General characteristics of Mongolia. Complete description of Mongolia. Hike to Europe

The territory of Mongolia is a huge plateau, which is elevated above sea level. Mountains with a height of 1500-3000 m occupy at least 40% of the area of ​​the country from the area of ​​the whole country, and its high-mountainous sections with a height of more than 3000 m - about 2.5-3%. Mongolia ranks 17th in the world in terms of its territory.

An interesting fact: Mongolia is the smallest country in terms of population density, its density is approximately 1.7 people / sq. km. And the total population reaches about 3 million people.

Mongolia is a country where you can travel hundreds of kilometers and not meet a single person. In a number of areas, such as deserts and highlands, the population density reaches minimum threshold-- from 0.01 to 1%.

In his great history The ethnic groups of Mongolia have gone through a great many different periods of development. As a result, with the formation of a single, cohesive Mongolian people, the Greatest Mongolian state appeared. It was a great world empire, which to this day has no equal. Arin V.D. Russia and Mongolia at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: economics, diplomacy, culture / V.D. Arin.--Irkutsk, BSUEP, 2013.--402 p.

In Mongolia, there is the world's tallest statue of a rider on a horse, which is an hour's drive from the capital. The Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar is the coldest capital in the whole world.

25% of all snow leopards living on our planet permanently live in Mongolia.

Mongolia country with ancient history, and is fraught with many mysteries from the past.

An interesting find was announced in Mongolia. A Scythian warrior was found. It was discovered in the Altai Territory at an altitude of 2.6 kilometers. And the most interesting thing is that it was completely undamaged in the burial mound. Obviously he was a wealthy man, for he was covered in beaver and sable fur, and he also wore a sheepskin. The body of the warrior was covered with many tattoos.

And the main feature of this find was the warrior's hair, he was blond. True, some scientists say that the hair could have become this color even after his death.

Near the grave, 2 horses were found, on which were richly decorated bridles and saddles, as well as weapons, a vessel made of clay and animal horns. They were placed in the grave next to the mummy so that they could accompany him to the other side of life.

The rivers of Mongolia are born in the mountains. Most of them are the headwaters of the great rivers of Siberia and Far East, carrying their waters towards the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The largest rivers of the country are the Selenga (within the borders of Mongolia - 600 km), Kerulen (1100 km), Tesiin-Gol (568 km), Onon (300 km), Khalkhin-Gol, Kobdo. The most full-flowing - Selenga.

There are many permanent lakes in Mongolia and much large quantity temporary, formed during the rainy season and disappearing during the drought period. In the early Quaternary period, a significant part of the territory of Mongolia was an inland sea, which later divided into several large reservoirs. The current lakes are what is left of them.

Next, consider the climate of Mongolia. Mongolia has a sharply continental climate with harsh winters and dry, hot summers. In the capital, the city of Ulaanbaatar, located approximately halfway between mountain ranges north-west and a desert arid zone of the south-east of the country, the temperature ranges from minus 25 - 35 degrees in winter, to plus 25 - 35 degrees in summer. Ulaanbaatar is one of the coldest winter capitals in the world: the coldest month is January. The warmest month is July.

In mountainous areas, in the north and west of the country it is often cold. Most of the country is hot in summer and very cold in winter, with January averages dropping to -30 degrees.

Let us consider in detail the administrative division of Mongolia.

Mongolia is divided into 21 aimags, which in turn has 329 soums. The capital Ulaanbaatar is an independent administrative unit.

Mongolia has an interesting address system. Due to the large number of temporary settlements (yurts) in the country that change spatial position over time, traditional address systems (city, street, house) are not very suitable for Mongolia.

On February 2, 2008, the Government of Mongolia decided to adapt the technology of the Universal Address System (Universal Address System) for the needs of the country, that is, the use of the Natural Area Code for addressing objects on the ground. This system allows you to address on the ground within the Earth, both entire regions and cities, individual houses and even small objects with an accuracy of up to a meter. The more precisely the address is specified, the longer its code. For example, the address of the city of Ulaanbaatar as a whole is RV-W QZ, and the address of the monument in the center of Sukhbaatar Square in Ulaanbaatar is RW8SK QZKSL.

Although more people live in cities, Mongolia's economy is concentrated in industries such as mining and agriculture. Such mineral resources like copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold make up a significant part of the country's industrial production.

In the period from 1924 to 1991, the MPR received large financial and economic assistance from the USSR. At the peak of this assistance, one third of its GDP is accounted for. In the early 1990s. years and in the next decade, the Mongolian economy experienced a strong decline followed by stagnation.

Exports: copper and other non-ferrous metals, fluorspar, uranium ore, coal, petroleum, clothing, farm animals, wool, hides, animal products, cashmere. The main buyers in 2011 are China (85.7%), Canada (6.3%) in 10th place is Russia (3%).

Imports: machinery and equipment, fuels, automobiles, foodstuffs, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, Construction Materials, cigarettes and tobacco products, household appliances, soaps and detergents, sugar, tea. The main suppliers in 2011 are China (43.4%), Russia (23.3%, mainly oil and electricity), South Korea(5.6%), Japan (5.1%).

Mongolia is a member of the World Trade Organization (since 1997). The main trading partners of the country are China and Russia, and Mongolia's economy is largely dependent on these countries. In 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to China, while imports accounted for only 29.8%. Mongolia imports about 95% of oil products and part of electricity from Russia, which makes the country extremely dependent in economic terms.

In 1578, Tibetan Buddhism was officially adopted in the country, but shamanism continues to be practiced by a small part of the population (primarily in the north of the country). By the time of the People's Revolution of 1921, there were 755 Buddhist monasteries and 120,000 monks and priests in the country (with a total population of 650,000 people).

As a result of repression, by the end of the 1930s. years, all the monasteries were closed or destroyed, and their property was nationalized.

In 1949, the only monastery was reopened in Ulaanbaatar, but the freedom of religion declared by the 1960 constitution was ensured only in the late 1980s. years and the revival of traditional Buddhism, shamanism, Islam (among the Kazakhs) began. From the beginning of the 1990s, foreign Christian missions, Baha'is, Munists and Mormons began their activities. Baabar History of Mongolia: From world domination to the Soviet satellite / Baabar. - Kazan: Tatarstan, 2010. - 543 p.

The culture of Mongolia is heavily influenced by the traditional Mongolian nomadic lifestyle, as well as Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese and Russian cultures. Love for one's lineage and family is valued in Mongolian culture; this manifests itself in everything from old Mongolian literature to modern music. Another characteristic and most important feature of the steppes is hospitality. The yurt is an important component of the Mongolian national identity; up to the present time, many Mongols live in yurts.

Education is one of priority areas domestic policy Mongolia. To date, illiteracy in the country has been virtually eliminated, thanks to the creation of seasonal boarding schools for children from nomadic families.

Since 1990, social changes and improvements in health care have been taking place in Mongolia. The healthcare system includes 17 specialized hospitals, four regional diagnostic and treatment centers, nine district hospitals, 21 aimag and 323 somon hospitals. In addition, there are 536 private hospitals.

Some of the earliest examples of Mongolian visual arts- rock paintings and bronze and copper weapons with images of animals. There is also a stone stele from the Iron Age. On Mongolian art strong influence rendered the pictorial canons of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Indian, Nepalese and Chinese art. At the beginning of the 20th century, a tradition of secular painting began to develop in Mongolia; Baldugiin Sharav became its founder. After the revolution, for a long time the only acceptable style in Mongolian painting was socialist realism, and only in the 1960s did artists get the opportunity to move away from the canons. The first representatives of modernism in Mongolia were Choidogiin Bazarvaan and Badamzhavyn Chogsom.

The oldest literary and historical monument is the Secret History of the Mongols. One of the founders of modern Mongolian literature is a writer, poet and public figure Dashdorzhiin Natsagdorzh, the first translator of Pushkin's works into Mongolian.

The instrumental ensemble occupies an important place in Mongolian music. Folk instruments: amankhur (harmonica), morinkhur and limbo (bamboo flute). There are traditional pieces for key instruments in Mongolian music. Vocal art also has a long tradition. Baldaev R.L. public education in the Mongolian People's Republic / R.L. Baldaev. - M.: Mir., 1971. - 230 p.

IN modern types Mongols are traditionally strong in single sports. This is boxing, freestyle wrestling, judo, bullet shooting. In terms of the number of Olympic awards per capita, Mongolia is ahead of many highly developed countries. Quite exotic sports for the Mongols, like bodybuilding and powerlifting, are developing at an active pace.

population armed forces 10.3 thousand people (2012).

Manning is carried out on conscription, the service life is 12 months. Men are called from the age of 18 to 25 years. At present, the army of Mongolia is undergoing a reform aimed at increasing the combat capability and updating the technical fleet of weapons and military equipment. In this process Active participation accepted by Russian, American and other specialists.

Since 2002, Mongolia has been participating in peacekeeping activities.

Mongolia is a country that is located in East Asia, borders on Russia, China and has no access to the sea. Vast territories of the country, some of which are not very suitable for life, are unevenly populated. At the same time, Mongolia boasts a rapid pace of economic development and quite high level the life of the population. Mongolia has observer status in most international organizations.

Brief history of the state

The first attempts to establish the Mongolian state were made by disunited tribes that settled the territory of modern Mongolia 850 thousand years ago, in the 4th century BC. The Huns then united to fight the Chinese tribes and ruled over the Mongolian steppe until 93 BC. Later, the Hunnic Empire was replaced by several Kirghiz, Turkic and Mongol khanates. None of them managed to gain a foothold in the Mongolian lands for a long time: a nomadic lifestyle, militancy and insufficiently authoritative power - all this caused disunity.

A more stable union of tribes went down in history under the name Khamag Mongol and became the basis of the future Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan. But already from the end of the 13th century, cultural differences, the death of the strongest ruler, the endless redistribution of power and the heterogeneity of the population of the state caused the beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde.

For the next few centuries, the Mongolian steppes were occupied by various rulers, empires and nationalities: the Yuan Empire, the Northern Yuan dynasty, the Chinese Qing Empire, ruled by the Manchu dynasty, until 1911. When the Xinhai Revolution thundered in China, which put an end to the empire, and a national revolution arose in Mongolia itself, statehood as such did not exist on the territory of modern Mongolia.

New Mongolia in 1915 was recognized as an autonomous part of the Republic of China, and nine years later, the independence of the state was proclaimed again (for the first time in 1911). However, until the end of World War II, the independence of Mongolia was recognized only by the USSR.

The Mongolian People's Republic was characterized by some features Soviet power: repressions, collectivization, destruction of monasteries, and later perestroika. The aggression of Japan was reflected by the joint actions of the USSR and Mongolia. Modern history Mongolia began with the adoption of a new constitution in 1992 and a change in political course.

