the knees, floods the thighs and lower abdomen. Try to mentally strengthen this feeling of spreading warmth. Now you need to achieve more relaxation of the lower thighs and back. Imagine that you are burying your heels deep into the floor. Mentally tighten the muscles of your legs and hips, then relax them. Warmth and pleasant heaviness penetrate deep into the muscles and fill the entire lower body.

The heat rising from below, from the legs, merges with the heat emanating from the solar plexus. The feeling of peace, warmth, relaxation penetrates the internal organs of your body.

Let's turn our attention to the hands. They worked hard. They need to have a good rest. Take an inner look at the whole arm: shoulders, elbows, wrists, hands relieve tension. Do you already feel a surge of warmth to your fingertips? Strengthen this feeling by mentally doing the exercises. Imagine that you tightly clenched your hands into fists. They squeezed tightly and ... relieved tension. There is a feeling of light tingling in the hands, it is quickly replaced by a feeling of warmth and heaviness. Warmth and heaviness rise up the arms to the shoulders. Imagine that you spread your fingers wide ... and relieve tension. The feeling of spreading heaviness and warmth intensifies. Warmth, light heaviness fill the hands, penetrate deep into the muscles.

Waves of heat from the hands envelop the shoulders, flow to the back and chest. They merge with the warmth coming from the solar plexus. The feeling of warmth in the area of ​​the solar plexus is quite distinct. This place is like a warm heating pad. Imagine how deeply the warmth penetrates into all parts of your torso.

We will try to relieve the remnants of tension that has been preserved in the upper part of the shoulders, at the base of the neck, in the back of the head. Imagine how you strain these muscles, trying to reach the tips of your shoulders to your earlobes. Imagine a very strong tension and subsequent complete relaxation. Shoulders slumped. On the back, along the spine, as if trickles of heat flowed. The back of her neck filled with warmth, rising higher to the back of her head.

Now let's mentally work out the muscles of the neck, lower jaw, and the surface of the head. Let's imagine that you strongly strain your neck, trying to tightly "press" your chin into your collarbones. After a strong tension, you imagine an equally complete relaxation.

Heat flows from the front surface of the neck flow behind the ears, to the back of the head. The lower part of the jaw is slightly heavy. Increase the feeling of warmth at the base of the occiput. Mentally tilt your head back, up and forward pulling your chin. Imagining a moment of relaxation, you feel an almost hot zone at the base of the back of your head. From it up to the top of the head, to the ears, down to the shoulders, warm waves of heat scatter.

Now almost all the muscles of your body are relaxed and resting. We will drive away the remnants of tension, the remaining shadow of worries from your face. First, imagine how you smiled broadly - smiled at yourself, at your good health. Relieve tension. You felt the warmth in a light, pulsating wave run down the outer part of your cheeks to your ears. Now mentally compress your lips very tightly. Relax your lips. You feel light "sunbeams" gliding across your face in radial directions from your lips. Wrinkles fled from her cheeks, from her mouth. The rest of the tension is gone. The mouth is slightly open, the lower jaw is slightly heavy.

Mentally imagine how you tightly closed your eyes - and relaxed them. You have a feeling of soft, viscous warmth filling the eye sockets. It is free, without tension, as if the eyeballs are swaying. They are resting.

Let's drive away the remnants of tension and fatigue from the forehead. Imagine that you raised your eyebrows very high in surprise. Releasing tension, you straighten the muscles of the forehead. A light wave of tension escapes from the center of the forehead to the temples and behind the ears. The forehead becomes smooth, clean, calm.

The feeling of a breath of breeze spreads over the whole face. The face is resting. The eyelids are lowered, the gaze is directed downward, the mouth is slightly open, the lower jaw is slightly heavy. Your face is resting.

Resting your entire body. The surface of the head and the back of the neck are warm. Soft relaxed shoulders. Warm, heavy hands. Fully softened, warm torso. The internal organs are warmed by soft, deep heat. Hips, shins, calves, feet are filled with heat; The entire legs are filled with warmth and heaviness. The whole body, from the tips of the fingers to the top of the head, is filled with warmth, peace, rest.

You completely surrendered to the feeling of warmth and peace. Imagine that your body is immersed in warm sea water. You are swaying slightly on a wave pierced by sunlight. The feeling of heaviness leaves you. You are light, weightless. You fluctuate easily in time with your breath. You feel how with each breath the forces fill your body. Strength and vigor penetrate into every cell of your body. You feel rested. You are ready to return to your work.

We count to ten. As you count, cheerfulness and clarity of consciousness return to you.

(Exit from the dive state may be identical to that described in the text of the autogenic training session.)

Returning to the practical and methodological issues of including ideomotor training in the complex programs of the RPS, two aspects of its application should be identified. Ideomotor training can be used both as a relatively independent method of reducing muscle tone and achieving a state of relaxation, and as a method of mental self-programming in a state of relaxation. In the latter case, the exercises of ideomotor training are applied against the background of the state of autogenic immersion in order to mentally work out certain motor programs of the forthcoming activity. The method of using ideomotor training in a state of relaxation is called “relaxideomotor training” and is currently actively used in operator and flight work ( Grimak, Zvonikov, 1984; Zvonikov, 1977).

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1. The concept of ideomotor training

Ideomotor training (IT) is a systematically repeated, conscious, active presentation and feeling of a mastered skill. Ideomotor training can be used at all stages of specialist training.
Active representation of actually performed motor skills contributes to their mastery, their strengthening, correction, as well as acceleration of improvement.

Movement representation can be classified as follows:
. as an ideal picture (sample) of real actions, which, being a program of motor activity, perform a programming function;
. as an image that helps the process of mastering the movement and thus performs a training function;
. as an image that arises in the process of control and correction of movements in the course of their implementation, as a link and thereby performs a regulatory function.

