The culture of the 20th century reflected the crisis into which technogenic civilization was slowly entering. Standing in front of a person critical issues: about its place in space, about the essence and value of progress and science, about the future of the Earth and humanity itself. The ideal you aspired to European culture, since the Renaissance, is the ideal of a self-developing creative personality. Its main characteristics were uniqueness and originality. In the future, the exaltation of man, on the one hand, and the protrusion of low instincts by mass culture, on the other, contributed to the development of extreme individualism and a decrease in general level cultural needs. In previous eras, the ideal of comprehending the truth was a priority. IN modern life the cult of life reigns. In the 20th century, the system of worldview attitudes, the establishment of European and American egocentrism, becomes dominant. Today, most of the world's population lives in underdeveloped countries. There is mass poverty, insolvency, social instability, aggressiveness, envy. Human intervention in biospheric processes upset the balance between nature and society. The growth of the earth's population leads to an increase in the shortage of natural resources. Global is the problem of the constant threat of nuclear, chemical and biological wars. The system of worldview attitudes is offered by science, mass culture, but not by religion. The collapse of traditional religious values ​​contributes to the establishment of nihilism - the denial of generally accepted values: ideals, moral norms, culture, forms public life. Culture develops, reflecting the needs of a new life, uses the achievements of science and technology, creates comfort and prosperity. Modern culture is rapidly transforming the environment, society, and people's way of life. In the XX century, according to researchers, there was a break in the social and cultural cycles. The pace of cultural change has become faster. The usual way of life is rapidly collapsing, things that recently constituted the meaning of being are becoming a thing of the past. Orientations change. Shrines are falling down. Social and cultural life is being transformed. All these problems can be effectively solved with the humanistic use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress: healthcare and education should become accessible, psychophysical conditions for life in the information society can be created, programs to combat environmental pollution, unemployment, stress, etc. should be introduced. The fate of the 21st century will be determined not only by scientific and technological achievements, but also by the cultural and worldview of people

CONCLUSION

Sociology is interested in culture in three main aspects:

1. as a shared system of values, norms, symbols and meanings;

2. as the basis of the socialization of the individual, i.e. as an object of assimilation by a person in the process of his life;

3. something that is passed down by people from generation to generation.

So, social culture is a system of socially significant values, norms and rules of behavior, representations of ideas, beliefs and traditions that are common to people, associated with a certain way, socially acquired, transmitted from generation to generation and serving to streamline experience and social regulation within the framework of the whole society or social group.

This work was devoted to the problems of spirituality in Ukraine, the influence of mass culture on public consciousness. The phenomenon of mass culture offers standard ideological and cultural and artistic ideas about the world around. Many programs are tuned directly to youth. Advertising the American way of life - "look like a million" distracts from the pressing issues of today: the fight against poverty, AIDS, the threat of war and environmental disaster. Entertainment genres do not allow a huge number of TV and Internet viewers to get in touch with the great masterpieces of true art. Attracting young people to the gaming business becomes dangerous for the family and society. The promotion of alcoholic beverages and violence is incompatible with the norms of morality and law. Today, many problems of spirituality in Ukraine are associated with the development of post-industrial society. medical technology are the subject of controversy and cause condemnation of the church. Despite the emergence of a huge number of non-traditional religions for Ukraine, nevertheless, the basis of spirituality is the 10 biblical commandments. Spirituality in Ukraine is inextricably linked with national culture. The works of I.P. Kotlyarovsky, G. Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, N. Kostomarov, A. Metlinsky, T. Shevchenko, P. Mirny, L. Ukrainka, I. Franko, V. Vinnichenko, M. Rylsky. At present, despite the dominance of mass culture, many cultural and educational organizations have resumed their work. Relations between the state and religious confessions are developing on democratic principles. The development of the cultural potential of the Ukrainian people is possible only if the entire society is seriously interested in the prosperity of education, science, art, literature, the revitalization of church life, the establishment of democracy with a guarantee of freedom of creativity, conscience, speech and the protection of intellectual property.

Annotation. The article discusses the causes of the global crisis modern society associated with a low level of morality. The understanding of basic concepts in a consumer society and in a highly moral society is compared. The ways out of the crisis state of modern society, presented in the "Doctrine of high morality", are considered, the role of social movement to overcome the crisis state of society.

Modern society is in a global crisis. Every day, media reports come in about political confrontation and military conflicts, terrorist attacks and environmental, man-made disasters, the bankruptcy of not only individual companies, but entire countries. And there seems to be no end to it. What's the matter? What is at the heart of this global crisis? The answer to these questions should not be sought in economics or politics. The roots of the crisis are much deeper - in the sphere of the spiritual and moral life of society and each individual.

In what case does it become possible for a person to pour waste with toxic substances into water bodies; produce products with unhealthy components and counterfeit medicines that cannot help a person in a difficult situation; to bomb civilian targets, knowing in advance that there are civilians, children? There is only one answer - in the case of a low level of morality. This is precisely the main reason for the global crisis, which has engulfed almost all countries of the world and all aspects of society.

The ideology of the consumer society, when the main value is money and power, leads to the substitution of universal human values ​​that were professed in different eras, among different peoples, with false values, to a distortion of the basic basic concepts. In a society dominated by the ideology of consumption, exorbitant desires are inflated, lying mainly in the sphere of material goods, the thirst for pleasure. Profit becomes the main priority of people, and elementary concepts are interpreted with the opposite meaning. As a result, modern society is not so much evolving (in certain areas) as degrading as a whole.

Famous historians, political scientists and politicians V.E. Bagdasaryan and S.S. Sulakshin in his monograph considers the value factors that strengthen the Russian state, and also identifies factors that have a devastating effect on it, the so-called anti-values, which are focused not on the strengthening and life of any state, but, on the contrary, on its weakening and even death.

The conclusion reached by the authors is disappointing: “... Russia at the beginning of the 21st century. is in a state of not just a crisis, but a civilizational catastrophe. The erosion of the country's values ​​is one of its factors. Many of them have reached historic lows. The way out, respectively, is seen in the development of the vital potentials of the country, which ... correspond to the highest values ​​of the state.

And this is understood not only by scientists and politicians. More and more ordinary people, citizens of Russia and other countries, understand the importance of raising the level of morality in society, considering this process as an effective mechanism for the evolutionary development of society. There is a trend of more and more active involvement of Russians and citizens of other countries in actions aimed at the revival of morality in the world, overcoming the magic of anti-values. One such example is the work of the International public organization"FOR MORALITY!", which includes participants from 50 countries of the world. Members of the Movement “FOR MORALITY!” they do not just start with themselves and strive to lead a moral lifestyle, they meet people, talk about the problems of morality in society, and also try to include the leadership of their countries in solving this problem. In particular, the participants of the Movement developed a program document "The Doctrine of High Morality" (hereinafter - the Doctrine), which is a look at the causes state of the art society, defines the main value orientations, defines the basic concepts, offers ways out of the ideological crisis. The doctrine contains the concept of the ideology of a highly moral society, which can serve as the basis for the formation public policy, improving the legal framework, as well as to develop targeted programs in the field of improving morality.

The existing deformations in the spiritual and moral sphere are clearly manifested when comparing the understanding of the basic concepts such as God, man, the physical world, society, freedom, power, and others presented in the Doctrine. Considering them will help, in our opinion, to see a way out of the current crisis situation.

The concept of "God". In a consumer society, this concept is no longer perceived as a source of absolute values ​​that determine a person's entire life. Instead, fetishism is implanted - religious worship of material values, the cult of money dominates. The psychology of "fast food" is also manifested in matters of faith. Often the worship of God is formal, associated only with the observance of rituals.
Objectively, God is the Supreme Law that governs the Universe. Everything is subject to this Law. Following it allows the individual to develop spiritually and morally.