State structure and politics

Mongolia is a parliamentary republic with a diverse population. The head of state is the president, the executive power is represented by the government, the legislative power is represented by the parliament, which is called the State Great Khural. In the localities, power remains in the hands of local governments, which are elected for a term of four years.

In 2008, a domestic political crisis occurred in Mongolia, which provoked riots in the capital of the state (Ulaanbaatar) and caused a change of government and presidential re-elections. The current president of the state is Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, and the ruling party is the Mongolian People's Party (MNP).

Geography of Mongolia

In terms of territory, the state occupies the nineteenth place in the world, being quite large. The area of ​​Mongolia is 1,564,116 km², which is commensurate, for example, with half of Yakutia. Most of the country (in terms of geographical features) is occupied by a plain with several towering ridges and mountain ranges. The Gobi Desert is located in the southern part of Mongolia.

All sources fresh water originate in the mountains and are fed by several large tributaries. Mongolia has a large number of lakes, many of which are temporary, that is, they form during the rainy season and disappear during the drought.

The area of ​​Mongolia and the location of the state make the climate sharply continental. Average temperature in winter time year ranges from -25 to -35 degrees, in summer it is within the same values ​​with a plus sign. Precipitation decreases from northwest to south.

Administrative division of the state

Mongolia, whose population is unevenly distributed over the territory of the state, is divided into 21 aimaks, with a total of 329 somons, and the capital Ulaanbaatar. The largest city is expectedly the capital, with one and a half million permanent residents. The administrative center is followed in terms of population by the aimag Khuvsgel (114 thousand people), Dornogovi (109 thousand people) and Uverkhangay (100 thousand people).

A characteristic feature of Mongolia is the presence of temporary settlements, in connection with which an address system different from the standard is used. So, in Mongolia there are no usual names of cities, streets, numbers of houses and apartments, and addresses are replaced by digital codes that allow you to locate an object on the ground with an accuracy of one meter. Moreover, the longer the code, the more accurately you can determine the location of the object. The system is suitable for use on a global scale, and is actively used in digital cartography and navigation systems.

Economy of Mongolia

The economy of Mongolia is developing extremely dynamically, and the state itself is the largest sales market in the entire Asia-Pacific region. By latest forecasts the state economy will grow at least 15% per year in the short term.

The main industries of Mongolia are represented by:

• mining (20% of GDP) and mineral resources;
• agriculture (16% of GDP);
• transport (13%);
• trade (also 13%).

Considering the employment of the population, it can be noted that most of the able-bodied citizens are employed in agriculture (41%), slightly less in the service sector.(29%) and trade (14%).

Mongolia sends oil products, equipment (both industrial and industrial) and consumer goods for import (the population is provided with everything necessary). The main partners in international trade are Russia, China, Japan and South Korea.

Financial sector

The Central Bank has the same functions as similar institutions in other states. The currency of Mongolia is the Mongolian tugrik, which was put into circulation in 1925. To date, the average exchange rate is: 2405 tugriks = 1 US dollar. Despite the fact that there is a national currency of Mongolia, the American dollar is also in circulation (it is used in almost all areas, except for paying for public services) and the Russian ruble or euro, which are accepted in small shops (mainly in the capital) and markets.

By the way, prices in Mongolia pleasantly surprise tourists. You can buy memorable souvenirs, products made of natural wool and leather, carpets in the capital at a lower cost than in Russia. Food prices are moderate. So, lunch will cost an average of 6-7 dollars.

State population: general characteristics

The population of Mongolia is characterized by mono-ethnicity, the predominant number of urban population (even despite the large employment in agriculture), positive natural growth, a large number of dialects in the language of the population and a diverse religious composition.

State population

The population of Mongolia according to the data for 2015 is 3 million 57 thousand people. The inhabitants of the capital account for one third of the total number of citizens. The nature of the resettlement of citizens across the territory of the state will be discussed in more detail below.

The natural increase of the population is 28 persons per 1000 citizens per year. This fact allowed the population of Mongolia to quadruple between 1950 and 2007. Back in 1918, the population of Mongolia was only 647 thousand people, and by 1969 it was already twice as many. Any correct data on the number of inhabitants before 1918 was not preserved due to difficult history the formation of statehood, when the territories of Mongolia were part of other countries, and the indigenous population was oppressed.

Density and population distribution

The average population density in Mongolia is almost 2 people per square kilometer. This indicator was the reason for placing the state in last place (195th line) in the list of world population density. The most densely populated (5-6 people per square kilometer) in Mongolia are the valley of the Orkhon River and the mountainous regions of Khangai - the most livable areas to the west of the capital.

Vast territories (40%) of the state are unsuitable for a comfortable life due to natural features. The population density is a record one person per 10-15 square kilometers, part of the territories remains completely uninhabited.

Ethnic and national composition

Mongolia (the population is predominantly representatives of the Mongolian group) is a mono-ethnic state. The dominant ethnic group is divided into several clans of Turkic origin, sub-ethnic groups and close ethnographic groups.

In addition to the indigenous population, which makes up just over 82% in total, Turks, Russians and Chinese live in the country. There are only 1,500 Russians in Mongolia, while as many as 20,000 lived in the late 1980s. Mostly Old Believers fled to the neighboring state, fleeing religious persecution in their homeland. Chinese on this moment Several hundred people live in Mongolia; in the 60s, the number of immigrants from China in Mongolia reached 25 thousand people.

Language and writing in Mongolia

The diversity of closely related ethnic groups predetermines minor, but still pronounced linguistic differences. The state (Mongolian) includes several dialects:

• Oirat;
• directly Mongolian;
• Buryat;
• hamnigan.

Turkic dialects are also widespread:

• Kazakh;
• Tuvan;
• Tsaatan-Soyot.

Teaching in the capital of the state is also conducted in Kazakh.

In 1945, the Mongolian language was translated into Cyrillic with the addition of two more distinct letters. Old Mongolian is not used today, although attempts to restore the language have been repeatedly made. In religious practices, to this day, Tibetan is widely used, in which in past centuries were written works of art, religious and scientific treatises.

Religious affiliation of the population

The main religion in Mongolia is modified Buddhism (53%). At the same time, in the capital, the majority of Christian, not Buddhist temples (197 versus 63). Most of the population are atheists (38%). Religious diversity is also represented by Islam, shamanism, Christianity and some other religions.

Standards of living

Mongolia, whose standard of living in most sources remains beyond the scope of the narrative, is a fairly developed state with a stable economy. Until now, people leading a nomadic lifestyle have remained in the country, but their existence is facilitated by the numerous benefits of civilization. The capital is similar to most modern cities. So, today Mongolia is confidently opening a “window to the big world” for itself.

The content of the article

MONGOLIA(from 1924 to 1992 - the Mongolian People's Republic), a state in East Asia. In the east, south and west it borders with China, in the north with Russia. Once known as Outer Mongolia, the country occupies about half of the vast historical area, which was once called Mongolia. This area is the birthplace of the Mongolian peoples, who created here in the 13th century. powerful empire. From the end of the 17th century at the beginning of the 20th century Mongolia was in vassal dependence on Qing China. In the 20th century Mongolia became the target of rivalry between China and the Soviet Union. In July 1921, a popular revolution took place in Mongolia and the country was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Part of historical Mongolia called Inner Mongolia, currently an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.

see also below is the HISTORY OF MONGOLIA section.

Geographic feature.

Terrain relief.

Mongolia has an area of ​​1566.5 thousand square meters. km and is mainly a plateau, elevated to a height of 900–1500 m above sea level. Above this plateau rises a series of mountain ranges and ranges. The highest of them is the Mongolian Altai, which stretches in the west and south-west of the country for a distance of 900 km. Its continuation is the lower ranges that do not form a single massif, which received the common name Gobi Altai.

Along the border with Siberia in the north-west of Mongolia there are several ranges that do not form a single massif: Khan Khukhei, Ulan Taiga, Eastern Sayan, in the north-east - the Khentei mountain range, in the central part of Mongolia - the Khangai massif, which is divided into several independent ranges.

To the east and south of Ulaanbaatar towards the border with China, the height of the Mongolian plateau gradually decreases, and it turns into plains - flat and even in the east, hilly in the south. The south, southwest, and southeast of Mongolia is occupied by the Gobi Desert, which continues into north-central China. According to the landscape features of the Gobi - the desert is by no means homogeneous, it consists of sections of sandy, rocky, covered with small fragments of stones, even for many kilometers and hilly, different in color - the Mongols highlight the Yellow, Red and Black Gobi. Surface water sources are very rare here, but groundwater levels are high.

The rivers of Mongolia are born in the mountains. Most of them are the upper reaches of the great rivers of Siberia and the Far East, carrying their waters towards the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The largest rivers of the country are the Selenga (within the borders of Mongolia - 600 km), Kerulen (1100 km), Onon (300 km), Khalkhin-gol, Kobdo, etc. The most full-flowing is the Selenga. It originates from one of the Khangai ranges, receives several large tributaries - Orkhon, Khanuy-gol, Chulutyn-gol, Delger-muren, etc. Its flow rate is from 1.5 to 3 m per second. In any weather, its fast cold waters, flowing in clay-sandy shores, and therefore always muddy, have a dark gray color. Selenga freezes for half a year, the average ice thickness is from 1 to 1.5 m. It has two floods a year: spring (snow) and summer (rain). The average depth at the lowest water level is not less than 2 m. Having left the borders of Mongolia, the Selenga flows through the territory of Buryatia and flows into Baikal.

Rivers in the western and southwestern parts of the country, flowing down from the mountains, fall into intermountain basins, have no outlet to the ocean and, as a rule, end their journey in one of the lakes.

There are over a thousand permanent lakes in Mongolia and a much larger number of temporary lakes that form during the rainy season and disappear during the drought. In the early Quaternary period, a significant part of the territory of Mongolia was an inland sea, which later divided into several large water bodies. The current lakes are what is left of them. The largest of them are located in the basin of the Great Lakes in the north-west of the country - Ubsu-nur, Khara-Us-nur, Khirgis-nur, their depth does not exceed several meters. In the east of the country there are lakes Buyr-nur and Khukh-nur. In a giant tectonic basin in the north of Khangai, there is Lake Khubsugul (depth up to 238 m), similar to Baikal in terms of water composition, relict flora and fauna.

Climate.

Mongolia has a sharply continental climate with harsh winters and dry, hot summers. In the capital, the city of Ulaanbaatar, located approximately in the middle between the mountain ranges of the northwest and the desert arid zone of the southeast of the country, the temperature in January averages -23 ° C, and in July + 17 ° C. If in the northwest 250–510 mm of precipitation falls annually, while in Ulaanbaatar - only 230–250 mm, even less precipitation falls in the Gobi desert region.

Vegetable world.