All three functions are characterized by synchronicity.

The mechanism of influence of ideomotor training is expressed in the fact that due to the use of muscle potential, an unconscious and invisible innervation of muscles occurs, the impulse structure of which corresponds to felt, imagined or imaginary movements.

The "vitality" or "reality" of the representation of an ideomotor motor act determines the volume of levels involved in the "internal realization" and thus the effectiveness of ideomotor training.
The following structure of ideomotor training, developed on the basis of these fundamental scientific positions, has also justified itself.

I. Internal update:

a) exposure phase (program of the lower stage of autogenic training; some exercises);
b) observative phase (observations) - an optical image of the motor cycle with a special emphasis on the main points with the help of film-video recordings or cinematographs;
c) ideomotor phase (3-5-fold repetition of the internal representation in accordance with the written task).

II. External Implementation:

a) simulation phase - the elements of the ideomotor exercise are actually performed in a time sequence in in general terms("hint" to the movement) or as if repeating the imaginary;
b) the phase of practical training (an exercise trained by the ideomotor method is performed practically).

2. The essence of ideomotor training

The essence of ideomotor training is as follows. Representing the movement, the athlete, as it were, sees himself from the outside. The ability to see yourself from the outside is a great help for the preparation of athletes, and this ability must be developed.

Some athletes have a better idea of ​​fixed images than movements in general. In addition to mentally representing their movements through visual representations, most athletes also use mental self-assessment of the kinesthetic sensations associated with the memory of performing a particular movement.

It is very important for an athlete to have in his arsenal the ability to develop and improve those sensations that correspond to the performance of a certain activity. And this is also a separate aspect of sports training. Many coaches help their students to bring the tension of the corresponding muscle groups to the required level in advance. Athletes who need to improve their emotional state before going to the start try to imagine themselves in responsible competitive situations. Those athletes, who, on the contrary, need to relieve excessive stress, tend to see themselves resting or doing exercises in calm conditions Abramova A.N. Such a different psychology. - M.: Sovremennik, 2002, 28 p.

To understand the essence of ideomotor training, it is necessary to determine the difference between the mental representation of movements and the usual process of figurative representations of a person. Ideomotor training includes a thorough, purposeful study and repetition of one image during a whole series of performances.

Visual and kinesthetic mental representations of real movements are recommended for gymnasts, acrobats, since it is very important for them to be able to realize and imagine the exact position of their body in space at any moment of action. Mental repetition is used to help athletes, by reproducing visual and kinesthetic representations, better master the features of the technique of performing a complex movement.

As you develop your ability to visualize certain situations, after a while you will find that you can easily reproduce them in your memory. Instead of memorizing groups of individual images, and only then creating whole pictures from them in your mind, you, on the contrary, can immediately see the full picture of actions in their development, and, if necessary, isolate individual frames from it.

The following factors contribute to success in ideomotor training: ideomotor training should be carried out only in a state of vigorous activity; mentally, the movements must be reproduced in exact accordance with the rhythm of real actions.

The technical skill of an athlete largely depends on how he knows how to use the laws that govern the presentation process. Patterns:

1. The more accurate the mental image of the movement, the more accurate the movement being performed.

2. An ideomotor representation is only such a representation, in which the mental image of movement is associated with the athlete's muscular-motor sensations.

3. The effect of the impact of mental representations increases markedly when they are clothed in precise verbal formulations.

4. When learning a new movement, it is necessary to imagine its execution in slow motion.

5. When mastering a new movement, you should imagine it in a position that is close to the actual execution of this movement.

6. During the ideomotor representation of the movement, it begins to be carried out so strongly and clearly that the athlete begins to move involuntarily.

7. Before doing the exercise, you should not think about the final result.

3. Ideomotor training and setting for action

Direct preparation for the sports movement is mainly psychological. It is mental readiness in a short time of direct preparation for movement that is more subject to changes than functional or technical.

There are two stages in the immediate preparation for the movement. The task of the first stage is to improve the functional capabilities of the athlete and the performance of the body. At this stage, the following means are used: walking, running, jumping. This is the so-called warm-up.

The task of the second stage is to establish the optimal relationship between the structure of the upcoming movement and the activity of the central nervous system.

To draw up individual ideomotor programs, it is necessary to know what thoughts the athlete's mind should be occupied with. For the majority of athletes in mental activity, the central place is occupied by the idea of ​​the upcoming movement and tactical action.

When developing individually effective ideomotor programs, a number of points should be considered:

In the initial phase, in the process of performing some basic exercises, the internal “readiness for imagination” should increase and the intensity of the impact of internal and external interference should decrease;

Often distracted athletes, who are easily disturbed, can say the contents of the program on tape and listen to the recording before ideomotor training. Thanks to this, it will be easier for them to concentrate and imagine what they heard;

The number of repetitions in ideomotor training (2-5) depends on the level of preparedness of athletes and training objectives. More complex motor skills are trained with shorter repetitions during one session, the breaks between which should also be shortened;

The information that the athlete receives during training must be formulated clearly and unambiguously, must be accompanied by explanations of how to perform the exercises.

Many works indicate that effective improvement can only be achieved with a combination of ideomotor and physical training. At the same time, the influence of ideomotor training on the formation of skills is most effective when the student is previously familiar with the exercises and actions or has a certain motor experience. At the same time, separate studies (D. Jones, 1963; A. A. Belkin, 1965) show that through only ideomotor training, it is possible to master a new exercise in a deep form (a completely unfamiliar action) without first performing it. But this ability is possessed only by individual highly qualified athletes. A number of studies have established that ideomotor training makes it possible to identify errors or redo an already learned motor skill, and may be accompanied by an effect if the mental performance of an action is not accurate and thorough enough.