The question of the existence of God is gradually moving from the realm of religious-philosophical reasoning to the realm of scientific research. Yes, there is in the world a large number of fundamental physical constants (gravity, electromagnetic force, nuclear interaction, the ratio of the Earth's radius to the distance to the Sun, and others). Research results of mathematicians, the Problem of Morality and the global crisis of the society of physicists and astrophysicists from different countries of the world - I.L. Rosenthal, V.A. Nikitin, S. Weinberg, R. Breuer, F. Dyson, D. Polkinhorn, D. Barrow, F. Tripler, D. Jean and others - indicate that the slightest change in any of them would lead to the destruction of the Universe. Scientific research in this area allowed scientists to conclude that there is a Supermind that controls the Universe.

The greatest physicist of the 20th century, Arthur Compton, Nobel Prize winner, says: “Faith begins with the knowledge that the Supreme Intelligence created the Universe and man. It is not difficult for me to believe this, because the fact that there is a plan, and therefore Reason, is irrefutable. The order in the universe, which unfolds before our eyes, itself testifies to the truth of the greatest and sublime statement: "In the beginning - God."

With similar statements in different time speakers: Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Charles Darwin, K. Flammarion, N.I. Pirogov, Jules S. Duchesne, F. Crick, A.D. Sakharov, P.P. Garyaev and many other scientists of the world.
The concept of "Physical world". In modern society, there is an idea that there is only the physical world that can be seen, touched, studied, decomposed into its component parts, therefore all activity is limited to this world.
However, scientists have proven that the physical world is only the “tip of the iceberg”. Laureate nobel prize, Italian physicist C. Rubbia, claims that visible matter is only one billionth of the entire universe. The universe is much wider, and scientists are providing evidence for new levels of life in it. The discovery by the Russian scientist S.V. Zenin of the information-phase state of matter, development English physicist D. Bohm of the theory of the holographic nature of the Universe, the discoveries of Russian scientists G.I. Shipov and A.E. Akimov in the field of the theory of physical vacuum and torsion fields testify to the multilevel nature and the existence of a reasonable control of the Universe.
The concept of "Man". In a consumer society, a person is considered as part of the material world. It has a "beginning" (birth) and an "end" (death) - just like any object or process of the physical world has its origin and destruction. And since, according to the ideas of the majority, a person lives once, then one must live one's only life in the enjoyment of all its benefits. It is impossible to become perfect in one life, so there is no point in striving for high morality, which provides for internal limitations and self-discipline.

However, if we take into account that the Universe is the most complex multi-level system of existence of different planes of being, therefore, such a complex living organism as a person is also multidimensional. Computer GDV-graphy technologies developed by K.G. Korotkov and based on the Kirlian effect, clearly show that a person has an energy component - a biofield that reflects his thoughts and feelings.

In addition to the mortal part, a person also has an immortal part, which evolves over many incarnations. During many of his lives, a person accumulates experience, develops his best qualities, and, according to the causal relationship, reaps the consequences of his actions, committed not only in one life, but in all previous existences. If a person knew that he lives more than once, he would think deeply before committing an immoral act. He would understand that if he offended and humiliated, deceived and killed someone in a previous incarnation, then in a subsequent rebirth he himself would be offended and humiliated, deceived and killed.

A scientific approach to the study of reincarnation, developing since 1960, organized in 1980. International Association past life research therapy, which includes scientists from the UK, Germany, the US, Russia and other countries, has documented thousands of cases of memories of past lives. For example, an American doctor, Professor I. Stevenson, studied 3,000 cases of children's memories of past lives for 40 years.

Teaching in kindergartens and schools of only two laws of the universe: on the causal relationship and on the rebirth of the immortal part of man - in one or two generations would radically change society and direct it along the moral path.

Having considered in detail the first three concepts, we will consider the rest briefly.
"Society" - in a consumer society, racial, property, religious and other inequality is assumed. In a highly moral society, humanity is a brotherhood of peoples.
"Freedom" - in a consumer society is manifested in non-observance of the Higher Law. Permissiveness, abuse to satisfy desires and receive pleasure. In a highly moral society, freedom is perceived need follow the Higher Law existing in the Universe. Unlimited freedom to act within the limits of this Law.

"Power" - in a consumer society, power is aimed at keeping the masses in obedience, follows the political situation, generates corruption and the struggle for power. Positions are bought. In a highly moral society, power is an honorable duty. The best representatives of society occupy leadership positions in accordance with their moral qualities.
"Finance" - in a consumer society they act as a means of control, manipulation, control, enslavement. In a highly moral society, finance is a temporary phenomenon at a certain stage in the development of society (as an equivalent of exchange, a means of accounting and distribution).

"Work" - in a consumer society is a way to earn money. In a highly moral society, work is the highest joy, a way of creative self-realization of a person.
"Wars" - in a consumer society, this is a means of fighting for power, control, wealth and Natural resources. In a highly moral society - a world without wars. Implementation of the principle of non-violence in international, social and interpersonal relations.
"Medicine, health care" - in a consumer society, treatment and medicines are used as a means of profit. There is no interest in the person being healthy. In a moral society, their goal is the health of every person. The basis of health is harmony with Nature.

“Education” is a means of reproduction in a consumer society work force and education in citizens of the qualities necessary for the state. In a moral society, each person should receive the most versatile education as a means of revealing the inner potential of the individual.

"Facilities mass media"- in a consumer society, this is a source of manipulation of mass consciousness. Fulfill the social order of those in power. Contribute to the stupidity of the population. In a moral society - contribute to the expansion of the horizons of each member of society. Expand and deepen knowledge.

"Art" - in a consumer society is seen as a commercial product of mass consumption. Reflects the immorality of society. In a highly moral society, it gives examples of high morality and morality, elevates the consciousness of people.

"Science" - in a consumer society serves the interests of financial elites. Scientific discoveries used for profit, for military purposes. In a moral society, science studies the laws of the construction of the Universe and helps humanity to follow them. All scientific achievements and developments aimed at improving human life.

"Family" - in a consumer society, there is a degeneration of the family: same-sex marriages, single-parent families, sexual perversions. In a moral society, the family is the backbone of society and the state.
"Free time" - in a consumer society is used for pleasure and entertainment. In a moral society, it is used for education and self-improvement.
The authors of the Doctrine of High Morality believe that the revival of morality should become a national program, a national ideology, promoted at all levels, in all possible ways. Only in this case is it possible to overcome the global moral crisis of modern society.

States built on moral principles have always had a social, economic and political advantage, which led them to prosperity and prosperity. Therefore, the only way out of any crisis is to raise the morality of the people. When a person becomes more and more moral, he himself automatically begins to reject what is immoral.

Now modern media are adjusting to the lowest desires of people, promoting low standards: rudeness, smoking, violence, sexual abuse and perversion, and others. The problem of Morality and the global crisis of society However, the state has found strength in itself high level start a campaign against smoking and alcoholization of the population. The next step should be the penetration on TV screens, on the radio, on the pages of publications of higher, more moral, beautiful examples of art and culture, which should gradually oust (not by prohibition) vulgarity, rudeness and violence from the consciousness of the people, and therefore from all areas of state life. It is necessary to settle in the minds of the people the understanding of God as the Highest Moral Law that exists in the Universe. It is necessary to promote moral concepts at the state level, such as honor, sincerity, kindness, modesty, benevolence and others. Russia must become a stronghold of morality in the world!

Literature:
1. Bagdasaryan V.E., Sulakshin S.S. Highest Values Russian state. / Series "Political Axiology". Scientific monograph. - M.: Scientific expert, 2012. - 624 p.
2. A. V. Bychkov, T. N. Mikushina, M. L. Skuratovskaya, and E. Yu. "The Doctrine of High Morality"

From the point of view of a universal approach, the contradictions of social progress at the present stage accumulate in global problems ah humanity. The main global issues are:

Prevention problem wars and statements peace on the ground.

Problems caused by the ecological crisis.

Demographic problems (populationist and depopulationist).

Problems of human spirituality (education, healthcare, culture) and lack of spirituality (loss of universal human values ​​as internal guidelines for a person).

The problem of overcoming the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, computer revolution, information explosion.

The problem of overcoming human disunity caused by various economic, political, spiritual development of countries and peoples.

These and other problems are global, because, firstly, in essence, they affect the interests of all mankind and its future. They are global, their unresolved threatens the future of all mankind, and this threat goes in two directions: the death of mankind or regression in conditions of prolonged stagnation.