The natural vegetation of Mongolia corresponds to local climatic conditions. The mountains in the northwestern part of the country are covered with forests of larch, pine, cedar, and various deciduous tree species. There are magnificent pastures in wide intermountain basins. River valleys have fertile soil The rivers themselves abound in fish. As you move to the southeast, with a decrease in altitude, the density of the vegetation cover gradually decreases and reaches the level of the Gobi desert region, where only in spring and early summer do some types of grasses and shrubs appear. The vegetation of the north and northeast of Mongolia is incomparably richer, since these areas with higher mountains account for more precipitation. In general, the composition of the flora and fauna of Mongolia is very diverse. The nature of Mongolia is beautiful and diverse. In the direction from north to south, six natural belts and zones are successively replaced here. The high-altitude belt is located to the north and west of Lake Khubsugul, on the Khentei and Khangai ridges, in the mountains of the Mongolian Altai. The mountain-taiga belt passes in the same place, below the alpine meadows. The zone of mountain steppes and forests in the Khangai-Khentei mountainous region is the most favorable for human life and is the most developed in terms of the development of agriculture. The largest in size is the steppe zone with its variety of grasses and wild cereals, most suitable for cattle breeding. In the floodplains of the rivers, water meadows are not uncommon.

The fauna of each zone is specific: in the Alpine zone - mountain sheep, mountain goat, predator leopard; in the forest - elk, deer, wild deer, musk deer, lynx, wolverine, wild cat manul, brown bear; in the mountain-steppe - a wolf, a fox, a hare, a wild boar; in the steppe - gazelle antelope, tarbagan marmot and other smaller rodents, partridges and other game birds, birds of prey. Semi-deserts and deserts are much poorer in flora and fauna, however, large representatives of the animal world also live here: wild ass kulan, less whimsical than gazelle gazelle gazelle, gobi bear, Przewalski's horse, wild camel.

Population.

More than 90% of the population of the country are Mongols (northern and western) and non-Mongolian ethnic groups that have merged with them, speaking the Mongolian language. Northern Mongols are Khalkhas (Khalkhas, Khalkha Mongols), Western Mongols are Oirats (Derbets, Zakhchins, Olets, Tumets, Myangats, Torguts, Khoshuts). This also includes the Buryats, Barguts (Shine-Barga) and Dariganga, who speak the languages ​​of the Mongolian group. Non-Mongols by origin - formerly Turkic-speaking Khotons, Darkhats, Uriankhians and Tsaatans, as well as Tungus - Hamnigans. All of them today form ethnographic groups within the Mongols and have practically lost their language and national identity. Less than 10% of the population are Russians, Chinese and Kazakhs, who retain their language, national culture and way of life.

According to the last census of 1989, 2,434 thousand people lived in Mongolia. As of July 2004 (according to data published on the Internet), the population of Mongolia was 2,751 thousand. The reason for the decline in numbers can be seen in several factors: the resettlement of a large number of Kazakhs from Mongolia to the Republic of Kazakhstan, the decline in the birth rate (21.44 per 1,000 inhabitants) at present , high mortality (7.1 per 1000 inhabitants), especially among newborns (55.45 per 1000 newborns).

Mongolia is a sparsely populated country with a centuries-old tradition of nomadism. Accelerated urbanization in the post-war period was facilitated by a general increase in population and the development of industry. By the beginning of the 1990s, 3/5 of the country's population had become city dwellers. The population of Ulaanbaatar (formerly Urga), the capital and the only major city in Mongolia, increased from 70,000 in 1950 to 550,000 in 1990. In Darkhan, a large industrial center built in the 1960s north of Ulan -Bator, in 1990 80 thousand people lived. Other important cities in the country include the trade and transport center Sukhe Bator located north of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with Russia, the new city of Erdenet, which has grown around the mining and processing copper and molybdenum plant, Choibalsan in the east, Ulyasutai and Kobdo in the west of Mongolia .

Language.

The Mongolian language belongs to the Mongolian group of the Altaic macrofamily of languages. The latter also includes the Turkic and Tungus-Manchu language groups. Perhaps the same macrofamily belongs to Korean. The basis of the state language of Mongolia is the Khalkha dialect, which is spoken by the majority of the population of the country. Several types of Mongolian writing are known. The oldest of them - the old Mongolian, or classical script - was created in the 13th century. based on the Uighur alphabet. With some changes made in the 17th century, it existed until the middle of the 20th century. During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the so-called "square writing", based on the signs-syllables of the Tibetan alphabet. In the 17th century The Oirat educator Zaya Pandita created a “clear writing” (tod bichg), known in science as the Oirat script. It has not been widely adopted either. Another type of writing called soyombo, was invented at the end of the 17th century. head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia Undur-gegen, but he also did not receive recognition and quickly fell out of circulation. From 1942 to 1945, an alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in Mongolia. Two more letters were added to the letters of the Russian alphabet - fita and zhitsa - to convey the sounds of the front row specific to the Mongolian language. The Mongols use this script to this day. In 1990, a decree was adopted to return to the old Mongolian script, the implementation of which was supposed to take 10 years.

Religion.

The official religion of Mongolia is Buddhism. As in every country, it has national specifics here. Buddhism in Mongolia was spread by Tibetan missionaries. The first attempt to introduce Buddhism was made by them in the second half of the 13th century. under the grandson of Genghis Khan Kublai, however, at that time Buddhism was accepted only by the imperial court and a few other representatives of the Mongolian aristocracy. The second attempt turned out to be more successful - at the end of the 16th century. In 1578, a congress of all the princes of Mongolia, with the participation of the head of the Gelug Buddhist school, the most significant at that time in Tibet, decided to adopt Buddhism as the state religion. In 1588 the first Buddhist monastery was built, by the beginning of the 20th century. they numbered approx. 750. Mongolian, like Tibetan, Buddhism is characterized by an extremely high saturation of its practice with pre-Buddhist beliefs, rituals and ideas, the institution of "living gods" (the incarnation of the gods of the pantheon in the bodies of living people) and the recognition of the important role of monasticism in achieving "salvation". The latter concept resulted in a high percentage of monks in the country (40% of the male population, about 100 thousand people), in each family one of the sons certainly became a Buddhist monk. Buddhist monasteries acted as the main centers of the settled way of life. They owned huge herds, received considerable funds in the form of feudal rent and voluntary donations from believers, and were also engaged in trade and usury. In 1921, the People's Revolution won in Mongolia. After the death in 1924 of Bogd Gegen, the "living god" and theocratic head of state, the local monks, and religion in general, began to gradually lose their former influence and authority. The anti-clerical and anti-religious attitude of the communist leadership of the country accelerated this process. By the end of the 1930s, all the monasteries were closed and destroyed, most of the monks were repressed. As a result of political and social reforms initiated in Mongolia in 1986, most of the official restrictions on the practice of religion were removed. A revival of Buddhism has been taking place in the country since the late 1980s. During this time, a number of Buddhist monasteries, previously used as museums, reopened, and restoration of other old monastic complexes began. IN currently there are already more than 200 of them.

Along with Buddhism, shamanism continued to be preserved in remote areas of Mongolia.

In the early 1990s, several Christian denominations from Great Britain and the United States created their own small communities in Mongolia.

State device.

The current constitution of Mongolia came into effect in February 1992. It guarantees the basic rights of the citizens of the Mongolian People's Republic, including freedom of conscience and political opinion. According to the constitution, the head of state is the president, and the supreme legislative body is the unicameral State Great Khural. The President is elected for a 5-year term by popular vote, from among the candidates who are nominated by members of the State Great Khural. The supreme legislative body of the country consists of 75 members elected by popular vote for 5 years. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court; judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the State Great Khural.

Until 1990, all issues of the country's political, economic and social life were resolved under the direct leadership of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) - the local analogue of the CPSU. In 1990, in the face of massive popular demonstrations and calls for democracy, the MPRP abandoned its monopoly of power and agreed to the formation of opposition political parties, as well as the holding of the country's first multi-party elections. At present, all significant parties and movements are represented in the Mongolian parliament. The country is ruled by the second in a row, since the beginning of democratic reforms, the president.

Before World War II, except for relations with the former Soviet Union, Mongolia was almost completely isolated from the rest of the world. The country joined the United Nations in 1961. In the 1960s, the process of establishing diplomatic relations with developed capitalist countries - Great Britain (1963), France (1965), Japan (1972), etc. began. Diplomatic relations with the United States were established in 1987.

Political parties.

From July 1996 to July 2000, the country was ruled by a coalition of new parties that won the parliamentary elections in June 1996. The largest in the coalition was the National Democratic Party (NDP), formed in 1992 on the basis of the merger of a number of liberal and conservative parties and groups. In 2001, the NDP was renamed the Democratic Party. The coalition also included the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP, founded in 1990), the Green Party (environmental) and the Religious Democratic Party (clerical-liberal, established in 1990).

In the 2000 elections, the former ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) returned to power. The MPRP was created as the Mongolian People's Party on the basis of a merger in July 1920 of two underground revolutionary circles. The party program adopted at its First Congress in March 1921 was oriented towards "anti-imperialist, anti-feudal popular revolution". From July 1921 the MNP became the ruling party and established close ties with the Russian communists and the Comintern. The III Congress of the MNP in August 1924 officially proclaimed a course towards the transition from feudalism to socialism, "bypassing capitalism", which was enshrined in the party program adopted at the Fourth Congress in 1925. In March 1925, the MNP was renamed the MPRP, which turned into a Marxist-Leninist party . The program approved by the Tenth Congress (1940) provided for the transition from the "revolutionary-democratic stage" of development to the socialist one, and the 1966 program provided for the completion of the "construction of socialism." However, in the early 1990s, the MPRP officially abandoned Marxism-Leninism and began to advocate a transition to a market economy while maintaining the stability of society and improving the well-being of the population. New program, adopted in February 1997, defines it as a democratic and socialist party.

In addition to the two main political forces, other parties and organizations operate in Mongolia: the United Party of National Traditions, which united several right-wing groups in 1993, the Homeland Alliance (which included the Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), etc.

Economy.

Mongolia's GDP in 2003 amounted to 4.88 billion. USD. By sectors, Mongolia's GDP is divided as follows: the agricultural share was 20.6%, industry - 21.4%, other services - 58%.

Pasture animal husbandry.

Pasture animal husbandry still remains the main type of economic activity. The destruction of the nomadic way of life began with the Manchus carrying out a policy of attaching ethnic groups as part of the Mongols to certain territories. The catastrophic reduction in the number of livestock in the period after 1924, when the influence in Mongolia increased Soviet Union, was the result of blind copying of collectivization policy. Later, a special Mongolian form of collective farms was developed. The lands of each such collective farm were also considered an administrative unit - a district (Mong. somon). In 1997, the total number of livestock - sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels - was approx. 29.3 million heads, of which 80% are sheep and goats, 11% are cattle. Today, Mongolia is among the leading countries in the world in terms of livestock per capita (approximately 12 heads per person). Significant progress has also been made in livestock breeding and veterinary medicine.