4. Principles of ideomotor training

The process of teaching the ideomotor method must be built on the basis of well-known didactic principles: consistency, accessibility, individualization. In addition to these, the following special principles must be taken into account:

1. The principle of motivated interest, which involves instilling in athletes a serious attitude towards the method.

2. The principle of universal efficiency. Ideomotor training is effective in many aspects: teaching technique, setting up for a performance, cultivating a creative attitude to the training process.

3. The principle of dominating efficiency. To the greatest extent, the training effect is manifested in the mastery of the spatial characteristics of the movement, then the temporal ones.

4. The principle of delayed effect. The first lessons on this method do not give results. This is due to the lack of programs for representing movement and connections in the cerebral cortex.

5. The principle of individuality. Variants of ideomotor adjustment depend on the individual-psychological differences of the athlete. Athletes with a strong nervous system usually begin the ideomotor execution of the movement just before the start. With a weak nervous system, this is done much earlier, and it is used more often and much more effectively.

6. The principle of content efficiency. The greatest real training effect of movement representation is achieved with ideomotor reproduction in muscle-motor images of the key moments of the action, its effective essence.

7. The principle of verbalization. Pronunciation or a clear verbal designation of the main points of the action enhances the training effect of the movement presentation.

8. Dosing principle. It is advisable to mentally repeat the task 5 times, and complex tasks once.

5. Tasks and means of ideomotor training

When organizing ideomotor training with athletes, the following tasks are solved:

Task 1- to create a steady interest in ideomotor training among trainees, the desire to fully use it in the training process.

A) Means - conversations. Guidelines: explain to those involved that the quality of the exercise performed depends mainly on what image of movement is formed in the mind of a person. The main cause of errors in technique is an incorrect or vague idea of ​​\u200b\u200bmovement. Athletes who are unable to focus their attention on the details of movement technique are not able to listen to their body. Their training is reduced to mindless mechanical repetition of exercises.

B) Means - analysis training sessions. Methodical instructions: it is necessary to find out how the athlete understands the direction and significance of each lesson and the exercises performed. The athlete must understand that with a mechanical, thoughtless repetition of a movement, mistakes are often fixed in him. Representations are distorted. It is necessary to teach the athlete to listen to himself, to feel his muscles, to control his condition.

C) Means - analysis of a special warm-up. Methodical instructions: it should be clear to the athlete that very often they do it fussy and hasty, there is not always time for trial attempts.

D) Means - comparison of the existing motor representations with the optimal standard of movement. Methodical instructions: to remind that subjective muscular-motor representations only contribute to the successful formation of a skill when they contribute to the optimal variant of the technique.

Task 2- to teach athletes to find the main points in movement.

Means: an explanation with the analysis of cinematographs, graphic sketches, film loops and other visual aids. Demonstration and self-execution of actions. Athlete self-report.

Task 3- development of students' skills to evoke muscle-motor representations and sensations.

Means: introspection, self-control. Mental performance of exercises and actions.

So, the brain is the organ where the program of the future movement is formed, and the rest of the body systems, primarily the musculoskeletal system, carry out the planned program. The quality of the final result of our activity depends on how successfully the programming and executing systems function, and on how well they are interconnected.

In order for the mental images of the future movement to be embodied with maximum efficiency, it is necessary to use them correctly. Moreover, to use it quite consciously, actively, and not just rely on the processes that nature has endowed our body with. Representation, as a mental process, obeys certain laws.

The first position - the more accurate the mental image of the movement, the more accurate, "cleaner" the movement is performed.

The second position - only such a representation is called ideomotor, in which the mental image of movement is necessarily associated with the muscular-articular feeling of a person.
Mental representations can be "visual". In this case, a person sees himself as if from the outside, as if on a TV screen. It should be well understood that such "visual" representations have a very small training effect. After all, in this case, the impulses born in the brain are almost not transmitted to the muscles that must perform the intended movement. Therefore, the work goes as if in vain, there is not enough activity in the corresponding muscles. This can also be verified by experiment with a hanging load. Mentally imagine yourself as if in a "mirror", "look" at yourself from the side and try, looking at that "mirror" load hanging from the side, to imagine that it is swinging - it will turn out much worse.

The mismatch between the programming organ - the brain and the executing apparatus - muscles and joints is especially noticeable when observing a naked body of a person sitting motionless or lying with his eyes closed. In those cases when he thinks ideomotorically, "passes" ideas about movement "through himself", microcontractions and microrelaxations are quite clearly visible in his muscles. If the representations are purely visual in nature, then no micromovements in the muscles occur, although it seems to a person that he "passes" mental representations through his body. Therefore, by observing a person's muscles during ideomotor training, one can easily find out to what extent his mental representations of a particular technical element achieve the goal.

The third position - studies by a number of authors, in particular AD. Puni, Yu. Z. Zakharyants and V. I. Silina, E. N. Surkov and others, proved that the effect of the impact of mental representations increases markedly if they are clothed in precise verbal formulations . It is necessary not only to imagine this or that movement, but at the same time pronounce its essence to oneself or in a whisper. In some cases, the words must be pronounced in parallel with the representation of the movement, and in others - immediately before it. How to act in each specific case - practice suggests. The fact that words noticeably enhance the effect of mental representation is easily seen during the experiment with an object hanging on the finger. If you do not just imagine that the load begins to sway, let's say back and forth, but start saying the words "back and forth" aloud, then the amplitude of the oscillations will immediately increase.

The fourth position - starting to learn a new element of technique, it is necessary to imagine its performance in slow motion, as we see it when demonstrating a film shot using the rapid method. Slow thinking of a technical element will allow you to more accurately represent all the subtleties of the movement being studied and eliminate possible errors in time.

Fifth position - when mastering a new technical element, mentally imagine it better in the position that is closest to the actual position of the body at the moment of performing this element.