Secondly, these are the problems that require the unification of the efforts of all mankind for their solution.

Thus, the global nature of these problems stems not from their "ubiquity" and, moreover, not from the "biological nature of man", as many ideologists claim, but from the ever-increasing internationalization of all social activities on Earth, as a result of which they directly or indirectly affect humanity as a whole. .

The global problems of our era are a natural consequence of the entire modern global situation that has developed in the globe in the last third of the 20th century. For a correct understanding of the origin, essence and possibility of their solution, it is necessary to see in them the result of the preceding world-historical process in all its objective inconsistency. This position, however, should not be understood superficially, considering modern global problems as simply grown to planetary proportions. traditional local or regional contradictions, crises, troubles. On the contrary, being the results (rather than a simple sum) of the previous community development humanity, global problems act as a specific product of precisely modern era, as a consequence of the extremely aggravated unevenness of socio-economic, political, scientific and technical, demographic, environmental, cultural development in a completely new, unique historical situation.

Ecological crisis, in essence, it's a social crisis. He is result of contradictions between the operation of the laws of society and the natural laws of nature. These contradictions led to the fact that in a very short time there were undermined the mechanisms of self-regulation biosphere, and man became the most vulnerable in it. If the lower biological organisms adapted to these changes in a very short time, and some of them mutated in an unknown direction, and in this case, unsafe for humans, then a real danger of physical and mental degradation arose before a person.

Thus, today it can be argued that technological development has gone "not where nature required." Mankind has crossed the threshold of the possibilities of the biosphere. One of the latest resource models of the state of the Earth in five main parameters: population, resources, industrial products, nutrition, environmental pollution - shows that if the rate of population growth, economy, resource depletion will be the same as the last decade, then the Earth will suffer a catastrophe, approximately, in 2040.

There are many causes and components of the ecological crisis, and they are not equal in importance: a population explosion (the biosphere was stable until the Earth's population exceeded two billion people); imperfection of engineering and technology; colossal chemical pollution environment; unplanned urbanization, etc. material, objective reasons. But perhaps the most important reason is low level spiritual culture, expressed, among other things, in the ecological ignorance of man and mankind. This needs to be remembered and spoken about today.

The ecological catastrophe before our eyes has turned from a gloomy forecast of the Club of Rome into an inevitable reality. Today the question is not about how to avoid it, but about how to survive it, mitigate it and slow it down. Negative consequences technogenesis in the first place. A technical civilization that destroys nature did not arise on its own, but within the framework of a culture with values ​​and ways to achieve them that orient humanity towards unlimited development. technical means exploitation of natural forces. The idea of ​​the practical limitlessness of these reserves and the right of a person to dispose of them uncontrollably was laid in the spiritual culture. Such a view is not only detrimental to nature. This is a secondary problem. The primary misfortune is anthropological, that is, the destruction of man in man, the "damage" of human essence, the choice of erroneous guidelines and values ​​by him.

In the second half of the XX century. there was an overlap in time of these two catastrophes. Sometimes one gets the impression that environmental disasters have befallen our country, Russia, with particular force. But isn't it really? Are we not the height of lack of culture, irresponsibility, the unfit organization of our political, moral and environmental education. But anyway ecological catastrophy, as well as the anthropological one that determined it, is global in nature. And they are generated by a number of fundamental mistakes of mankind in the choice of value orientations, or rather, a deviation from universal human values, which are moral imperatives inherent only in human nature. They are not chosen, they are. The problem is how adequately they are embodied in human culture, including in the culture of this or that nation.

Based on this approach to man, to society, to civilization, it is necessary to understand simple truth: a person will be able to protect nature only when he himself remains a person in the spiritual sense, a person not only reasonable, but also conscientious, since reason and conscience are the only dignity and property of Man, allowing him to know and evaluate what he "creates".

In the current state of ecological research, we cannot determine exactly where and when man took the decisive step in shaping the current situation. But the fact that it was people who played the main role here is beyond doubt. In historical terms, most likely, it was the era of the New Age, when science and production entered into a "marriage", combining theoretical and practical approaches to nature. The philosophical, ideological meaning of this approach was expressed by R. Descartes: scientific knowledge gives technical power over nature, and the goal of science is to restore the paradise abundance lost by man due to the fall. To do this, he needs to conquer nature, to master and dominate it. T. Hobbes continued this idea, arguing that a person is initially independent and absolute and enters into relationships with others (people and nature) only to satisfy selfish interests.

Thus, this is one way to search for the main cause that caused the modern ecological catastrophe.

But it is reasonable to look even deeper into the origins of the ecological crisis, because how people treat their environment depends on what they think about themselves. It is absolutely unambiguous that the earliest person spoke about himself and the world around him in religion, including the Christian one. If in the period of paganism with its deities a person treated nature with respect, then in the Christian period the attitude of people to nature becomes different. According to biblical history God, step by step, created the Earth and everything on it, including man, declaring to him that every natural creature has no other purpose than to serve the goals of man. So man, by the will of God, was blessed to exploit nature for his own purposes.

The Christian doctrine of creation, in a certain sense, opened psychological opportunity destroy nature with impunity. It is reasonable to believe that such a view could not but influence (in historical terms) the formation of modern environmental consciousness. In fairness, one cannot discount the alternative Christian approaches contained in Franciscanism and other interpretations of Christianity, which prohibit the utilitarian attitude of man to nature.

So, for all the problematic nature of the above, one cannot but agree that when analyzing the origins and causes of the ecological crisis, the subjective factors, norms and values ​​that caused this trouble, embedded in human consciousness, including Christian values, should be taken into account. And thus, in order to prevent further deepening of the ecological crisis and its negative consequences, not only material measures are needed, but also a reorientation of consciousness in its relation to nature, a whole system of environmental education is needed, which primarily carries moral values.

The demographic situation is also changing significantly on the planet. It is known that, along with nature, population acts as a material factor that determines the possibilities for the development of society. That is, being the basis and subject of social development, the demographic factor has an impact on all components of social development, although he himself is at the same time subject to their influence. There is no doubt that any historically defined economic structure, a certain social organization have their own laws of population growth and overpopulation. But in reality, these connections are not so unambiguous and straightforward. Based on the facts, one can agree with T.R. Malthus, who warned as far back as the 18th century that if people do not limit their sinful inclination, then in time they will plunge themselves into hell, predetermined for them by the forces of nature and society.

The facts are that today there is an absolute increase in the population. So, only by 1820 the population of the Earth reached 1 billion people. And then it took only 107 years for it to double (1927), and then 33 years for the next billion to be added, the fourth billion in 16 years, and the fifth in less than ten years. Thus, by the year 2000, according to the average version of the forecast, the population of the Earth will be approximately 7 billion people.

Today, on average, the Earth is growing by 83 million people per year, 12 thousand per hour. The average growth rate is 1.9% with a fluctuation step from -0.3% (natural decline) to +6% (biological maximum). Naturally, such growth rates could not but lead to a "population explosion". And despite the fact that this phenomenon is practically local, occurring in Asia, Africa and part of Latin America, with its consequences it has created a world global problem. Uncontrolled population growth here is undermining the resource base of the entire Earth, rapidly approaching the maximum allowable load on the natural environment.

The population growth caused by the "demographic explosion" is associated with serious economic problems and consequences, I would like to think that only for these countries themselves, since here there is an intensive increase not in "working hands", but first in "mouths". But this is hardly the case. It is known that if the population is growing at a rate of 1% per year, then "demographic investment" in the economy should be 4%, so that the rate of economic growth does not fall and the standard of living does not decrease in all respects. Naturally, with Western population growth rates, such investment "infusions" into the economy are beyond the power of either these countries themselves or developed countries that provide this or that support to developing countries. The consequence is hunger, the growth of poverty, both material and spiritual. But will the peoples of this region make claims against developed countries and demand compensation from them for their poverty? In the brilliant analysis of the "population explosion", given by Ch. Darwin - the grandson in the book "The Next Million Years", it is stated that there are facts of this kind. Consequently, the question posed is not idle, but one or another of its solutions will create additional problems for world civilization.