In line with the political and economic changes that began in the countries of the former socialist camp after 1989, Mongolia decided to move to a market economy. On the basis of the law on foreign investment adopted in 1990, citizens of other states were given the opportunity to own shares of various types of enterprises, from firms with 100 percent foreign capital to joint companies. New laws were passed regarding taxation and banking, credit and debt. In May 1991, a law on privatization came into force, according to which state property could pass into the hands of "law-abiding" citizens (ie those who had not previously committed serious crimes) permanently residing in the country. Each citizen was given a special investment coupon that could be bought, sold or given to any other person. Holders of such coupons became active participants in special auctions, with the help of which state property was privatized. Later, in 1991, "state farms" and cooperative livestock associations were liquidated, and the transfer of land and livestock to private ownership began.

Agriculture.

Agriculture plays a secondary role in the economic life of Mongolia. Various crops are grown in the northern and western parts of the country, some with land irrigation. Irrigation systems have been created today in the Gobi. In 1990, the total area of ​​cultivated land was about 827 thousand hectares. Until 1991, the predominant part of these lands was cultivated by large state farms, the rest by cooperative livestock farming associations. The main crop is wheat, although barley, potatoes and oats are also grown. Experimental horticulture has existed since the 1950s, and even melon growing in the Trans-Altai Gobi. The harvesting of hay and fodder for livestock plays a significant role.

Natural resources.

Mongolia is rich in fur-bearing animals (especially marmots, squirrels, foxes), in some parts of the country the fur trade is an important source of income for the population. Fishing is carried out in the lakes and rivers of the northern regions.

Despite the abundance of mineral deposits, their development is still limited. There are 4 brown coal deposits in Mongolia (Nalaikha, Sharyngol, Darkhan, Baganur). In the south of the country, in the region of the Taban-Tolgoi mountain range, hard coal was discovered, the geological reserves of which amount to billions of tons. Medium deposits of tungsten and fluorspar have long been known and are being developed. Copper-molybdenum ore found in Treasure Mountain (Erdenetiin ovoo) led to the creation of a mining and processing plant, around which the city of Erdenet was built. Oil was discovered in Mongolia in 1951, after which an oil refinery was built in Sain-Shanda, a city southeast of Ulaanbaatar, near the border with China (oil production ceased in the 1970s). Near Lake Khuvsgul, giant deposits of phosphorites were discovered and even their mining began, but soon, due to environmental considerations, all work was reduced to a minimum. Even before the start of reforms in Mongolia, with the help of the USSR, zeolites, minerals of the aluminosilicate group, were successfully searched for, which are used in animal husbandry and agriculture as adsorbents and biostimulants.

Industry.

A significant number of manufacturing enterprises are concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, and in the city of Darkhan, to the north of the capital, there is a coal mining, iron foundry and steelmaking complex. Initially, the local industry was based almost exclusively on the processing of livestock raw materials, and the main types of manufactured products were woolen fabrics, felt, leather goods, and food products. Many new industrial enterprises appeared in Mongolia after the end of World War II - especially in the 1950s and early 1960s, when the country received significant financial assistance from the Soviet Union and China. In the 1980s, local industry provided approximately 1/3 of the national product of Mongolia, while in 1940 it was only 17%. After the end of World War II, the share of heavy industry in the total volume of industrial production increased significantly. There are more than two dozen cities with enterprises of national importance: in addition to the already named Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan, the largest are Erdenet, Sukhebaatar, Baganur, Choibalsan. Mongolia produces more than a thousand types of industrial and agricultural products, most of which are consumed domestically; furs, wool, leather, leather and fur products, livestock and livestock products, phosphorites, fluorites, molybdenum ore are exported.

Transport.

Only in the middle of the 20th century from Ulaanbaatar to the administrative centers of the aimags, roads were laid (mostly unpaved). The strategic highway Naushki - Ulaanbaatar (400 km) became the first tarmac road in Mongolia. In 1949, the construction of a section of the railway was completed, linking Ulaanbaatar with the Trans-Siberian Railway in the territory of the Soviet Union. The line was later extended further south, and in 1956 it joined the Chinese rail network. Although passing through the Mongolian land Railway served mainly for the transportation of goods between China and the Soviet Union, this highway to a large extent contributed to the economic development of Mongolia itself. In the late 1980s, almost 3/4 of freight traffic in the country was carried out by rail.

Air routes connect Mongolia with Russia, China, Vietnam, Japan. Mongolia's own aircraft fleet is small, and long-range air routes serve aircraft from other countries. Mongolia's own aviation has regular air communication with all aimags of the country.

Trade.

Until 1991, more than 90% of Mongolia's foreign trade was with the other countries of the socialist community, primarily the Soviet Union. Japan was Mongolia's leading trading partner among the capitalist countries. Today, the main Mongolian exports are today minerals and metal ores, as well as livestock products. The country mainly imports machinery and equipment, oil products, and consumer goods. The monetary unit of Mongolia is the tugrik, and the small change is called mungu (100 mungu in 1 tugrik).

Society.

Starting from the 17th century. In Mongolia, the principle of two branches of government - secular and religious - took shape. Chapter secular power- Khagan, or the Great Khan, stood at the head of the Mongolian state. The state was divided into several aimaks, the ruler (and hence the feudal lord) of each of them was a khan, who was directly subordinate to the Great Khan. Aimaks were divided into khoshuns headed by noyons (petty feudal lords who inherited their allotment) and taishas (who earned allotments in the public service). Khoshuns were divided into several bugs. All these subdivisions of the Mongolian state retained the tribal structure, which was later replaced by an ethnic one. Each of the tribes included in the 13th century. part of the Mongol Empire, subordinated not only to the Great Khan, but also to their immediate rulers - khans, noyons and taishas, ​​on whom it depended everyday life people.

In wartime, the order established under Genghis Khan operated. The entire male adult population turned into a combat-ready cavalry, which consisted of two wings: the western (baruun gar) and the eastern (dzhun gar). Each wing was divided into tumens (10,000 warriors), tumens were divided into 10 myanga (1,000 warriors), myanga were divided into hundreds (100 warriors), a hundred into tens. Each unit had its own leader, who was responsible for both the morale and the equipment of the riders. The tribal principle of organization was also maintained here, close relatives went into battle shoulder to shoulder, and this made the army even more combat-ready.

Religious authority was also built according to the hierarchical principle. It was headed by a "living god" - Bogdo-gegen, who was chosen as a child as an incarnation of one of the previous "gods". The next steps were occupied by shiretui - the abbots of the monasteries, followed by different categories of lamas who officially accepted monasticism. At the very bottom were shabiners - serf arats (cattle breeders), whom their khans and noyons donated as a gift to Buddhist monasteries.

The traditional way of life of the Mongols corresponds to the geographical features of the territory. Animal husbandry provides them with food, clothing, material for the construction of dwellings, and fuel. As hereditary nomads, the inhabitants of Mongolia prefer portable dwellings - these are yurts covered with felt felt (their Mongolian name is ger), they live in them both in summer and in winter; and tents made of light maikhana fabric, which are used by hunters and shepherds who drive cattle to summer pastures.

The staple foods of the Mongols include milk, butter, cheese, lamb, as well as barley, flour, millet and tea. The main sour milk drink is airag (better known under the Turkic name "koumiss"), which is made from mare's milk. Thanks to sheep, the Mongols get wool, from which they make felt mats for yurts and sheepskin for sewing warm clothes; have milk, cheese, and butter in summer, and mutton in winter; dry sheep, but much more cow dung and manure is used as fuel. Mongolian horsemanship is legendary, and horse racing, along with wrestling and archery, are among Mongolia's national sports.

Although at present the majority of the Mongolian population lives in cities and many people work in various industrial enterprises, the old nomadic traditions are still not forgotten. There are many people in the country who successfully combine traditional and modern ways of life. Many of those who live in well-appointed city houses tend to have a summer cottage in the form of a yurt or spend holidays with relatives in the hudon (countryside). From there, dried or frozen lamb (sometimes whole carcasses), butter, dry cottage cheese are brought to city apartments, they are stored on balconies and in the basements of houses as a food supply for the winter.

Education.

The education system in Mongolia is controlled by the state. In 1991, 489,000 students were enrolled in the country's primary and secondary schools, and the number of university students educational institutions was 13,200 people. Mongolian State University in Ulaanbaatar has the faculties of economics, mathematics, natural sciences, physics and social sciences. In addition, the capital has Technical University, as well as agricultural and Medical Universities. Special education institutions include graduate School Buddhism, existing since 1976, the Art School and the relatively recently created School of Business.

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The first steps on the way to the state.

At the beginning of the 12th c. scattered Mongolian tribes made the first attempt to unite and create a state that looked more like a union of tribes and went down in history under the name Khamag Mongol. Its first ruler was Khaidu Khan. His grandson Khabul Khan was already able to win a temporary victory over the neighboring regions of Northern China, and he was paid off with a small tribute. However, his successor Ambagai Khan was captured by the Tatar tribes who were at war with the Mongols and handed over to the Chinese, who put him to death. A few years later, Yesugei-bagatur, the father of Temuchin, the future conqueror of the world Genghis Khan, was killed by the Tatars.

Temujin spent his childhood and early years in need. He came to power gradually, at first he was patronized by Wang Khan, the ruler of the Kereites in Central Mongolia. As soon as Temujin gained enough supporters, he conquered the three most powerful states in Mongolia: the Tatar one in the east (1202), his former patrons the Kereites in Central Mongolia (1203) and the Naimans in the west (1204). At the kurultai - the congress of the Mongol tribes in 1206 - he was proclaimed the supreme khan of all the Mongols and received the title of Genghis Khan.

Creation of an empire.

Genghis Khan ruled Mongolia from 1206 to 1227. Having done away with internal enemies, he began to take revenge on the Jin rulers in northern China for the humiliation suffered by his ancestors. As a result of three campaigns, he conquered the Tanguts, whose kingdom Xi-Xia was located between his possessions and the state of Jin. In 1211, the Mongols attacked the Jin state and occupied the entire territory north of the Great Wall of China. In 1213 they broke through the Wall and poured into Northern China; by the spring of 1214, the entire territory north of the Huang He was in the hands of the Mongols. The Jin ruler bought the world by paying a huge ransom, and the Mongols left. Shortly thereafter, it was decided to move the Jin capital from Beijing, which the Mongols interpreted as a resumption of hostilities, again attacked China and ravaged Beijing.

The next year, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia. Now his attention was drawn to Central and Western Asia. The Naiman leader Kuchluk, after the defeat he suffered in 1204, fled to the west and found refuge in the state of the Karakitays, where he managed to seize the throne. His actions posed a constant threat to the western borders of the state of Genghis Khan. In 1218, the Mongol army under the command of the great commander Jebe invaded the lands of the Karakitais. Kuchluk fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed.