When a person, doing ideomotor, assumes a pose close to the real position of the body, there are many more impulses from the muscles and joints to the brain, which correspond to the actual pattern of movement. And it becomes easier for the brain, programming the ideal ideomotor idea of ​​movement, to "connect" with the executing apparatus - the musculoskeletal one. In other words, a person has the opportunity to more consciously work out the necessary technical element.

That is why exercise equipment is so useful, allowing you to take a variety of poses, especially where movements often occur in the air, after breaking away from the fulcrum. Having been in a state of a kind of weightlessness, a person begins to better feel the subtle elements of movement technique and better imagine them.

The sixth position - during the ideomotor thinking of the movement, it is sometimes carried out so strongly and clearly that the person begins to move involuntarily. And this is good, as it speaks of establishing a strong connection between the two systems - programming and executing. Therefore, such a process is useful - let the body, as it were, join itself in the execution of the movement that is born in the mind. Such a picture had to be seen most often when exercising with figure skaters. Standing on skates with their eyes closed, they unexpectedly began to move smoothly and slowly following their mental ideomotor representations. As they said, they are "led".

That is why, in cases where ideomotor representations are not realized immediately, with difficulty, it can be recommended to consciously and carefully connect ideomotor representations with the corresponding movements of the body and in this way connect the mental image of the movement with the muscles that perform it.

A few words about the so-called imitations. By imitating, performing as if in a hint a real movement or part of it, a person helps to form a clearer idea of ​​the technical element he needs, going, so to speak, from the periphery, from the muscles, to the center, to the brain. So the imitation of a variety of movements, which can often be seen during a warm-up, is a good help in preparing for this or that difficult exercise.

But, imitating, you need to consciously connect the performed movements with their mental image. If imitations are carried out formally or thinking about something else, imitation actions will not bring benefits.

Seventh position - it is wrong to think about the final result immediately before the exercise. This is one of the more common mistakes.

When concern for the result occupies a dominant position in the mind, it displaces the most important thing - the idea of ​​​​how to achieve this result. So it turns out that, for example, the shooter thinks that he needs to get into the top ten, this thought begins to interfere with accurate ideas about those technical elements, without which it is simply impossible to get into the top ten. That's why he doesn't get in. “I overdid it, I really wanted it,” they say in such cases, forgetting that in order to achieve the desired result, one must not think about it, but rely on the mental images of those actions that lead to this result.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ashmarin B.A. Theory and methodology of pedagogical research in physical education (a manual for students, graduate students and teachers of physical culture institutes). - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1978, 224p.

2. Zabelsky S.Yu. Bioeconomical psychomotor health system. Innovations in the training of specialists in physical culture and sports: Stavropol: Servisshkola, 2005, 24p.

3. Lobzin V.S., Reshetnikov M.M. Autogenic training. M., 152 p.

New tomography studies show that behind our ability to dance lies a complex neural choreography

Our sense of rhythm is so natural that most of us take it for granted: when we hear music, we unconsciously start tapping our foot or swaying from side to side without noticing it ourselves. However, whatever the purpose of this instinct, it is something new in evolution. Neither in mammals, nor in any other representatives of the animal kingdom, anything like this is observed. We find ourselves subconsciously captured by the rhythm, and this ability is at the heart of dance - a fusion of movement, rhythm and gestures. Dance is accompanied by more synchronization in a group of people than any other human activity; it requires a degree of coordination between people in time and space that does not occur in virtually any other social context.

Despite the fact that dance is a fundamental form of human expression, neuroscientists have paid very little attention to it. Recently, however, scientists have conducted the first tomographic studies of both professional dancers and amateurs. Fundamental questions were raised. How do dancers navigate in space? How do they choose the pace of their steps? How do people learn the complex sequences of movements that form the figures of the dance? The results obtained give some idea of ​​the complex brain coordination required to perform even the simplest dance movements.

Dance is a fundamental form of human self-expression, which probably developed along with music as a way of giving rise to rhythm...

Dancing requires specialized skills provided by the brain. One area of ​​the brain displays the position of the body, helping to direct our movements in space; the other provides synchronization, allowing us to move to the music.

The musical rhythm captures us, and we unconsciously begin to tap our feet - this is how our instinctive tendency to dance manifests itself. This becomes possible due to the fact that certain subcortical areas of the brain exchange information that bypasses the higher auditory areas.

catch the rhythm

Neuroscientists have long studied simple movements such as ankle rotation or finger tapping. From this work, we generally already know how the brain controls the simplest actions. However, in order to just jump on one leg - even without trying to simultaneously pat yourself on the head - you need to make calculations in the sensorimotor system that take into account the surrounding space, gravity and balance, intention and timing, as well as and many other factors. Simplifying the picture a bit, it turns out that a region of the brain called the posterior parietal cortex (closer to the back of the brain) translates visual information into motor commands and sends signals forward to the areas responsible for planning movements - the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area. Next, the generated commands are transmitted to the primary motor cortex, which generates nerve impulses that go to the spinal cord and then to the muscles, causing them to contract.

At the same time, the sensory organs in the muscles themselves provide feedback to the brain, informing it of the exact location of body parts in space through signals that travel along nerve fibers through the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex. Subcortical structures - the cerebellum at the back of the brain and the basal ganglia deep within it - also help correct motor commands based on sensory feedback and provide greater precision in the movements produced. Whether these mechanisms are capable of providing such a graceful movement as, say, a dance pirouette remains unclear.