We cannot discount the possible political implications"population explosion" in developing countries for the whole world, which is already expressed today, for example, in the geopolitical claims of some of them.

However, it would not be correct to reduce the global demographic problem of modern civilization only to a "population explosion". Mankind cannot but be concerned about the minimum rate of natural population growth in developed countries, the effect of the causes that cause them, and the consequences that this process may "turn around" for them.

Russia also began to die out (by the way, no less threatening demographic processes in the countries former USSR, especially in Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltics). In our country, due to ongoing social cataclysms and social instability, since the beginning of the 1990s, the death rate has exceeded the birth rate by more than 1 million people a year. The age and sex structure of the country's population has been seriously changed. Life expectancy is falling. Today, according to this indicator, Russia is below many developing countries. No less dangerous are the socio-economic, moral (including family instability) problems and consequences caused by the current demographic situation.

But it is especially necessary to dwell on the medical and biological problems of modern mankind. They arose at the intersection of the demographic, ecological, economic, moral crises of modern society and are their generalizing result. This is not only about bodily health, which in a civilized society has always been one of the first places in the system of human values.

"A healthy mind in a healthy body" - the ancient Greeks said. And it is all the more alarming to hear the growing warnings of biologists, geneticists, physicians that we are facing the danger of the destruction of humanity as a species, the deformation of its bodily foundations. For example, the "achievements" of genetic engineering open up not only new horizons, but also ominous possibilities for getting out of control of "mutated genes" that can distort human evolutionary adaptations, the mass production of artificial mutant bastards. The danger of breaking the main genetic code as a result of ill-conceived interventions in its structure. The genetic burden of the human population is growing. A sharp weakening of the human immune apparatus under the influence of xenobiotics and numerous social and personal stresses is recorded everywhere.

There are real consequences of this phenomenon. AIDS. This misfortune that befell mankind is the first global pandemic in history that sows death. A number of researchers believe that this is not just a disease, but a certain stage in the biological existence of the human race, which is associated with the unbridled mass intrusion of people into the natural foundations of their own being. AIDS today is no longer a medical, but a truly universal problem.

Ocean chemical substances in which our everyday life, abrupt changes in politics and crises in the economy - all this affects nervous system, reproductive abilities and somatic manifestations of millions of people. There are signs of physical degeneration in a number of regions, an uncontrollable, truly epidemic spread of drug addiction, alcoholism with all their biological, social and moral consequences.

Finally, among global problems, a no less terrible threat is the crisis of human spirituality. Virtually all secular and religious, world and regional, ancient and new ideologies cannot today even provide any convincing answer to any question. actual problems era, nor to the eternal demands of the spirit.

Tossing about in the eternal search for truth, human thought in many cases turns out to be unable to embrace the present, to maturely evaluate the past, or to foresee the future with at least a minimum of accuracy. There are currently no reliable social theories and philosophical and anthropological concepts within which it would be possible to more or less definitely characterize our today and even more so tomorrow. Fear, anxiety, anxiety pervade all spheres of human existence.

There is no fresh outlook on the world. Two great ideas - socialist and scientific and technological, which came to the twentieth century from the nineteenth century, are currently experiencing a deep crisis.

At the beginning of the XX century. it was believed that, relying on these ideas, the people of the Earth would build not only a paradise, but also a fair, free, human-worthy society.

Both of these ideas are practically in ruins. Both of them collided with the boundaries set by the biospheric global possibilities of human existence. Noble was the long-standing primordial dream of people about a society of justice, equality, brotherhood and the satisfaction of all demands - material and spiritual. This is the idea of ​​communism. Alas, not to mention its ugly distortion by real practice, it is internally vulnerable, because the motto "to each according to his needs" cannot be based on the realities of life. The proof of this is a simple calculation. If the consumption standard of the population of the developing and former socialist countries (about five billion) is raised to the standard of living of the population of the developed capitalist countries (about one billion), then in 50 years the consumption of all resources must be doubled and energy production increased 500 times. Not forgetting at the same time that over these 50 years the population will increase at least 1.5 times. With existing technologies and consumer orientations, the planet's biosphere will not withstand this.

The same applies to technocratic optimism. Technique carries not only good, but also evil. Therefore, these ideas are now in such a state that it is difficult, and sometimes even dangerous, to rely on them. The socialist idea raised social justice to the shield, the technocratic idea raised economic efficiency. Their association did not take place. But our 20th century did not give birth to new unifying ideas either. It seems that we will not sin against the truth, saying that humanity is now in an ideological vacuum. This applies both to philosophical socialist ideas and to the religions of the most different levels and shades that did not go beyond the call "to the other world."

These are the threats to humanity. These are the problems. They are global. They are real. They are tragic. But there is also hope for their solution. One can agree with A.I. Solzhenitsyn that the world has now come, if not to death, then to a turn in history, in significance equal to the turn from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. And it will require new deeds and a new person, thinking in a new way, creating in a new way.

Even today, one can point to some certain hopes, prerequisites for overcoming global crisis collisions that will help to ward off the universal threat from humanity.

First- deployment of the information revolution. It can create an objective substantive basis that will make it possible to avert the thermonuclear and environmental threat hanging over humanity.

Second - approval as the dominant type of world economy of a mixed market and socially protected economy with elements of a convergent type. This form of economic relations will contribute to linking the interests of different economic entities, finding a balance between economic efficiency and social justice.

Third- the formation of the principle of non-violence and democratic consent in all types of social and personal relations. It is necessary to debunk the opinion, which has been established since ancient times in the minds of people, that "violence is an organic way of mutual communication for people" (Nietzsche), that "aggressiveness is an irremovable moment human behavior"(Freud). The ideal of non-violence, which was talked about by many, from Jesus Christ to V. Lenin, can cease to be only an alluring distant goal, an ideal, and turn into a defining regulator of human relations.

Fourth- unifying (ecumenical) processes of spiritual life in both secular and religious versions. Tolerance (tolerance), rejection of spiritual confrontation illuminated by ideology. Pluralism of opinions. This is a reasonable recognition that the world is multidimensional, diverse and cannot and should not be otherwise. And we all need to live in this world, and the elimination of intolerance, xenophobia, patronizing messianism is one of the main conditions for the life of present and future humanity.

Fifth - it is a steadily ongoing interethnic and intercultural integration while maintaining the autonomy and uniqueness of each ethnic group and each culture. The universalization of culture and the preservation of originality, originality, the interpenetration of cultures and the borrowing of "finds of peoples from each other."

sixth- a breakthrough in the field of intelligent search. The transition of the human intellect from "a state of mental satisfaction to a state of puzzlement, surprise", which implies the interpenetration of traditional, dating back to Heraclitus and Hegel, dialectical ways of thinking with the concepts of modern formal-logical mathematic systems. Natural intelligence, coupled with "artificial", the addition of creative possibilities human brain creative possibilities of computer systems.

It is worth noting that now there is an acute issue of finding acceptable contacts between the rational and non-rational, scientific and technical, aesthetic and mystical in the development of reality.

2. The spiritual world of the individual. Worldview.

3. Do you agree with the statement of the French writer F. R. Chateaubriand: “As is almost always the case in politics, the result is the opposite nyu"? Justify your answer. How to explain thatthe result does not always coincide with the intended goal?

1. global problems - it's a collectionproblems affecting the vital interests of all mankind and requiring for their resolutionconcerted action by the entire world community.

The most important global problem is preovercoming the ecological crisis and its aftermathstviya. In the course of his economic activity, for a long time, man occupied the position of a consumer in relation to nature, exploited it mercilessly, believing that natural resources are inexhaustible.

One of the negative results of human activity has become depletion of natural resources, primarily energy. Mankind is also concerned about the problem of ensuring the safety of nuclear power plants. As for other common energy sources - oil, gas, peat, coal - the danger of their depletion in the very near future is very high. Therefore, humanity, apparently, should heed the opinion that it needs voluntary self-restraint both in the production and consumption of energy.

The second aspect of this problem is behindenvironmental pollution(atmosphere, water, soil, etc.) - Powerful accumulations of harmful substances lead to the appearance of so-called ozone holes, which has Negative influence on the health of the world's population and leads to global warming.