Walk west.

The conquest of this Central Asian territory gave the Mongols a common border with Khorezmshah Muhammad, the ruler of Khorezm, which lay southeast of Aral Sea. Mohammed owned a gigantic territory stretching from India to Baghdad and north beyond the Aral Sea. War was inevitable under all conditions, but it was accelerated by the assassination of the ambassadors of Genghis Khan.

In autumn 1219 the Mongols reached the border town of Otrar. Leaving part of the army to besiege the city, Genghis Khan quickly reached major cities Bukhara and Samarkand and plundered them. The Sultan fled in a panic to Iran, pursued by the Mongol army, and he eventually died on one of the islands in the Caspian Sea. Upon learning of his death, the Mongols turned north, crossed the Caucasus Mountains, entered the expanses of Rus', defeated the Russian-Polovtsian army on the Kalka River in 1223 and went back to the east.

In the autumn of 1220, Genghis Khan began a campaign to the southeast to the lands bordering Afghanistan. He sent his younger son Tolui to complete the conquest of Khorasan, which was then much larger than the present province of Eastern Iran and included such big cities like Merv, Herat, Balkh and Nishapur. This area has never been able to fully recover from the devastation caused there by the Mongol invasion.

In the autumn of 1221, Genghis Khan struck at Jalal-ad-Din, the son of Khorezmshah Muhammad. Pressed with his troops to the Indus, surrounded by the Mongols, Jalal-ad-Din rushed into the river and escaped by crossing to the other side. For several years he attacked the Mongols until he died in Anatolia in 1231.

Return to the East.

The battle on the banks of the Indus ended the campaign of Genghis Khan to the west. Having learned about unrest among the Tanguts, he turned back, but moved slowly and returned to his headquarters in Mongolia only three years after he left India. The last campaign against the Tanguts ended in their complete defeat. Genghis Khan did not live to see the completion of his last campaign. He died while resting at his summer camp on 25 August 1227.

Army.

The Mongols owed their military success not only to the size of their troops, since the entire army of Genghis Khan, apparently, did not exceed 150-250 thousand people. The strength of the Mongol army lay in organization, discipline and tactics. Discipline made it possible to attack in close formation and thus gain the upper hand over the numerically superior but poorly built enemy ranks. The standard tactic of the Mongol army was to envelop the enemy flank with a whole wing of their troops to strike from the rear. Papal envoy John de Plano Carpini, who visited the homeland of the Mongols after their invasion in 1240 Central Europe, argued that European princes could not resist a second such invasion if they did not borrow from the enemy his methods of warfare.

The great advantage of the Mongols was their mobility. During the campaigns, they led so many horses with them that each warrior could ride a fresh horse daily for three or four days in a row. Once the enemy's initial resistance was broken, the Mongols would take over their territory at a rate that was unmatched by anyone until the advent of World War II tanks. The widest rivers did not present a serious obstacle for them, they crossed them in a special kind of collapsible boats, which they carried with them as standard equipment. Similarly, the Mongols were skilled in siege: there was a case when they even diverted a river and broke into a besieged city along a dry channel.

Empire organization.

The system of government of the empire was based on a set of laws called Great Jasoy. From the surviving fragment of this code of laws, one gets the impression that the yasa was an alloy of Mongolian customary law with additions made by Genghis Khan himself. Among the first is, for example, the prohibition to poke a knife into the fire, so as not to offend the spirit of the hearth. Of particular interest is the yasa, which freed the clergy of the conquered peoples from paying taxes, bearing military service and forced labor. This position is in good agreement with the readiness of the Mongols to take into their service officials of all nationalities and beliefs. Genghis Khan himself kept Muslims and Chinese as advisers. Its brilliant first minister Yelü Chucai was a member of one of the Khitan aristocratic families. It is believed that it was on his advice that the Mongols stopped the wholesale extermination of the settled population and began to use the talents of the conquered peoples to manage their empire. In Persia, under the Ilkhans, not only Muslims, but also Christians and Jews reached high positions, and during the reign of Khubilai, the grandson of Genghis Khan, administrators were recruited throughout the empire and in Europe.

With the exception of the clergy, all the conquered peoples, in the interests of collecting taxes and recruiting into the army, were divided into the same tens, hundreds, etc., as the Mongols. So, the poll tax was calculated immediately for ten people. The maintenance of each pit, a post station with a change of horses, was assigned to two ten thousandth units, which were responsible for providing the pit with the necessary food, horses and services. The pit system was introduced under Ogedei, the successor of Genghis Khan. Marco Polo describes this system in great detail as he saw it in action in China during Kublai's reign. Thanks to this system with the change of horses, the couriers of the Great Khan could cover up to 400 km of travel per day.

Before his death, Genghis Khan expressed his desire to be succeeded by his third son Ogedei (r. 1229–1241). The choice turned out to be right - under the skillful and energetic leadership of Ogedei, the empire flourished and expanded its borders. One of the first decisions of the new khan was the construction of an imperial capital. In 1235, the city of Karakorum (Kharahorin) was built, located 320 km southwest of the place where Ulaanbaatar is currently located.

All the time while Genghis Khan was on a campaign in the west, the war continued in Northern China. At the beginning of 1232, Ogedei and Tolui (the youngest son of Genghis Khan) themselves set out on a campaign. Two years later, they achieved their goal: the last Emperor The Jin dynasty fled and subsequently ended up committing suicide.

Hike to Europe.

Another army of Ogedei, under the command of Batu, the son of the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi, and the commander Subedei invaded Europe. Mongol troops crossed the Volga in the autumn of 1237 and attacked the principalities of Central Rus'. At the beginning of 1238 they turned to the north, but, not having reached 100 km to Novgorod, they retreated to the south, trying to avoid the spring thaw. In the summer of 1240, the Mongols resumed their campaign and in December captured and sacked Kyiv. The way to Central Europe was open.

Until that time, the most controversial reports about the Mongols had been received in Europe. The most common version was that this powerful ruler of India, King David (some said that he was the king of the Jews) rose against the Saracens. Only the invasion of Batu made Europe realize how little it knows the real state of affairs. The right flank of Batu's army passed through Poland and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Polish-German troops in the battle of Liegnitz (Silesia) on April 9, 1241, and then turned south to join the main forces in Hungary. Having won a victory there on April 11, the Mongols became masters of all the lands east of the Danube. In December, they crossed the river and invaded Croatia, pursuing the Hungarian king Bela IV, who was fleeing from them. Apparently, the army was already ready to invade Western Europe when a messenger arrived with the news that Ogedei had died in November. In the spring of 1242, the Mongol troops left Europe and never returned there.

Empire under the grandchildren of Genghis Khan.

The death of Ogedei opened a period of interregnum that lasted almost five years, during which the Merkit khansha Turakina, his widow and mother of his son Guyuk, acted as regent. At the same time, the Mongol armies defeated the ruler of the Seljuk Sultanate of Kony in northwestern Iran, thus pushing the empire's borders to the Mediterranean Sea.

At a kurultai that met near Karakorum in 1246, Guyuk (r. 1246–1248) was finally elected the Great Khan. This kurultai was attended by the Franciscan monk Plano Carpini, who delivered letters from Pope Innocent IV to the Mongolian court. Guyuk rudely rejected the pope's protest against the devastation of Poland and Hungary and invited the pope, together with all the crowned persons of Europe, to personally appear before him and take an oath of allegiance to him.

If Guyuk had lived longer, he would not have escaped civil war with his cousin - Batu. Guyuk served under Batu during the campaign against Rus', but quarreled with him and left for Mongolia even before the invasion of Central Europe. At the beginning of 1248, Guyuk set out from Karakorum, apparently intending to attack Batu, but died on the way.

After the death of Guyuk, as after the death of his father, a long period of interregnum began. The widow Ogul-Gamish became the ruler-regent of the empire. Batu, the eldest of the Mongol khans, convened a kurultai to choose Guyuk's successor. Kurultai chose Möngke (r. 1251–1259), grandson of Genghis Khan, son of Tolui, conqueror of Merv and Nishapur. Due to the opposition of the sons of Guyuk and their supporters, the ceremony of the Great Khan's accession to the throne took place only in 1251. At the same time, a conspiracy against the newly elected Great Khan was uncovered, and the conspirators were expelled or executed. Among those executed was the former regent. Ogedei's grandson Khaidu fled to Central Asia, where he remained the worst enemy of the great khans throughout his long life. Thus, among the descendants of Genghis Khan, the first of the splits occurred, which eventually led to the death of the Mongol Empire.

For the first time since Ogedei's death, the Mongols could think of new conquests. In 1253, Kublai Khan, the brother of the Great Khan, invaded the possessions of the Song dynasty in southern China, and his other brother, Hulagu, went on a campaign to the west, ending with the sack of Baghdad. In the autumn of 1258, Mongke himself led a campaign against the Sung Empire, during which he died in August 1259, leading the siege of one of the cities.

The death of Mongke meant the actual end of the united Mongol Empire. His brother Khubilai and Khubilai's successor Temur still held the title of Great Khan, but the Empire had already begun to disintegrate into separate states.

YUAN DYNASTY IN CHINA (1271–1368)

The Yuan, or Mongol dynasty, in China became famous thanks to its founder Kublai (r. 1260-1294). Khubilai ruled both as Great Khan and Emperor of China. The Golden Horde, founded by Batu, finally separated from the Mongol Empire, but Khubilai continued to be recognized as the Great Khan in Iran and, to a certain extent, in Central Asia. At home in Mongolia, he suppressed the rebellion of his brother Arig-Bug, who claimed the throne, kept in fear the sworn enemy Kaidu, heir to the overthrown house of Ogedei.

In China, Khubilai did much more. In 1271 he proclaimed a new Chinese dynasty Yuan. The long-term war with the Song dynasty from South China ended victoriously in 1276 with the capture of Emperor Song by the commander Khubilai Bayan, although the Guangzhou region held out until 1279. For the first time in 300 years, China was united under the rule of a single ruler; Korea and Tibet became submissive tributaries, the Thai tribes (later to found Siam) were expelled from their land in South China, and the countries of Southeast Asia were reduced to at least nominal vassals.

Overseas campaigns were not so successful. The army sent to the island of Java, deceived by the local ruler, the cunning prince Vijaya, defeated the enemy troops, after which Vijaya forced his unlucky allies to leave the island, exhausting them guerrilla war. The attempt to invade Japan had catastrophic consequences. In 1284, a typhoon that received Japanese history the name "Wind of the Gods" (kamikaze), sank the Mongol armada, and the Japanese captured or killed almost the entire Chinese army of 150 thousand people.