To investigate this issue, we conducted the first tomographic study of dance movements. In collaboration with our colleague Michael J. Martinez of the Center for Health Sciences at the University of Texas at San Antonio, we recruited non-professional tango dancers as test subjects. The brains of five men and the same number of women were scanned using a positron emission tomograph (PET), which records changes in cerebral blood flow that occur as a result of changes in brain activity. Researchers interpret increased blood flow in an area of ​​the brain as a sign of greater activation of the neurons located in it. Our subjects lay on their backs inside the scanner, and their heads were fixed, but they could move their legs and drive them along an incline. First, we asked them to perform a “square” of classic Argentinean tango salida with their feet, while the movements had to be performed to the recording of instrumental tango music, which the subjects listened to through headphones. Then we scanned in a different situation, where our dancers simply tensed their leg muscles to the beat of the music, but did not move. By subtracting the brain activity caused by simple muscle tension from the activity during the “dance”, we were able to identify the areas of the brain needed to guide the legs in space and create specific sequences of movements.

As expected, the subtraction made it possible to exclude many basic motor areas of the brain from consideration. However, that part of the parietal cortex remained, which is involved in the perception of space and orientation in it, both in humans and in other mammals. During dance, the perception of space is predominantly kinesthetic: you feel the position of your torso and limbs at any given time, even if your eyes are closed, which is made possible by sensory formations in the muscles. These organs transmit information to the brain about the angle of rotation in each joint, about the tension of each muscle, and on this basis the brain creates a clear idea of ​​the position of the whole body and its parts. To be more precise, we saw activation of the precuneus, an area of ​​the parietal lobe located near the place where the kinesthetic representation of the legs is located. We believe that the precuneus contains a kinesthetic map that allows people to sense the position of their body in space as they move among surrounding objects.

Whether you're waltzing or just walking in a straight line, the precue helps you chart your path by doing its calculations relative to the center of your body, ie. in the so-called "egocentric" coordinate system.

We then compared the patterns of brain activity obtained during the dance with tomograms taken when the subjects performed tango movements in the absence of music. By excluding the areas of the brain that were activated in both situations, we hoped to identify the areas needed to synchronize movements with music. Again, the subtraction eliminated virtually all of the motor areas of the brain. The main difference was observed in that part of the cerebellum that receives input from the spinal cord, in the anterior part of the vermis. Despite the fact that this area was involved in both situations, dance movements synchronized with music led to a significantly more pronounced increase in blood flow in this area than the same movements, but performed by the subjects in their own rhythm.

Preliminary results support the hypothesis that this part of the cerebellum serves as a kind of conductor, watching the information from different areas of the brain and helping to coordinate the actions performed. The cerebellum as a whole satisfies the criteria of a neural metronome well: it receives many sensory inputs from the auditory, visual, and somatosensory cortical systems (this is necessary in order to be able to adjust movements to a variety of signals, from sounds to visual stimuli and touch), and contains sensorimotor mapping of the whole body.

Unexpectedly, the second analysis shed light on the natural tendency of people to unconsciously tap their feet to the beat of music. When comparing tomograms obtained with synchronized movements and movements performed in one's own rhythm, we found that a relatively low level of the auditory pathway, namely the subcortical structure called the medial geniculate body (MCT), was highlighted only in the first case. At first, we thought that this result simply reflected the presence of a sound stimulus—i.e. music under synchronized conditions, but an additional brain scan forced us to reject this interpretation: when our subjects listened to music but did not move their legs, we did not detect any changes in blood flow in the MCT.

Thus, we concluded that MCT activity was specifically related to synchronization, and not just listening to music. This discovery allowed us to formulate a hypothesis, according to which, with unconscious subordination to the rhythm, auditory information enters directly into the cerebellum, bypassing the higher levels - the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex.

Moving parts of the brain

In order to identify the areas of the brain that control dance, researchers first needed to understand how the brain allows us to perform voluntary movements. Here is a simplified diagram of the process. Fine-tuning (right) is partly due to the muscles sending signals back to the brain. The cerebellum uses the feedback from the muscles to maintain balance and make movement more precise. In addition, the basal ganglia collect sensory information from various areas of the cortex and transmit it through the thalamus to the motor areas of the cortex.

Fine-tuning (right) is partly due to the muscles sending signals back to the brain. The cerebellum uses the feedback from the muscles to maintain balance and make movement more precise. In addition, the basal ganglia collect sensory information from various areas of the cortex and transmit it through the thalamus to the motor areas of the cortex.

Motor planning (left) takes place in the frontal lobe, which contains the premotor cortex (not visible in the figure) and the supplementary motor area, which evaluate signals (arrows) from other areas of the brain and carry information such as body position in space and memory of previous actions. These two areas then communicate with the primary motor cortex, which determines which muscles to tense (and how much) and sends the appropriate commands through the spinal cord down to the muscles.

Do you think you can dance?

When we observe and learn dance moves, other areas of the brain are also involved. Beatriz Calvo-Merino and Patrick Haggard of University College London investigated whether certain areas of the brain are activated when people watch other performers perform dance moves that they themselves know. Or, to put it another way, are there areas of the brain that turn on in ballet dancers when they watch ballet and not, say, capoeira (an Afro-Brazilian martial art that looks like a dance and is performed to music)?

To investigate this issue, a team of scientists used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study the brains of ballet dancers, capoeiristas, and non-dancers while they watched three-second silent video clips of ballet steps or martial arts moves. The researchers found that the presence of their own experience in the subjects had a strong influence on the activation of the premotor cortex: the activity in it increased only when the participants in the experiment watched a dance that they themselves could perform. This fact is explained by another work. Scientists have found that when people follow simple actions, areas in the premotor cortex involved in performing these movements turn on, which indicates that we mentally repeat what we see, and this probably helps us learn and understand new movements. Researchers are currently investigating how important such mental imitation is to humans.

Fancy footwork

In order to identify areas of the brain that are important for dancing, the authors turned to tango performers with a proposal to undergo an examination on a tomograph. The subjects were asked to take a horizontal position in it, and their head was fixed. They listened to tango music through headphones and moved their feet along the sloping ground.