There is a problem of general degradation of the environment. Humanity can solve it only together. In 1982 The UN adopted a document - the World Charter for Conservation of Nature, and then created a special commission on environment and development. In addition to the UN, non-governmental organizations such as Greenpeace, the Club of Rome, etc. play an important role in developing and ensuring the environmental safety of mankind.

Another global problem is the growth of the world's population. (demographic problem). It is associated with a continuous increase in the number of people living on the territory of the planet. This problem is generated by two global demographic processes: the so-called population explosion in developing countries and underreproduction of the population in developed countries. However, it is obvious that the Earth's resources (primarily food) are limited, and today a number of developing countries have had to face the problem of birth control. The demographic problem should be solved now, because our planet is not able to provide such a number of people with the food necessary for survival.

The demographic problem is closely intertwined with the problem reducing the gap in the level of ecoeconomic development between the developed countries of the West and the developing countries of the "third world" (the so-called "North-South" problem). The essence of this problem lies in the fact that most of those who were released in the second half of the 20th century. from the colonial dependence of countries, embarking on the path of catching up economic development, they could not, despite relative success, overcome the gap with developed countries in terms of basic economic indicators (primarily in terms of GDP per capita).

Another global issue that has long been considered the most important is problemprevention of a new - tpretpyey - mirdvawar. To date, the likelihood of conflict between the leading powers of the world is much less than before. However, there is a possibility of getting nuclear weapons into the hands of authoritarian regimes or into the hands of international terrorist organizations. There is a great danger of individual local conflicts escalating into regional and even international ones (with the possible use of nuclear weapons by one side).

The Threat of Global Terrorism has become a global problem of our time relatively recently. Terror (lat. toggog - horror, fear) - the use of violence, including the physical destruction of people, to achieve any political goals. Violent actions should instill a sense of fear in people. Terrorism is one of the extreme forms of political extremism. An integral property of terrorism is the systematic use of violence, used with appropriate socio-political and ideological justification.

Global problems include the looming AIDS epidemic And developdrug addiction, disease, alcoholism, tobacco smoking, as well as diseases - cancer, cardiovascular diseases.

All global problems are united by a number of common problems. signs:

1) they arose in the second half of the 20th century. and are a consequence of the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution;

2) global problems pose a threat to the existence of mankind as a whole;

3) they are all interconnected - it is impossible to solve each of them separately;

4) the presence of global problems is an indicator of the unity and integrity of the modern world;

5) their solution requires the unification of the efforts of all mankind, encourages the search for mutual understanding and harmonization of the interests of various countries and peoples, contributes to the formation of a single civilization.

2. Spiritual world of personality (human microcosm) is a holistic and at the same time contradictory phenomenon, which is a complex system.

Herelements are:

1) spiritual needs in the knowledge of the surrounding world, in self-expression by means of culture, art, other forms of activity, in the use of cultural achievements, etc.;

2) knowledge about nature, society, man, himself;

3) beliefs, firm views based on a worldview and defining human activity in all its manifestations and spheres;

4) belief in the truth of those beliefs that a person shares (i.e., unsubstantiated recognition of the correctness of some position);

5) the ability to one or another form of social activity;

6) feelings and emotions in which the relationship of a person to nature and society is expressed;

7) goals that a person consciously sets for himself, ideally anticipating the results of his activity;

8) the values ​​that underlie a person's attitude to the world and himself, giving meaning to his activities, reflecting his ideals.

Values are the object of a person's aspirations, are the most important moment of the meaning of his life. Distinguish social values ​​- public ideals that act as a standard of due in various spheres of public life, and personal values ​​are the ideals of an individual, serving as one of the sources of motivation for her behavior.

An important element spiritual world man is his outlook, which is understood as a set of generalized views on objective reality and a person's place in it, on the attitude of people to the surrounding reality and to themselves, as well as the beliefs, principles, ideas and ideals conditioned by these views.

There are several types of worldview:

1) everyday (or everyday), which is based on personal experience and is formed under the influence of life circumstances;

2) religious, which is based on religious views, ideas and beliefs of a person;

3) scientific, which is based on the achievements of modern science and reflects the scientific picture of the world, the results of modern scientific knowledge;

4) humanistic (it is spoken of more as a goal than as a reality), which combines the best aspects of the scientific worldview with ideas about social justice, environmental safety and moral ideal.

3 . One can agree with the statement of F. R. Chateaubriand. Politics, by its very nature, is a goal-setting activity. This means that it arises and is carried out for the sake of certain goals. The goal, means and result are the main components of political and any other activity. Purpose is an ideal result worked out by human thinking, for the sake of which activity is carried out and which serves as its internal motive. In political activity, it performs organizing and motivational functions. Facilities politicians are tools, tools for the practical implementation of goals, for turning ideal motives into real actions.

The question of the influence of ends and means on the results and moral evaluation of politics has long been a subject of controversy.

Among the various views onThis account can be divided into three main ones:

1) the moral character of the policy is determined by its purpose;

2) the means used have a priority influence on the moral significance of the policy;

3) both the end and the means are equally important for making the policy humane, and they must be commensurate with each other and with the specific situation.

The history of Russia is connected with many Russian sea expeditions of the 18th–20th centuries. But a special place among them is occupied by round-the-world voyages of sailing ships. Russian sailors later than other European maritime powers began to make such voyages. By the time the first Russian circumnavigation of the world was organized, four European countries had already made 15 such voyages, starting with F. Magellan (1519–1522) and ending with the third voyage of J. Cook. Most of the round-the-world voyages on account of English sailors - eight, including three - under the command of Cook. Five voyages were made by the Dutch, one each by the Spaniards and the French. Russia became the fifth country in this list, but in terms of the number of round-the-world voyages, it surpassed all European countries combined. In the 19th century Russians sailing ships made more than 30 complete circumnavigations and about 15 semi-circumnavigations, when the ships that arrived from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean remained to serve in the Far East and Russian America.

Failed expeditions

Golovin and Sanders (1733)

On the possibility and necessity long-distance voyages for the first time in Russia, Peter I thought. He intended to organize an expedition to Madagascar and India, but did not have time to carry out his plan. The idea of ​​a round-the-world voyage with a call to Kamchatka was first expressed by the flagships of the Russian fleet, members of the Admiralty Board, Admirals N. F. Golovin and T. Sanders in connection with the organization of the Second Kamchatka Expedition. In October 1732, they submitted to the Senate their opinion on the expediency of sending an expedition "from St. Petersburg on two frigates through the Great Sea-Okiyan around the Gorn cap and into the Western Sea, and between the Japanese islands even to Kamchatka."

They proposed to repeat such expeditions annually, replacing some ships with others. This was supposed to allow, in their opinion, in a shorter time and better organize the supply of V. Bering's expedition with everything necessary, and quickly establish trade relations with Japan. In addition, a long voyage could become a good sea practice for officers and sailors. Russian fleet. Golovin suggested that Bering himself be sent to Kamchatka by land, and he asked to entrust the navigation of two frigates to him. However, the ideas of Golovin and Sanders were not supported by the Senate and the opportunity to organize the first Russian voyage in 1733 was missed.

Krenitsyn (1764)

In 1764, it was decided to send around the world to Kamchatka an expedition of Lieutenant Commander P. K. Krenitsyn, but because of the impending war with Turkey, it was not possible to carry it out. The voyage, which I. G. Chernyshev, vice-president of the Admiralty Board, tried to equip in 1781, also did not take place. In 1786, the head of the "North-Eastern ... Expedition", Lieutenant Commander I. I. Billings (participant in Cook's third voyage) presented to the Admiralty College the opinion of his officers that, at the end of the expedition, the return route of her ships would lie around Cape Good Hopes in Kronstadt. He was also denied.

But on December 22 of the same 1786, Catherine II signed a decree of the Admiralty Board on sending a squadron to Kamchatka to protect Russian possessions: ours to the lands discovered by Russian navigators, we order our Admiralty Board to send from the Baltic Sea two ships armed according to the example used by Captain English Cook and other navigators for similar discoveries, and two armed boats, sea or other ships, at her best discretion, appointing them go around the Cape of Good Hope, and from there, continuing the path through the Sonda Strait and, leaving Japan on the left side, go to Kamchatka.