Domestically, Khubilai's reign was marked by peace, flourishing trade, religious tolerance, and cultural uplift. An important source information about this period are the notes of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who served at the court of the Great Khan.

Decline and Exile of the Yuan Dynasty.

Temür, the grandson of Khubilai (r. 1294–1307), inherited some of his grandfather's abilities, but after his death the dynasty began to decline. His successors failed to accomplish anything significant due to constant dynastic strife. The last Mongol emperor of China, Toghon Temur, ruled from 1333 to 1368, only Khubilai was in power longer than him. Endless intrigues and strife among the Mongol nobility led to numerous rebellions, and by the end of 1350 most of southern China had passed into the hands of partisan leaders. One of them was peasant son and a former Buddhist monk named Zhu Yuanzhang, future emperor and founder of the Ming Dynasty. Having defeated his rivals and seized their possessions, by 1368 Zhu became the ruler of all China south of the Yangtze. The Mongols, mired in civil strife, did not seem to react to the loss of this vast area and did not offer any effective resistance when, in 1368, Zhu moved his army north. Toghon Temur fled, and Zhu's troops triumphantly entered his capital. Togon Temur died in exile in 1370.

THE GOLDEN HORDE IN THE RUSSIAN LANDS (1242–1502)

Batu (Batu). To his eldest son, Jochi, Genghis Khan gave a vast, without clear boundaries, ulus, stretching from the eastern outskirts of present-day Kazakhstan to the banks of the Volga. After the death of Jochi in 1227, the eastern part of the ulus in Western Siberia(later called the White Horde) went to his eldest son. Batu (Batu) (r. 1242–1255), second son of Jochi, inherited western part ulus, which included Khorezm and the southern Russian steppes.

Returning from a campaign in Hungary in 1242, Batu founded a khanate, later called the Golden Horde (from the Turkic-Mongolian "horde", "camp", "parking", "camping"). The Kipchak Turks, who had inhabited this region since ancient times, mixed with the conquerors, while their language gradually replaced the Mongolian.

The lord of the Russian principalities Batu lived on east coast Volga, in the summer he went down the river and spent the winter at the mouth of the river, where he built his capital, Saray. Plano Carpini and another monk, Guillaume Rubruk, who both visited Batu during their trip to Mongolia and on their way back, left detailed description his yard.

It is believed that Batu died in 1255. After the short reign of his two sons, Batu was succeeded by his brother Berke (r. 1258–1266).

Wars with the "Persian" Mongols.

Unlike his brother, who remained faithful to the religion of his ancestors, Berke converted to Islam. His conversion explains his hostility to the "Persian" Mongols, who destroyed the Arab Caliphate and remained for the most part shamanists, Buddhists or Nestorians. He was equally hostile to his cousin, the Great Khan Kublai, and supported the claims to the throne of Kublai's rivals, Arig-Bug and Kaidu.

However, Berke paid the main attention to the war with his cousin Hulagu, the first Ilkhan of Persia. Apparently, at first, luck accompanied the "Persian" Mongols, who approached the southern outskirts of Saray. Here they were defeated by the Golden Horde and suffered heavy losses during the retreat. The war flared up sporadically until Berke's death in 1266.

Independent development of the Golden Horde.

Berke's nephew and successor Mongke-Temur (r. 1266–1280), unlike his predecessors, supported the Russian vassals a good relationship. In accordance with Great Yasa, the code of laws of Genghis Khan, he issued a decree that exempted the Orthodox clergy from taxes and military service.

Mongke-Temur's cousin and Berke's cousin-nephew, Khan Nogai, even before the start of the wars with the Persian Mongols, went on campaigns against Byzantium. Now, having become the son-in-law of the Byzantine emperor and the de facto ruler of the Lower Danube region, Nogai, after the death of Mongke Temur, was the most powerful figure in the Golden Horde. But Nogai was eventually captured and killed by his rival Tokta.

The remainder of Tokta's reign (d. 1312) passed relatively quietly. His nephew and successor Uzbek (r. 1313-1342) was a Muslim, under him Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. The long and generally prosperous rule of Uzbek is considered the golden age of the Golden Horde Mongols. Soon after the death of Uzbek, a period of anarchy set in, during which the military leader Mamai, who played approximately the same role as Nogai in the previous generation, became the true ruler of the Golden Horde. During this period, the struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar yoke began. Mamai was defeated by the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field in 1380.

Tokhtamysh and Tamerlane (Timur).

Taking advantage of the Russian victories, the khan of the White Horde Tokhtamysh invaded Golden Horde in 1378 and captured Saray. The decisive battle between Mamai and Tokhtamysh took place in the Crimea and ended in the complete victory of the White Horde. Mamai hid in the Genoese trading post, where he was killed. Having become the ruler of the Golden and White Hordes, Tokhtamysh again reduced the Russians to his vassals and tributaries, sacking Moscow in 1382.

It seemed that the Golden Horde had never been so strong. However, having invaded the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, Tokhtamysh made an enemy in the person of the great Central Asian conqueror Tamerlane (Timur), who until recently was his patron. Tamerlane by 1390 took possession of the territory from India to the Caspian Sea. He helped Tokhtamysh come to power in the White Horde, but when Tokhtamysh encroached on his lands, Tamerlane decided to put an end to him. In the battle of 1391, one of the armies of Tokhtamysh was defeated; In February 1395, Tamerlane crossed the Caucasus, finished off the remnants of Tokhtamysh's troops, pushed the enemy to the north, and on the way back devastated the lands of the Golden Horde.

After Tamerlane left for Central Asia, Tokhtamysh regained the throne, but in 1398 he was expelled by his rival from the White Horde. He was sheltered Grand Duke Lithuanian, who spoke on his behalf, but was defeated. Pursued by enemies, Tokhtamysh fled to Siberia, where in the winter of 1406-1407 he was captured and killed.

Disintegration of the Horde.

The final disintegration of the Golden Horde began with the separation of the Kazan and Crimean khanates from it in the middle of the 15th century. In alliance with these khanates, Grand Duke Ivan III of Moscow (r. 1462–1505) managed to isolate the Golden Horde, after which he refused to pay tribute to Khan Akhmat (r. 1460–1481). In 1480 Akhmat moved to Moscow. For several months, the opposing armies stood against each other, without engaging in battle, on the Ugra River, then in the autumn Akhmat retreated. This meant the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. The Golden Horde itself outlived him by only a few years. She received a mortal blow in 1502 from the Crimean Khan, who burned Saray. The successor states of the Golden Horde, the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan on the Middle and Lower Volga, were captured by Russia under Ivan the Terrible in 1552 and 1556. Crimean Khanate by becoming a vassal Ottoman Empire, lasted until 1783 and was also annexed to Russia.

ILKHANS IN PERSIA (1258–1334)

Hulagu's conquests.

By the middle of the 13th century. The Mongols controlled almost the entire territory of Persia. Having defeated the Assassins, adherents of a sect of fanatical opponents of orthodox Islam, Hulagu, the brother of the Great Khan Mongke, was able to start a war with the Arab Caliphate itself. From his headquarters, he sent a demand to the caliph, the religious head of Islam, to surrender, but received no answer. In November 1257 the Mongol offensive against Baghdad began. In February 1258 Caliph al-Mustasim surrendered to the mercy of the conqueror, and Baghdad was plundered and destroyed. Al-Mustasim was wrapped in a felt mat and trampled to death: the Mongols were superstitiously afraid of shedding royal blood. Thus ended the history of the Arab Caliphate, which began in the 7th century.

Having captured Baghdad, Hulagu withdrew north to Azerbaijan, the seat of his Persian dynasty of the Ilkhans ("tribal khans"). From Azerbaijan in 1259 he went on a campaign against Syria. Soon Damascus and Aleppo fell, and the conquerors reached the border of Egypt. Here Hulagu found the news of the death of the Great Khan Mongke. Leaving his commander Ked-Bug in Syria with a much smaller army, Hulagu turned back. The Egyptian commander Baybars (“Panther”), most likely a Polovtsian by origin, once sold into slavery in Egypt, where he made a career in the Mamluk army, spoke out against the Mongols. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in Palestine. Ked-Bug was captured and executed. All Syria up to the Euphrates was annexed to Mamluk Egypt.

Ilkhans after Hulagu.

Hulagu's son and his successor Abaqa Khan (r. 1265–1282) continued the sluggish war with Berke, which ended with the latter's death. In the east, he repulsed the invasion of Borak, the ruler of the Chagatai ulus in Central Asia. Less successful were his wars with the Mamluks, the Mongol army that invaded Syria was defeated and retreated beyond the Euphrates.

In 1295, Ghazan Khan, the grandson of Abaqa Khan (r. 1295–1304), ascended the throne, beginning his short but brilliant reign. Ghazan Khan not only converted to Islam, but made it the state religion. Ghazan Khan showed a keen interest in the history and traditions of his people and was considered a great authority in these matters. On his advice, his vizier, the historian Rashid ad-Din, wrote his famous work Jami at-Tawarikh(Collection of annals), an extensive historical encyclopedia.

The last rulers of the Ilkhan dynasty were Ulzeitu (r. 1304–1316) and Abu Said (r. 1304–1316). After them, a period of fragmentation began in the country, when local dynasties came to power in its various parts, swept away by the end of the century by the invasion of Tamerlane. The reign of the Ilkhans was marked by the flourishing of Persian culture. High development reached architecture and art, and the poets of that era, such as Saadi and Jalaluddin Rumi, went down in history as classics of world literature.

CHAGATAI ULUS IN CENTRAL ASIA

To his second son Chagatai, a recognized expert on Mongolian law, Genghis Khan gave the lands stretching from Eastern Xinjiang to Samarkand, called the Chagatai ulus. Chagatai himself and his first successors continued to lead the nomadic lifestyle of their ancestors in the steppes of the eastern part of their possessions, while the main cities in the west were under the jurisdiction of the great khans.

The Chagatai ulus was probably the weakest of the successor states of the Mongol Empire. The great khans (even Khubilai's opponent Khaidu, until his death in 1301) imprisoned and dismissed the Chagatai khans at their own discretion. In 1347 Kazan, the last ruler of Transoxiana from the house of Chagatai, died in a battle with the army of the Turkic nobility, which, until the rise of Tamerlane, actually ruled in Transoxiana - the region of the right bank of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya basin.

Tamerlane (Timur) (1336-1405) was born in the vicinity of Samarkand. He achieved power through a combination of treachery and military genius. Unlike the methodical and persistent collector of the state of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane collected wealth. As expected, after his death the state collapsed.