In one such experiment, the machine scanned the brain under two different conditions: when the dancers tensed their leg muscles to the beat of the music, but did not move their limbs, and when the subjects performed the basic steps of the tango (cut-in) with their feet, again in time with the music. When the authors subtracted brain activity associated with simple muscle tension (upper tomogram) from the results obtained during the performance of tango, a part of the parietal cortex called the precuneus remained isolated.

In subsequent work, Calvo-Merino and her colleagues compared the activity in the brains of male and female ballet performers while they watched videotapes of either dancers or female dancers performing movements found only in male or female parts, respectively. And again, the highest level of activity in the premotor cortex occurred in those cases when men saw men's ballet steps, and women, respectively, women's.

The ability to mentally reproduce movements is absolutely essential for learning motor skills. In 2006, Emily S. Cross and Scott T. Grafton of Dartmouth College investigated whether activity in areas responsible for mental imitation is increased at the very moment of learning. Over the course of several weeks, researchers conducted weekly brain scans of dancers who were learning the complex sequence of modern dance moves. During their brain scans, the subjects watched five-second clips showing either the movements they were mastering or completely different ones. After each video clip, participants rated how well they thought they could perform the movements they had just seen. The data obtained confirmed the results of Calvo-Merino and her colleagues. Activity in the premotor cortex increased during training and indeed correlated with the subjects' self-assessments of whether they could perform a given piece of dance.

Both researchers emphasize the fact that learning a complex sequence of movements activates, in addition to the motor system of the brain that controls muscle contractions, also the motor planning system, which carries information about the ability to perform each specific movement. The better a person has mastered any complex step, the easier it is for him to imagine what he will feel when performing it, and, probably, the easier it becomes to perform it in practice.

Our research shows that the ability to mentally play a sequence of dance moves—either a tennis serve or a golf swing—is not based solely on vision, as the work described above might suggest, but is equally kinesthetic as well. True mastery of movement requires feeling your muscles - a motor image that is formed in the areas of the brain responsible for planning movement.

Front of the worm

This area of ​​the cerebellum receives information from the spinal cord and works like a metronome, helping to synchronize dance steps with the music.

Medial geniculate body

This area, being a way station in the auditory pathway, seems to help set the rhythm of the brain's metronome and underlies our tendency to involuntarily tap our foot or sway to the sound of music. We react unconsciously, because this area of ​​the brain is connected to the cerebellum and transmits information about the rhythm there without informing the higher auditory cortex.

Fore cunee

Contains a sensory map of the body and helps chart the dancer's path in an egocentric coordinate system.

The social role of dance

Perhaps the most intriguing question for a neuroscientist is why people dance at all. Obviously, music and dance are closely related to each other; it often happens that the dance itself creates sound. Aztec dansantes in Mexico City wear spats on which are attached the fruit of the ayoyotl tree, called chachayotes, which produce a characteristic sound with every step. In many cultures, people wear or attach various noise-producing devices to their clothes while dancing, from mallets to castanets and rosaries. In addition, dancers usually clap, click and stomp. Based on this, we put forward the hypothesis of "bodily percussion", according to which the dance developed initially as a process of extracting sounds. We also suggested that dance and music, especially percussion, developed together as complementary ways of generating rhythm. The first percussion instruments may well have been decorations for dancers - like the Aztec chachayotes.

However, unlike music, dance has enormous possibilities for representation and imitation, which indicates its ability to play the role of an early form of speech. Indeed, dance is essentially a sign language. It is interesting to note that when the subjects performed any motor tasks in our study, we saw the activation of the area of ​​the right hemisphere, symmetrical with respect to Broca's area of ​​the left hemisphere. Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and is classically associated with speech production. In the last ten years, it has been revealed that Broca's area also contains representation of the hands.

These discoveries confirm the so-called gestural theory of the evolution of speech, whose proponents argue that speech initially arose as a gestural system, and only later became a sound system. Our study has shown that leg movements activate the right hemispheric homologue of Broca's area, which supports the idea that dance originated as a form of representational communication.

However, what could be the role of the homologue of Broca's area in the dance? In 2003, Marco Iacoboni of the University of California at Los Angeles used magnetic stimulation of the brain to disrupt either Broca's area itself or its homologue. In both cases, the subjects' ability to copy movements with the fingers of their right hand worsened. The Jacoboni group concluded that these areas are extremely important for imitation, which is a key component of learning and necessary for the spread of culture. We put forward our own hypothesis. Although there were no imitative movements per se in our study, nevertheless both tango performance and finger repetition require the brain to arrange the individual components of the movement in the correct order. Just as Broca's area allows us to correctly place words and phrases one after another, its homologue seems to be able to connect elementary movements into a smooth sequence.

We hope that subsequent tomographic studies will provide insight into the brain mechanisms behind dance and its evolution, which is closely intertwined with the advent of both speech and music. We see dance as a union of the representative capacity of language and the rhythm of music. Such interaction allows people not only to tell stories with their bodies, but also to do so by synchronizing their movements with the movements of other people, which contributes to the social attraction of people to each other.

Aztec dansantes in Mexico City wear spats with chachayotes that rattle with every step. In many cultures, dancers wear various sounding objects on the body and attach to clothing. Probably dance and music developed together as a way of giving rise to rhythm. However, unlike music, you can clearly express your thoughts with the help of dance.

Steven Brown is Director of the NeuroArts Lab in the Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behavior at McMaster University in Ontario. His research focuses on the brain mechanisms of human communication, including speech, music, gestures, dance, and emotions. Lawrence M. Parsons is Professor of Psychology at the University of Sheffield in England. His research spans the study of cerebellar function and the neurophysiology of duet performance, turn-taking and deductive reasoning.