The Admiralty Board was instructed to immediately prepare the proper instructions for the expedition, appoint a commander and servants, preferably from volunteers, make orders for arming, supplying and dispatching ships. Such a rush was associated with a report to Catherine by her secretary of state, Major General F. I. Soymonov, about the violation of the inviolability of Russian waters by foreigners. The reason for the report was the entry into the Peter and Paul Harbor in the summer of 1786 of a ship of the English East India Company under the command of Captain William Peters in order to establish trade relations. This was not the first time that foreigners appeared in Russian possessions in the Pacific Ocean, which caused the authorities to worry about their fate.

As early as March 26, 1773, Prosecutor General Vyazemsky, in a letter to the Kamchatka commandant, admitted the possibility of a French squadron appearing off the coast of Kamchatka in connection with the case of M. Benevsky. In St. Petersburg, news was received that a flotilla and 1,500 soldiers were being equipped in France for Benevsky. It was about equipping Benevsky's colonial expedition to Madagascar, in which twelve Kamchatka residents who fled with Benevsky also took part. But in Petersburg they suspected that, since Benevsky knew well the disastrous state of the defense of Kamchatka and the way there, this expedition could go to the peninsula.

In 1779 Irkutsk governor reported the appearance of unrecognized foreign ships in the area of ​​the Chukchi nose. These were Cook's ships, heading from Petropavlovsk in search of a northwestern passage around America. The governor proposed to bring Kamchatka into a "defensive position", since the way to it became known to foreigners. The arrival of Cook's ships in the Peter and Paul Harbor in 1779 could not but alarm the Russian government, especially after it became known that the British put on their maps the American coasts and islands long discovered by Russian navigators and gave them their names. In addition, in St. Petersburg it became known that in 1786 the French expedition of J. F. La Perouse was sent on a round-the-world voyage. But it was still unknown about the expedition in the same year of Tokunai Mogami to the southern Kurile Islands who, after collecting there yasaka Yves. Cherny in 1768 and the Lebedev-Lastochnik expedition in 1778-1779, Russia considered its own.

All this forced Catherine II to order the President of the College of Commerce, Count A. R. Vorontsov, and a member of the College of Foreign Affairs, Count A. A. Bezborodko, to submit their proposals on the issue of protecting Russian possessions in the Pacific Ocean. It was they who proposed sending a Russian squadron on a round-the-world voyage and declaring to the sea powers about the rights of Russia to the islands and lands discovered by Russian sailors in the Pacific Ocean.

Mulovsky (1787)

The proposals of Vorontsov and Bezborodko formed the basis of the above-mentioned decree of Catherine II of December 22, 1786, as well as the instructions of the Admiralty Board to the head of the first round-the-world expedition of April 17, 1787.

After discussing various candidates, 29-year-old Captain 1st Rank Grigory Ivanovich Mulovsky, a relative of the vice-president of the Admiralty College I. G. Chernyshev, was appointed head of the expedition. After graduating from the Naval Cadet Corps in 1774, he served for twelve years on various ships in the Mediterranean, Black and Baltic Seas, commanded the frigates Nikolai and Maria in the Baltic, and then a court boat that sailed between Peterhof and Krasnaya Gorka. He knew French, German, English and Italian. After a campaign with Sukhotin's squadron in Livorno, Mulovsky received the command of the David of Sasunsky ship in the Chichagov squadron in the Mediterranean Sea, and at the end of the campaign he was appointed commander of the John the Theologian in Cruz's squadron in the Baltic.

The list of tasks of the expedition included various goals: military (fixing Russia and protecting its possessions in the Pacific Ocean, delivering fortress guns for the Peter and Paul Harbor and other ports, founding a Russian fortress in the southern Kuriles, etc.), economic (delivery of necessary goods to Russian possessions, livestock for breeding, seeds of various vegetable crops, trading with Japan and other neighboring countries), political (assertion of Russian rights to lands discovered by Russian sailors in the Pacific Ocean, by installing cast-iron coats of arms and medals depicting the Empress, etc.) , scientific (drawing up the most accurate maps, conducting various scientific studies, studying Sakhalin, the mouth of the Amur and other objects).

If this expedition were destined to take place, then now there would not be a question about the ownership of the southern Kuriles, seventy years earlier Russia could have begun the development of the Amur region, Primorye and Sakhalin, otherwise the fate of Russian America could have been formed. There were no round-the-world voyages on such a scale either before or since. At Magellan, five ships and 265 people participated in the expedition, of which only one ship with 18 sailors returned. Cook's third voyage had two ships and 182 crew members.

The squadron of G. I. Mulovsky included five ships: Kholmogor (Kolmagor) with a displacement of 600 tons, Solovki - 530 tons, Sokol and Turukhan (Turukhtan) - 450 tons each, and transport ship "Courageous". Cook's ships were much smaller: Resolution - 446 tons and 112 crew members and Discovery - 350 tons and 70 people. The crew of the flagship ship "Kholmogor" under the command of Mulovsky himself consisted of 169 people, "Solovkov" under the command of Captain 2nd Rank Alexei Mikhailovich Kireevsky - 154 people, "Falcon" and "Turukhan" under the command of lieutenant commanders Efim (Joachim) Karlovich von Sievers and Dmitry Sergeevich Trubetskoy - 111 people each.

The Admiralty Board promised the officers (there were about forty) extraordinary promotion to the next rank and a double salary for the duration of the voyage. Catherine II personally determined the procedure for rewarding Captain Mulovsky: “when he passes the Canary Islands, let him declare himself the rank of brigadier; having reached the Cape of Good Hope, to entrust him with the Order of St. Vladimir 3rd class; when it reaches Japan, he will already receive the rank of major general.

An infirmary for forty beds with a learned doctor was equipped on the flagship ship, and assistant doctors were assigned to other ships. A priest was also appointed with a clergy to the flagship and hieromonks to other ships.

The scientific part of the expedition was entrusted to Academician Peter Simon Pallas, promoted on December 31, 1786 to the rank of historiographer of the Russian fleet with a salary of 750 rubles. in year. To "keep a detailed travel journal with a clean calm" was invited secretary Stepanov, who studied at the Moscow and English Universities. The scientific detachment of the expedition also included astronomer William Bailey, a member of Cook's voyage, naturalist Georg Forster, botanist Sommering and four painters. In England, it was planned to purchase astronomical and physical instruments: Godley's sextants, Arnold's chronometers, quadrants, telescopes, thermo- and barometers, for which Pallas entered into correspondence with the Greenwich astronomer Meskelin.

The library of the flagship included over fifty titles, among which were: “Description of the land of Kamchatka” by S. P. Krasheninnikov, “ General history travel" Prevost Laharpe in twenty-three parts, the works of Engel and Dugald, extracts and copies of all journals of Russian voyages in the Eastern Ocean from 1724 to 1779, atlases and maps, including the "General Map, which presents convenient ways to increase Russian trade and navigation in the Pacific and Southern Oceans, composed by Soymonov.

The expedition was prepared very carefully. A month after the decree, on April 17, the crews of the ships were assembled, all the officers moved to Kronstadt. The ships were raised on the stocks, work on them was in full swing until dark. Food was delivered to the ships: cabbage, 200 pounds for each salted sorrel, 20 pounds for dried horseradish, 25 pounds for onions and garlic. From Arkhangelsk, 600 pounds of cloudberries were delivered by special order, 30 barrels of sugar syrup, more than 1000 buckets of sbitnya, 888 buckets of double beer, etc. were prepared. It was decided to buy meat, butter, vinegar, cheese in England. In addition to double uniform ammunition, the lower ranks and servants relied on twelve shirts and ten pairs of stockings (eight wool and two thread).

“To approve the Russian right to everything hitherto committed by Russian navigators, or newly made discoveries,” 200 cast-iron coats of arms were made, which were ordered to be strengthened on large pillars or “along the cliffs, hollowing out a nest”, 1700 gold, silver and cast-iron medals with inscriptions in Russian and Latin, which should have been buried in "decent places".