In the eastern part of the Chagatai ulus, the Chagataids managed to survive the invasion of Tamerlane and retained power until the 16th century. In Maverannahr (Transoxiana) itself, Tamerlane's successors did not last long and were expelled by the Sheibanids, another branch of Genghis Khan's house. Their ancestor Sheiban, brother of Batu, took part in the campaign against Hungary, after which he received possession of the ulus east of the Ural Mountains. In the 14th century The Sheibanids migrated to the southeast and filled the vacuum left by the White Horde, heading the union of tribes that was called Uzbeks since the reign of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this period, the Kazakhs first appear, a group that broke away from the Uzbeks.

In 1500, the Uzbek Khan Muhammad Sheibani captured Maverannahr and founded the Bukhara Khanate. Babur, the great-grandson of Tamerlane, fled through the mountains to India, where he founded the Mughal dynasty, which ruled almost the entire subcontinent from 1526 until the conquest of India by the British in the 18th and 19th centuries. Various dynasties were replaced in the Bukhara Khanate, until the last khan was deposed by the Soviet authorities in 1920.

LATER MONGOLIAN STATES

Western Mongols (Oirats).

The descendants of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan, who were expelled from China in 1368, returned to their homeland and found themselves under the rule of other Mongol tribes, the Oirats. Having defeated Uldziy Temur, the great-great-grandson of the last Yuan emperor, the Oirats in 1412 struck to the west, where they defeated the eastern Chagataids. The Oirat ruler Esen Khan owned a vast territory stretching from Lake Balkhash, and in the south to the Great Wall of China. Having been refused a marriage to a Chinese princess, he overcame the Wall, defeated the Chinese and captured the Chinese emperor. The state he created did not long outlive him. After the death of Esen Khan in 1455, the heirs quarreled, and the eastern Mongols pushed them to the west, uniting again under the rule of Dayan Khan.

Khoshuts.

One of the Oirat tribes, the Khoshuts, settled in 1636 in the region of Lake Kukunor, in what is now the Chinese province of Qinghai. Here they were destined to play a decisive role in the history of neighboring Tibet. Gushi Khan, the ruler of the Khoshuts, was converted to Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelug school or, as it was also called, “yellow hats” (according to the color of the hats worn by the clergy of this school). At the request of the head of the Gelug school of the Dalai Lama V, Gushi Khan captured the head of the rival Sakya school and in 1642 declared the Dalai Lama V the sovereign ruler of all Buddhists in central Tibet, becoming a secular ruler under him until his death in 1656.

Torguts, Derbets, Khoyts and their Kalmyk descendants.

During the 16th - early 17th centuries. the western Mongols, forced out of their lands by their neighbors, the Chinese from the south, the Mongols from the east, the Kazakhs from the west, started looking for new territories. Having received permission from the Russian tsar, they came to Russia in several streams from 1609 to 1637 and settled in the southern Russian steppes between the Volga and the Don. Ethnically, the group that left for Russia was a mixture of several Western Mongolian peoples: Torguts, Derbets, Khoyts and a certain number of Khoshuts. The number of the group, which began to be called the Kalmyks, was more than 270 thousand people. The fate of the Kalmyks in Russia was not easy. At first they had enough independence in their internal affairs Kalmyk Khanate. However, the harassment by the Russian government displeased the Kalmyk khans, and in 1771 they decided to return back to Western Mongolia and took about half of their subjects with them. Almost all died along the way. In Russia, the khanate was liquidated, and the remaining population was subordinated to the Astrakhan governor.

Dzungars and Dzungaria.

Part of the Oirats - Choros, several clans of Torguts, Bayats, Tumets, Olets created a khanate in the west of Mongolia, which received the name of the Dzungar (from the Mong. "jungar", - " left hand", once - the left wing of the Mongol army). All subjects of this khanate were called Dzhungars. The territory on which it was located was (and is) called Dzungaria.

The greatest of the Dzungar khans, Galdan (r. 1671–1697), was the last Mongol conqueror. His career began inconspicuously as a Buddhist monk in Lhasa. After being released from his vow by the 6th Dalai Lama, in order to avenge his brother's death, he founded a state stretching from western Xinjiang to eastern Mongolia. But in 1690, and then in 1696, his advance to the east was stopped by the troops of the Manchu Emperor Kangxi.

Galdan's nephew and successor, Tsevan-Rabdan (r. 1697–1727), expanded the state westward, capturing Tashkent, and northward, stopping the advance of the Russians in Siberia. In 1717, he tried to prevent Chinese penetration into Tibet, but the Chinese troops expelled him from there too, planting the Dalai Lama VII, convenient for China, in Lhasa. After a period of civil war, the Chinese deposed the last Dzungar Khan in 1757 and turned the Dzungar possessions into the Chinese province of Xinjiang. The Choros people, where all the Dzungar khans came from, was almost completely exterminated by the Chinese, and Turks, Mongols and even Manchus were settled on their lands, who were joined by close relatives of the Dzungars Kalmyks who returned from the Volga.

Eastern Mongols.

After the victory of the Oirats over Uldziy Temur, the representatives of the Khubilai's house almost exterminated each other in a bloody civil strife. Mandagol, the 27th successor of Genghis Khan, died in battle with his nephew and heir. When the latter was killed three years later, the only surviving member of the once numerous family was his seven-year-old son, Batu-Menge of the Chahar tribe. Abandoned by his mother, he was taken in by the young widow of Mandagol, Mandugai, who achieved his proclamation as Khan of the Eastern Mongols. Throughout his younger years, she was regent and married him at 18. He went down in history under the name of Dayan Khan (r. 1470-1543) and managed to unite the Eastern Mongols into a single state. Following the traditions of Genghis Khan, Dayan Khan divided his tribes into "left wing", i.e. the eastern, directly subordinate to the khan, and the "right wing", i.e. western, subordinate to one of the closest relatives of the khan.

Acceptance of Buddhism.

The new Mongolian state did not long outlive its founder. The collapse is probably associated with the gradual adoption by the Eastern Mongols of the pacifist Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelug school.

The first converts were the Ordos, the "right wing" tribe. One of their leaders converted to Buddhism his mighty cousin uncle Altan Khan, ruler of the Tumets. The head of the Gelug school was invited in 1578 to a meeting of the Mongol rulers, where he established the Mongol church and received the title of Dalai Lama from Altan Khan (Dalai is the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan words meaning "wide as the ocean", which should be understood as "comprehensive"). Since then, the successors of the head of the Gelug school have held this title. The next one was turned by myself great khan Chakharov. From 1588 contact new faith also became khalkha. In 1602, the head of the Buddhist community of Mongolia, its supreme hierarch, was declared to be the incarnation of Jebtsun Damba Khutukhta, one of the first preachers of Buddhism in Tibet. The institution of "living gods", already established by that time in Tibetan Buddhism, took root in Mongolia as well. From 1602 to 1924 - the year when the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed - 8 "living gods" stood at the head of the church, replacing each other in turn. 75 years later, the 9th "living god" appeared. The conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism explains, at least in part, their rapid subjugation to a new wave of conquerors - the Manchus. Before the attack on China, the Manchus already dominated the area later called Inner Mongolia. Chakhar Khan Ligdan (r. 1604–1634), who bore the title of Great Khan, the last independent successor of Genghis Khan, tried to subdue the southern Mongols, but they passed into vassalage to the Manchus. Ligdan fled to Tibet, and the Chahars also submitted to the Manchus. The Khalkhas held out longer, but in 1691 the Manchu emperor Kangxi, an opponent of the Dzungar Khan Galdan, called the rulers of the Khalkha clans to a meeting, at which they recognized themselves as his vassals. Vassal dependence of Mongolia from Qing China continued until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1911-1912, a revolution took place in China, during which the Manchurian Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Outer Mongolia (territorially coinciding with current Mongolia) declared its independence. Inner Mongolia wanted to do the same, but its independence movement was crushed and it remained part of China.

Independence of Outer Mongolia.

The head of independent Mongolia was the 8th head of the Buddhist church "living god" Bogdo-gegen. Now he was not only a religious, but also a secular ruler of the country, and Mongolia turned into a theocratic state. The inner circle of the Bogdo Gegen consisted of the highest strata of the spiritual and feudal aristocracy. Fearing a Chinese invasion, Mongolia moved closer to Russia. In 1912 Russia promised to support the "autonomy" of Outer Mongolia, and the very next year its status as independent state was recognized in the joint Russian-Chinese declaration. In accordance with the Kyakhta Agreement concluded by China, Russia and Mongolia in 1915, the autonomy of Outer Mongolia under Chinese suzerainty was officially recognized. During this period, Russia and especially Japan sought to strengthen their positions in Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. In 1918, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, a revolutionary party was formed in Mongolia under the leadership of D. Sukhe-Bator, calling not only for the liberation of the country from foreign dependence, but also for the removal of all clergy and aristocrats from the government. In 1919, the Anfu clique, led by General Xu Shuzheng, restored Chinese control over Mongolia. Meanwhile, supporters of D. Sukhe-Bator united with members of the circle of Kh. Choibalsan (another local revolutionary leader), laying the foundation for the formation of the Mongolian People's Party (MNP). In 1921, the united revolutionary forces of Mongolia, with the support of the Soviet Red Army, defeated the troops opposing them, including the Asian division of the Russian White Guard general Baron Ungern von Sternberg. In Altan-Bulak, on the border with Kyakhta, a provisional government of Mongolia was elected, and in the same 1921, after negotiations, an agreement was signed on the establishment of friendly relations with Soviet Russia.

The provisional government, set up in 1921, operated under conditions of a limited monarchy, and the Bogd Gegen remained the nominal head of state. During this period, within the government itself, there was a struggle between radical and conservative groups. In 1923 Sukhe-Bator died, and in 1924 Bogdo Gegen. A republic was established in the country. Outer Mongolia became known as the Mongolian People's Republic, and the capital Urga was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The Mongolian People's Party was transformed into the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). In 1924, as a result of negotiations between the Chinese leader Sun Yat-sen and the Soviet leaders, an agreement was signed in which the Soviet Union officially recognized that Outer Mongolia was part of the Republic of China. However, less than a year after its signing, the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR issued a statement to the press that, although Mongolia was recognized by the Soviet government as part of China, it had autonomy, excluding the possibility of Chinese interference in its internal affairs.

In 1929 the Mongolian government organized a campaign to transfer livestock into collective ownership. However, by 1932 it was necessary to make adjustments to the current policy due to the onset of economic devastation and political unrest. Beginning in 1936, Kh. Choibalsan, who opposed forced collectivization, gained the greatest influence in the country. Choibalsan took the post of prime minister of the republic in 1939, and the order he established in Mongolia was in many respects an imitation of Stalin's regime. By the end of the 1930s, most of the Buddhist temples and monasteries were closed; many lamas ended up in prison. In 1939, the Japanese, who by that time had already occupied Manchuria and, to a large extent, Inner Mongolia, invaded the eastern regions of the MPR, but were driven out from there by Soviet troops who came to the aid of Mongolia.

Mongolia after World War II.