This is a constant active representation of a certain action, while the person feels the effect of the exercise on the muscles. This approach is used in the preparation of athletes, for the treatment of psychological conditions or rehabilitation. In the article, we will consider in more detail the essence of training, who needs it and how to perform the exercises correctly.

essence

The ideomotor method of training consists in the active presentation of motor skills, which contributes to their better mastery, consolidation and improvement of technique. At the moment of performing movements, it is important to strain the muscles and make movements as accurately and as accurately as possible, but do it mentally.

Before starting training, a person must fully master the skill in theory, that is, know the sequence of actions, represent them in detail. Then the external implementation of the skill begins: repetition of the imaginary, consolidation of the result.

It is believed that the method significantly increases the level of endurance of an athlete, contributes to the preservation of knowledge during long breaks between workouts, and makes it possible to master a new skill that has not been tested before.

Who needs training?

This is a set of exercises that a person performs using imagination. The complex helps people with good physical shape, for example, athletes who have coordinated muscle work. For beginners, the method will be less useful.

Who needs training:

• athletes to improve their skills;
• people in the period of rehabilitation after injuries, operations;
• people to stabilize psychological state.

If a person controls his muscles, then training helps to develop new skills or improve previously learned ones. Coaches note that with constant exercise, the athlete increases the speed and accuracy of movement.

Also, exercises are useful in the absence of training for objective reasons - injuries, suspension, illness. If an athlete needs rehabilitation or a break, then ideomotor training can partially replace work in the gym. They help to remember the movement and keep the muscles in good shape.

Sometimes this method helps to calm down, for example, before a serious serve in volleyball. To bounce back, the athlete imagines the perfect movement several times and performs it correctly.

In sports

Ideomotor training, as a method of self-regulation, is used in preparation for sports competitions. The athlete imagines his movements mentally from the outside, which gives him the opportunity to better master the exercise.

In sports, many criticize this approach, calling it useless. But those who have been training for a long time and have learned to control their muscles consider the method effective and necessary.

Some people find it easier to visualize a fixed image, while others prefer a whole movement. But it is important to always note your feelings and control the work of the muscles. The development of the skill of mental representation of movements allows you to quickly reproduce the exercise in reality.

Athletes, gymnasts, acrobats especially need such training, because it is important for them to be aware of the position of the body in space.

In rehab

Ideomotor exercises are especially necessary during the rehabilitation period. They allow you to imagine the execution of movements while lying on the bed. Doctors note that such training is effective and reduces the period of stay in the hospital.

The method is recommended for athletes after sprains, fractures, surgeries. Also, the method is popular in rehabilitation after a stroke, paralysis of a part of the body. A person does not just lie in bed and remember how he walked or ran. He must concentrate and mentally reproduce his feelings, present them as realistically as possible. If the smell of flowers was felt during the run, then it should be present during ideomotor training. The athlete must imagine how he scored a goal or threw the ball, what he felt at the same time.

Also, trainers and doctors recommend verbal registration of ideomotor training in rehabilitation. When a person speaks out his feelings, they become more real. Training in combination with passive exercises helps to quickly bring the muscles back to normal.

Principles

Ideomotor training is the mental representation of movement.

For efficiency, a set of principles should be followed:

1. The accuracy of the mental image - the more accurate, the more often the movement is performed without errors.
2. Connection with muscles. Training is effective only in the case of completeness of sensations and providing a connection between muscles and human feelings.
3. The use of verbal descriptions of the exercises performed. Studies have proven that verbal formulations increase the effectiveness of a workout. To do this, each exercise is negotiated aloud.
4. Slow introduction of a new skill will help a person understand how to perform it correctly.
5. Correct body position. The authors of the methodology recommend presenting the implementation of a new element of training in a pose as close as possible to the actual position of the body. At the same time, a person concentrates faster and connects thought processes with muscles.
6. Sometimes during training, a person begins to move unconsciously - this indicates a full-fledged connection between the mental and muscular systems.

For the effectiveness of training, special simulators are used, with the help of which a person learns to concentrate in various poses.

Stages

Each person can master the ideomotor method, and the study takes place in several stages.

The stages of mastering ideomotor training include:

How to do?

Ideomotor exercises in training physical condition must be carried out according to the instructions:

1. Close your eyes and discard all thoughts, relax, take a deep breath through your nose and exhale through your mouth.
2. Introduce own body, feel the muscles, starting from the bottom.
3. Focus on the part of the body that is being trained.
4. Start doing the exercises at a slow pace, do not think about the result.
5. Mentally make the movement several times, pronouncing the details. At this stage, muscle tension and cramps may occur.
6. After the end of the exercise, present the result (muscle relief, limb movement, restored functionality).

If the training is carried out during the rehabilitation period, then it is necessary to consult with an exercise therapy doctor.

Ideomotor training in sports involves the solution of certain tasks, in which the coach helps the athlete:

1. The athlete's interest in this type of training. A person must develop a responsible attitude to exercise, realize the need and effectiveness. Tools - conversations, a positive attitude. Mistakes - an incomplete representation of the movement, a blurry image, inability to concentrate.
2. Conducting analysis of training sessions. This is helped by the coach, who watches the training, explains the wrong actions and points out mistakes.
3. Finding highlights in motion. The athlete must understand the movement completely, sketches and visual aids help him in this.
4. Development of the ability to evoke muscle-motor representations and real sensations. For this, methods of introspection and self-control are used. It is important to focus on the representation of power components, the execution of movement in space. A retelling of the training being performed and sensations is also used.

Ideomotor training is a set of exercises, the effectiveness of which depends on the psychological state. A person must be able to concentrate, coordinate the work of muscles and mentally embody sensations.

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:

know

• basic systems visual perception movement;
• afferent and efferent theories of motion perception;
• the main content of the ecological approach to the perception of movement;
• the concept of biological movement;
• the main types of illusory movement and the possibility of their explanation;

be able to

describe the processes of perception as an active process of analysis and synthesis of a perceptual image;

own

basic conceptual apparatus classical psychology perception of movement, ecological approach to the perception of movement and the conceptual apparatus of the theory of biological movement.