The expedition was well armed: 90 cannons, 197 jaegers, 61 hunting rifles, 24 fittings, 61 blunderbuss, 61 pistols and 40 officers' swords. It was allowed to use weapons only to protect Russian rights, but not to the natives of the newly acquired lands: “... there should be a first effort to sow in them a good idea about the Russians ... It is highly forbidden for you to use not only violence, but even for any parties to brutal acts of vengeance".

But with regard to foreign aliens, it was instructed to force them “by right, before the discoveries made to the Russian state, belonging to the places, to leave as soon as possible and henceforth neither about settlements, nor about trading, nor about navigation; and if there are any fortifications or settlements, then you have the right to destroy, and to tear down and destroy signs and emblems. You should do the same with the ships of these aliens, in those waters, harbors or on the islands you will meet those who are able for similar attempts, forcing them to leave from there for the same reason. In the case of resistance, or, rather, strengthening, by using the force of arms, since your ships are so well armed to this end.

On October 4, 1787, the ships of the Mulovsky expedition, in full readiness for sailing, stretched out on the Kronstadt roadstead. The Russian minister-ambassador in England had already ordered pilots, who were waiting for the squadron in Copenhagen to escort it to Portsmouth.

But an urgent dispatch from Constantinople about the beginning of the war with Turkey crossed out all plans and works. The highest command followed: “The expedition being prepared for a long journey under the command of Captain Mulovsky’s fleet, under the present circumstances, should be postponed, and both officers, sailors and other people assigned to this squadron, as well as ships and various supplies prepared for it, should be turned into the number of that part fleet of ours, which, according to our decree of the 20th of this month, the Admiralty Board given, should be sent to the Mediterranean Sea.

But Mulovsky did not go to the Mediterranean either: the war with Sweden began, and he was appointed commander of the Mstislav frigate, where the young midshipman Ivan Kruzenshtern served under his command, who was destined to lead the first Russian circumnavigation in fifteen years. Mulovsky distinguished himself in the famous Battle of Gogland, for which on April 14, 1789 he was promoted to captain of the brigadier rank. The same rank during Russian-Swedish war received Kireevsky and Trubetskoy. Three months later, on July 18, 1789, Mulovsky died in a battle near the island of Eland. His death and the outbreak of the French Revolution dramatically changed the situation. About the resumption circumnavigation was forgotten for a decade.

The first Russian circumnavigation of the world under the command of Ivan Fedorovich (Adam-Johann-Friedrich) Krusenstern (1803–1806)

The organization of the first, finally held, Russian circumnavigation is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorovich (Adam-Johann-Friedrich) Krusenstern. In 1788, when "due to a lack of officers" it was decided to release midshipmen ahead of schedule Marine Corps, who at least once went to sea, Kruzenshtern and his friend Yuri Lisyansky ended up serving in the Baltic. Taking advantage of the fact that Kruzenshtern served on the Mstislav frigate under the command of G. I. Mulovsky, they turned to him with a request to allow them to take part in a round-the-world voyage after the end of the war and received consent. After the death of Mulovsky, they began to forget about swimming, but Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky continued to dream about it. As part of a group of Russians naval officers they were sent to England in 1793 to get acquainted with the experience of foreign fleets and gain practical skills in sailing across the expanses of the ocean. Krusenshern spent about a year in India, sailed to Canton, lived for six months in Macau, where he got acquainted with the state of trade in the basin Pacific Ocean. He drew attention to the fact that foreigners brought furs to Canton by sea, while Russian furs were delivered by land.

During the absence of Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky in Russia in 1797, the American United Company arose, in 1799 it was renamed the Russian-American Company (RAC). The imperial family was also a shareholder of RAK. Therefore, the company received a monopoly right to exploit the wealth of Russian possessions on the Pacific coast, trade with neighboring countries, build fortifications, maintain military forces, and build a fleet. The government entrusted her with the task of further expanding and strengthening Russian possessions in the Pacific. But the main problem of the RAC was the difficulty in delivering cargo and goods to Kamchatka and Russian America. The overland route through Siberia took up to two years and was costly. Cargoes often arrived spoiled, products were fabulously expensive, and equipment for ships (ropes, anchors, etc.) had to be divided into parts, and spliced ​​and joined on the spot. Valuable furs mined in the Aleutian Islands often ended up in St. Petersburg spoiled and sold at a loss. Trade with China, where there was a great demand for furs, went through Kyakhta, where furs got from Russian America through Petropavlovsk, Okhotsk, Yakutsk. In terms of quality, the furs brought to the Asian markets in this way were inferior to the furs delivered to Canton and Macau by American and British ships in an immeasurably shorter time.

Upon his return to Russia, Kruzenshtern submitted two memorandums to Paul I justifying the need to organize round-the-world voyages. Kruzenshtern also proposed a new procedure for training maritime personnel for merchant ships. To the six hundred cadets of the Naval Corps, he proposed to add another hundred people from other classes, mainly from ship's cabin boys, who would study together with noble cadets, but would be assigned to serve on commercial ships. The project was not accepted.

With the coming to power of Alexander I in 1801, the leadership of the College of Commerce and the Naval Ministry (the former Admiralty College) changed. On January 1, 1802, Kruzenshtern sent a letter to N. S. Mordvinov, vice-president of the Admiralty College. In it, he proposed his plan for circumnavigating the world. Kruzenshtern showed measures to improve the position of Russian trade on the international market, protect Russian possessions in North America, and provide them and the Russian Far East with everything necessary. Much attention in this letter is paid to the need to improve the situation of the inhabitants of Kamchatka. Kruzenshtern's letter was also sent to the Minister of Commerce and the Director of Water Communications and the Commission for the Construction of Roads in Russia, Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev. The head of the RAC, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov, also became interested in the project. Rezanov's petition was supported by Mordvinov and Rumyantsev.

In July 1802, it was decided to send two ships around the world. The official goal of the expedition was to deliver the Russian embassy to Japan, headed by N.P. Rezanov. The costs of organizing this voyage were covered jointly by the RAC and the government. On August 7, 1802, I.F. Kruzenshtern was appointed head of the expedition. Its main tasks were defined: delivery of the first Russian embassy to Japan; delivery of provisions and equipment to Petropavlovsk and Novo-Arkhangelsk; geographical surveys along the route; inventory of Sakhalin, the estuary and the mouth of the Amur.

I. F. Kruzenshtern believed that a successful voyage would raise Russia's prestige in the world. But new head Naval Ministry P. V. Chichagov did not believe in the success of the expedition and offered to sail on foreign ships with hired foreign sailors. He ensured that the ships of the expedition were bought in England, and not built at Russian shipyards, as suggested by Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky. To purchase ships, Lisyansky was sent to England, he bought two sloops with a displacement of 450 and 370 tons for 17 thousand pounds and spent another 5 thousand on their repair. In June 1803 the ships arrived in Russia.

departure

And then came the historic moment. On July 26, 1803, the sloop “Nadezhda” and “Neva” left Kronstadt under the general leadership of I.F. Krusenshern. They had to go around South America and reach the Hawaiian Islands. Then their paths diverged for a while. The task of "Nadezhda" under the command of Kruzenshtern included the delivery of goods to the Peter and Paul Harbor and then sending the mission of N.P. Rezanov to Japan, as well as the exploration of Sakhalin. The Neva, under the leadership of Yu. F. Lisyansky, was supposed to go with cargo to Russian America. The arrival of a warship here was to demonstrate the determination of the Russian government to protect the acquisitions of many generations of its sailors, merchants and industrialists. Then both ships were to be loaded with furs and set off for Canton, from where they, after passing the Indian Ocean and rounding Africa, were to return to Kronstadt and complete their circumnavigation there. This plan has been fully implemented.