Perception of real movement and the problem of stability of the visible world

If our eyes were motionless, the movement of the projection of an object on the retina could clearly indicate the movement of the object. However, human eyes can make movements, such as tracking a moving object. If the eyes track the movement of an object, the projection of this object on the retina will be stationary. On the contrary, if the eyes move, then the projection of a stationary object on the retina will move. The question arises: thanks to what mechanisms of vision do we still learn about the movement of objects and do not mistake stationary objects for moving in space?

This question poses a very important psychological problem, which is most directly related to the property of perception, which we designated in the first chapter as the constancy of perception. When talking about the constancy of perception, at least two aspects of its study are singled out - constancy in the narrow sense of the word and constancy in the broad sense. Discussing issues related to the perception of color, we have already talked about the narrow meaning of the term "constancy". Speaking about the problem of motion perception, we are faced with the problem of constancy in broad sense this word. It is no longer just about constancy, but about stability of the perceived world. The world we perceive turns out to be relatively stable and independent of our own motor activity in it. A person is able to distinguish between his own physical activity and movements in the world around him, which do not depend on him. How does the perception system distinguish between the observer's own movements and the movement of objects in the surrounding world?

In connection with this formulation of the question, the well-known American psychologist, author of numerous works on the psychology of perception Richard Gregory(1923–2010) proposed to talk about the existence of two relatively independent systems of motion perception, which, nevertheless, closely interact with each other - the "eye-head" system and the "image-retina" system (Gregory, 1970, Fig. 6.1).

Rice. 6.1. Two systems for real movement perception: a) "image-retina" system; b) eye-head system

In the "eye-head" system, the movement of an object is determined by the tracking movements of the eyes. In the "image - retina" system, the movement of an object is determined by the displacement of excitation of receptors located on the retina. It is assumed that the perceptual centers responsible for the perception of movement collect information from these two systems of perception of movement and compare it, evaluating the information about the movement.

In order to explain the processes of possible interaction of information coming from these two sources, in psychology back in the 19th century. Two competing theories of the perception of real movement were proposed. The difference between these theories lies in how they determine the source of information about eye movement. One claimed that the source was in the eye muscles themselves. Receptors located in the muscles, they can be called proprioceptors, are sensitive to the degree of tension and relaxation of the eye muscles. In this regard, they can send signals to the center of perception of movement, where signals also come from the photoreceptors of the retina. This theory is called afferent(Fig. 6.2). Its author is considered to be a well-known English physiologist Charles Sherrington (1857–1952).

Rice. 6.2.

Another theory comes from the fact that the source of information about eye movement is the nerve signals themselves that provide this movement. It is assumed that the signals coming to the muscles of the eyes from the motor centers are simultaneously transmitted, copied to the perceptual center, where ideas about movement are formed based on a comparison of these motor copies with information coming from the photoreceptors of the retina (Fig. 6.3). This theory, called efferent, or theory motor copy, was first proposed by a German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz(1821–1894) and developed already in the 20th century. in the works of another German physiologist E. von Holst.

The afferent theory of motion perception has not received widespread support as a mainstream theory. The fact is that it postulates rather slow physiological mechanisms. It is unlikely that a system operating on this principle could be sufficiently flexible and responsive. If such motion estimation mechanisms exist, they are unlikely to be sufficient for accurate motion estimation. In addition, there are facts that clearly testify against this theory in favor of the efferent theory of motion perception.

One of these facts was noted in the works of G. Helmholtz. It is associated with passive pressure on the eyeball. If you try to do this by gently pressing on one of your eyes, while closing the other, you will find a shift in the picture of the world around you - there will be a clear sense of the movement of the world around you. This is exactly what motor copy theory predicts. The afferent theory cannot explain this phenomenon. Indeed, in this situation, from the point of view of the theory of motor copies, only the "image-retina" system is involved. From it comes a signal about the displacement of excitation in a certain direction. At the same time, no information about the movement of the observer's eyes comes from the motor centers themselves. Afferent theory, on the other hand, argues that both systems must be involved in a given situation. Information about the displacement of excitation on the retina must be supplemented by information from the eye muscles. Thus, the afferent theory, unlike the efferent theory, does not predict any movement.

Rice. 6.3.

Another important fact testifying in favor of the efferent theory is the experiments carried out by E. Mach on himself (Mach, 1905). Instead of passively displacing the eyeball, he decided, on the contrary, to immobilize it. To do this, he used soft window putty. Everyone can easily, following E. Mach, reproduce these experiments in the field. To immobilize the eye, it is necessary to take it to the side to the limit and fix it in this position with a soft window putty, being careful not to damage the cornea. Now you need to close the second eye and try to look in the other direction. Since the eye is fixed in one position with putty, this is not possible. If you really try to repeat this simple experience after E. Mach, you will probably find, like him, that the world around you has begun to move: "One only will, the mere desire to look to the right will therefore give images at certain places on the retina a greater "right value," as one might say for brevity" (Mach, 1905). There is nothing surprising in this from the point of view of the efferent theory, or the theory of motor copies. The image-retina system does not transmit any information about movement, but the eye-head system does - the signals you send to the motionless eyes are immediately transmitted to the perceptual center responsible for detecting movement. At the same time, this result is impossible from the point of view of the afferent theory - after all, in general, no signals from either the retina or the eye muscles should enter the perceptual center.

Although the efferent theory has received support in experimental demonstrations for a very long time and its importance is recognized, there is still reason to believe that it, like the afferent theory of motion perception, turns out to be wrong. And - most importantly - the very formulation of the problem of perception of movement, as it was described in this paragraph, is apparently incorrect.