Crews

The commanders of both ships put a lot of effort into turning a long voyage into a school for officers and sailors. Among the officers of Nadezhda there were many experienced sailors who later glorified the Russian fleet: the future admirals Makar Ivanovich Ratmanov and the discoverer of Antarctica Faddey Faddeevich Belingshausen, the future leader of two round-the-world voyages (1815-1818 and 1823-1826) Otto Evstafievich Kotzebue and his brother Moritz Kotzebue, Fyodor Romberg, Pyotr Golovachev, Ermolai Levenshtern, Philip Kamenshchikov, Vasily Spolokhov, artillery officer Alexei Raevsky and others. In addition to them, the crew of the Nadezhda included Dr. Karl Espenberg, his assistant Ivan Sidgam, astronomer I.K. Horner, naturalists Wilhelm Tilesius von Tilenau, Georg Langsdorf. Major Yermolai Fredericy, Count Fyodor Tolstoy, court adviser Fyodor Fos, painter Stepan Kurlyandtsev, physician and botanist Brinkin were present in the retinue of chamberlain N.P. Rezanov.

On the Neva were officers Pavel Arbuzov, Pyotr Povalishin, Fedor Kovedyaev, Vasily Berkh (later a historian of the Russian fleet), Danilo Kalinin, Fedul Maltsev, Dr. Moritz Libend, his assistant Alexei Mutovkin, RAC clerk Nikolai Korobitsyn and others. In total, 129 people participated in the voyage. Kruzenshtern, who sailed for six years on English ships, notes: “I was advised to accept several foreign sailors, but, knowing the predominant properties of Russian ones, whom I even prefer to English ones, I did not agree to follow this advice.”

Academician Kruzenshtern

Shortly before leaving, on April 25, 1803, Krusenstern was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. Prominent scientists of the Academy took part in the development of instructions for various branches of scientific research. The ships were equipped with the best nautical instruments and aids for those times, as well as the latest scientific instruments.

"Hope" in Kamchatka...

Rounding Cape Horn, the ships parted. After conducting research in the Pacific Ocean, the Nadezhda arrived in Petropavlovsk on July 3, 1804, and the Neva arrived on July 1 in Pavlovsk Harbor on Kodiak Island.

The stay in Petropavlovsk was delayed: they were waiting for the head of Kamchatka, Major General P.I. Koshelev, who was in Nizhnekamchatsk. The Petropavlovsk commandant, Major Krupsky, provided the crew with all possible assistance. “The ship was equipped immediately, and everything was taken to the shore, from which we stood no further than fifty fathoms. Everything belonging to the ship's equipment, after such a long voyage, required either correction or change. Supplies and goods loaded in Kronstadt for Kamchatka were also unloaded,” writes Kruzenshtern. Finally, General Koshelev arrived from Nizhnekamchatsk with his adjutant, younger brother Lieutenant Koshelev, Captain Fedorov and sixty soldiers. In Petropavlovsk, there were changes in the composition of the embassy of N.P. Rezanov to Japan. Lieutenant Tolstoy, Dr. Brinkin and the painter Kurlyandtsev went to Petersburg by land. The embassy included the captain of the Kamchatka garrison battalion Fedorov, lieutenant Koshelev and eight soldiers. In Kamchatka, the Japanese Kiselev, the interpreter (translator) of the embassy, ​​and the “wild Frenchman” Joseph Kabrit, whom the Russians found on the island of Nukagiva in the Pacific Ocean, remained in Kamchatka.

…And in Japan

After repairs and replenishment of supplies, on August 27, 1804, Nadezhda set off with the embassy of N.P. Rezanov to Japan, where she stood in the port of Nagasaki for more than six months. April 5, 1805 "Hope" left Nagasaki. On the way to Kamchatka, she described the southern and eastern coasts of Sakhalin. On May 23, 1805, the Nadezhda again arrived in Petropavlovsk, where N.P. Rezanov and his retinue left the ship and on the RAC ship St. Maria" went to Russian America on Kodiak Island. The results of Rezanov's voyage to Japan were reported by the head of Kamchatka, P.I. Koshelev, to the Siberian governor Selifontov.

From June 23 to August 19, Kruzenshtern sailed in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, off the coast of Sakhalin, in the Sakhalin Bay, where he carried out hydrographic work and, in particular, studied the estuary of the Amur River - he was engaged in solving the "Amur issue". September 23, 1805 "Nadezhda" finally left Kamchatka and with a cargo of furs went to Macau, where she was supposed to meet with the "Neva" and, loaded with tea, return to Kronstadt. They left Macau on January 30, 1806, but the ships parted at the Cape of Good Hope. The Neva arrived in Kronstadt on July 22, and the Nadezhda arrived on August 7, 1806. Thus ended the first round-the-world voyage of Russian sailors.

Geographic discoveries (and misconceptions)

It was marked by significant scientific results. Both ships carried out continuous meteorological and oceanological observations. Krusenstern described: the southern shores of the Nukagiva and Kyushu islands, the Van Diemen Strait, the islands of Tsushima, Goto and a number of others adjacent to Japan, the northwestern shores of the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido, as well as the entrance to the Sangar Strait. Sakhalin was put on the map almost along its entire length. But Kruzenshtern failed to complete his research in the Amur estuary, and he made an incorrect conclusion about the peninsular position of Sakhalin, extending the erroneous conclusion of La Perouse and Broughton for forty-four years. Only in 1849, G. I. Nevelskoy established that Sakhalin is an island.

Conclusion

Krusenstern left an excellent description of his voyage, the first part of which was published in 1809, and the second in 1810. Soon it was reprinted in England, France, Italy, Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The description of the trip was accompanied by an atlas of maps and drawings, among which were the "Map of the North-Western Part of the Great Ocean" and "Map of the Kuril Islands". They were a significant contribution to the study of the geography of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Among the drawings made by Tilesius and Horner, there are views of the Peter and Paul harbor, Nagasaki and other places.

At the end of the voyage, Kruzenshtern received many honors and awards. So, in honor of the first Russian circumnavigation, a medal with his image was knocked out. In 1805 Krusenstern was awarded the order St. Anna and St. Vladimir of the third degree, received the rank of captain of the 2nd rank and a pension of 3,000 rubles a year. Until 1811, Krusenshern was engaged in the preparation and publication of a description of his journey, reports and calculations on the expedition. Officially, he was in 1807-1809. was listed at the Petersburg port. In 1808 he became an honorary member of the Admiralty Department, on March 1, 1809 he was promoted to captain of the 1st rank and appointed commander of the ship "Blagodat" in Kronstadt.

Since 1811, Kruzenshtern began his service in the Naval Cadet Corps as a class inspector. Here he served intermittently until 1841, becoming its director. On February 14, 1819, he was promoted to captain-commander, in 1823 he was appointed a permanent member of the Admiralty Department, and on August 9, 1824, he became a member of the Main Board of Schools. On January 8, 1826, with the rank of Rear Admiral Kruzenshtern, he was appointed assistant director of the Naval Cadet Corps, and from October 14 of the same year he became its director and held this post for fifteen years. He founded a library and a museum, created officer classes for the further education of the most capable midshipmen who graduated with honors from the corps (later these classes were transformed into the Naval Academy). In 1827 he became an indispensable member of the Scientific Committee of the Naval Staff and a member of the Admiralty Council, in 1829 he was promoted to vice admiral, and in 1841 he became a full admiral.

Through the mountains to the sea with a light backpack. Route 30 passes through the famous Fisht - this is one of the most grandiose and significant natural monuments in Russia, the closest to Moscow high mountains. Tourists travel lightly through all the landscape and climatic zones of the country from the foothills to the subtropics, spending the night in shelters.

There is no such density of tourist facilities as in the Bakhchisarai region anywhere in the world! Mountains and the sea, rare landscapes and cave cities, lakes and waterfalls, secrets of nature and mysteries of history. Discoveries and the spirit of adventure... Mountain tourism here is not complicated at all, but any trail pleases with clean springs and lakes.

Adygea, Crimea. Mountains, waterfalls, herbs of alpine meadows, healing mountain air, absolute silence, snowfields in the middle of summer, the murmur of mountain streams and rivers, stunning landscapes, songs around the fires, the spirit of romance and adventure, the wind of freedom are waiting for you! And at the end of the route, the gentle waves of the Black Sea.