In February 1945, at the Yalta Conference, the heads of the Allied governments - Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin - agreed that "the status quo of Outer Mongolia (the Mongolian People's Republic) must be preserved." For the nationalist forces (the Kuomintang party), which controlled the government of China at that time, this meant the preservation of the position fixed in the Soviet-Chinese agreement of 1924, according to which Outer Mongolia was part of China. However, as the Soviet Union insistently pointed out, the presence in the text of the decisions of the conference of the name "Mongolian People's Republic" meant that Churchill and Roosevelt recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia. China also expressed its readiness to recognize the independence of Mongolia in an agreement with the USSR concluded in August 1945, but subject to the consent of the inhabitants of Outer Mongolia. In October 1945, a plebiscite was held, during which the overwhelming majority of its population agreed that the country should receive the status of an independent state. On January 5, 1946, China officially recognized the Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), and in February of the same year, the MPR signed treaties of friendship and cooperation with China and the Soviet Union.

For several years, relations between the MPR and China (where the Kuomintang was still in power) were overshadowed by a number of border incidents, for which both countries blamed each other. In 1949, representatives of the Chinese nationalist forces accused the Soviet Union of violating the Soviet-Chinese treaty of 1945 by encroaching on the sovereignty of Outer Mongolia. However, already in February 1950, the newly proclaimed People's Republic of China in the new Soviet-Chinese Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance confirmed the validity of the provisions of the 1945 treaty relating to Mongolia.

At the end of the 1940s, the collectivization of pastoral livestock farms was started again in the Mongolian People's Republic, and by the end of the 1950s, the collectivization of pastoral livestock farms was practically completed. During this post-war period, industry developed in the country, a diversified agriculture was created, and mining expanded. After the death of H. Choibalsan in 1952, his former deputy became the prime minister of the republic and general secretary Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) since 1940 Yu. Tsedenbal.

After in 1956 the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR N.S. Khrushchev condemned gross violations of the law during the period of the Stalinist regime, the party leadership of the MPR followed this example in relation to the past of their own country. However, this event did not lead to the liberalization of Mongolian society. In 1962, the people of Mongolia celebrated the 800th anniversary of the birth of Genghis Khan with great enthusiasm and a sense of national pride. After objections from the Soviet Union, which declared Genghis Khan a reactionary historical figure, all celebrations were stopped and a severe purge of personnel began.

In the 1960s, due to ideological differences and political rivalry, serious tensions arose in Sino-Soviet relations. With their deterioration from Mongolia, which took the side of the USSR in this conflict, 7 thousand Chinese were deported in 1964, working under contracts. During the 1960s and 1970s, Ulaanbaatar repeatedly condemned the PRC. The fact that Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of China, has a sizable Mongol population only added to the hostility. In the early 1980s, four Soviet divisions were stationed in Mongolia as part of a group of Soviet troops stationed along China's northern border.

From 1952 to 1984, Y. Tsedenbal was in power in the MPR, who combined the posts of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP, Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1952-1974) and Chairman of the Presidium of the Great People's Khural (1974-1984). After he was dismissed, he was replaced by J. Batmunkh in all posts. In 1986–1987, following the Soviet political leader MS Gorbachev, Batmunkh began to implement the local version of the policy of glasnost and perestroika. Popular dissatisfaction with the slow pace of reform led to large demonstrations in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989.

The country has developed a wide social movement for democracy. At the beginning of 1990, there were already six opposition political parties actively calling for the implementation of political reforms. The largest of them - the Democratic Union - officially recognized by the government in January 1990, was later renamed the Mongolian Democratic Party. In March 1990, in response to the riots, the entire leadership of the MPRP resigned. The new general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP, P. Ochirbat, carried out a reorganization in the party. At the same time, some very famous people were expelled from the party (primarily Yu. Tsedenbal).

Then, in March 1990, P. Ochirbat became the head of state. Shortly thereafter, preparations began for elections to the country's highest legislative body. The 1960 constitution was amended to exclude reference to the MPRP as the only party and the only guiding force in political life Mongolian society. In April, a congress of the MPRP was held, the purpose of which was to reform the party and prepare for participation in the elections; The congress delegates elected G. Ochirbat as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP. Although the MPRP won 357 out of 431 seats in the supreme legislative body in the July 1990 parliamentary elections, all opposition political parties were able to take part in the electoral competition in most regions of Mongolia, thereby violating the MPRP's monopoly on power. In 1992, a new, democratic constitution was adopted, which introduced the post of president of the country. In the same year, P. Ochirbat was elected president (term of office 1992-1997), representing the democratic forces of the country.

In September 1990, a coalition government of D. Byambasuren was formed, which, along with members of the MPRP, included representatives of the opposition - the Mongolian Democratic Party, the Mongolian Social Democratic Party, and the National Progress Party. In June 1992, the MPRP again won the elections: having received 56.9% of the vote, it took 70 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural. The remaining mandates went to the "Democratic Bloc" (4 seats) as part of the Democratic Party, the Civic Unification Party and the National Progressive Parties (later merged into the National Democratic Party), Social Democrats and Independents (1 seat each). After the elections, the one-party government of the MPRP headed by P. Zhasrai was re-formed. Having proclaimed a "centrist course", it continued to implement the market reforms that had begun, which included the privatization of land and industry.

Political confrontation in the country grew. Opposition parties (PDP, MSDP, Greens and Religious) united in the "Democratic Union" bloc and accused the authorities of the collapse of the economy, thoughtless waste of funds, corruption and ineffective management using "old communist methods". Speaking under the slogan "Man - work - development", they were able to win the parliamentary elections in July 1996, receiving 47.1% of the vote and 50 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural. The MPRP won this time 40.9% of the vote and 25 seats. The right-wing United Party of National Traditions received 1 mandate. The head of the government was the leader of the PDP M.Ensaikhan. The winning coalition set about forcing reforms. The rapid transformation of a centralized economy into a market economy led to a deterioration in the situation of a significant part of the population and social conflicts. Discontent quickly affected: the presidential elections in May 1997 were unexpectedly won by MPRP candidate N. Bagabandi, who collected about two-thirds of the votes. The new president studied in the USSR, in 1970-1990 he headed one of the departments of the Central Committee of the MPRP. In 1992 he was elected deputy chairman of the Central Committee of the MPRP, in 1996 he headed the parliamentary faction of the party, in 1997 he became chairman of the party.

The former ruling party began to consolidate its positions. Yu.Tsedenbal's membership in the MPRP was posthumously restored, and a conference dedicated to his memory was held. However, disagreements in the government camp were growing. In October 1998, one of the leaders of the democratic movement of 1990 and a contender for the post of head of government, Minister of Infrastructure S. Zorig, was killed. The ruling coalition failed for a long time to appoint a new chairman of the government; 5 candidates for this post failed to succeed. Only in December 1998, the khural approved the mayor of Ulaanbaatar, E. Narantsatsralt, as the head of government, who already resigned in July 1999 and was replaced by the former Minister of Foreign Affairs R. Amarzhargal.

The drought in the summer of 1999 and the unusually cold winter that followed caused a catastrophic drop in agricultural production. Up to 1.7 out of 33.5 million livestock died. At least 35,000 people needed food aid. The growth of foreign investments (in 1999 they increased by 350% compared to 1998 and amounted to 144.8 million US dollars) in the mining of copper and the production of cashmere fiber, as well as textiles, could not mitigate the consequences of structural economic reforms held under the auspices of the International Monetary Fund. A third of the population lived below the subsistence level, with an average per capita income of $40–80 per month, lower than in Russia and China.

Disillusionment with the policy of the ruling coalition led to its heavy defeat in the July 2000 parliamentary elections. The MPRP won 72 out of 76 seats in the State Great Khural and returned to power. The NDP, the Bloc of the Civil Courage Party and the Greens, the Alliance of the Homeland and the independents received 1 place each.

The General Secretary of the MPRP, N. Enkhbayar, who became the head of government after the elections, promised that market reforms would continue, but in a milder version. Enkhbayar is a well-known translator of Russian and Anglo-American literature, in 1992-1996 he served as Minister of Culture, in 1996 he was elected General Secretary of the MPRP. Considers himself an active Buddhist; in the MPRP he is a supporter of the social-democratic image of the party.

The hegemony of the MPRP was strengthened in May 2001, when N. Bagabandi, having received 57.9% of the vote, was re-elected for a second term. The president reaffirmed his commitment to economic reform, human rights and democracy and denied accusations of intent to return to a one-party system. In 1998, Mongolia was visited for the first time since 1990 by the head of a Western European state: it was German President Roman Herzog.

Mongolia in the 21st century.

In 2001, the International Monetary Fund provided a loan of $40 million.

Elections to the Great Khural were held in 2004, but they did not reveal an obvious winner, since the MPRP and the opposition coalition "Motherland - Democracy" received approximately the same number of votes. After lengthy negotiations, the parties came to a compromise, dividing power, and the representative of the opposition, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, became prime minister. He belongs to the so-called. the Young Democrats of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

In 2005, former Prime Minister Nambaryn Enkhbayar was elected President of Mongolia. The President was a symbolic figure. Although he could block the decisions of parliament, which in turn could change the president's decision by a majority vote, it needed a two-thirds majority to do so.

In early 2006, the MPRP withdrew from the government coalition as a sign of disagreement with the ongoing economic course of the country, resulting in the resignation of Elbegdorj. The opposition held protests. More than one and a half thousand demonstrators broke into the building of one of the ruling parties.

On January 25, 2006, the People's Great Khural elected Miegombo Enkhbold, leader of the MPRP, as prime minister by a majority vote. The appointment was also confirmed by the country's President Enkhbayar. Thus, the crisis in Mongolia, which threatened to develop into a revolution, ended. These events have been called the "Yurt Revolution".

At the end of 2007, Enkhbold was expelled from the party and therefore had to resign. In the same year, Sanjiin Bayar, also a member of the MPRP, was elected as the new prime minister. Such frequent changes in government have led to an increased role for the presidency.

Since 2007, Mongolia has been actively foreign policy in particular, rapprochement with China and Russia began.

In July 2008, the opposition again tried to play the orange scenario. On June 29, 2008 elections to the Great Khural were held. The Democratic Party has declared electoral fraud. Riots began, on July 1, the opposition seized and set fire to the headquarters of the MPRP in the center of Ulaanbaatar. The authorities responded decisively - the police opened fire and used tear gas, as a result of which several people were killed, arrests were made and a state of emergency was declared. The authorities managed to bring the situation under control.

Literature:

Maisky I.M. Mongolia on the eve of the revolution. M., 1960
Dalai Ch. Mongolia in the 13th–14th centuries. M., 1983
History of the Mongolian People's Republic. M., 1983
Skrynnikova T.D. Lamaist Church and State. Outer Mongolia, 16th – early 20th century. Novosibirsk, 1988
Trepavlov V.V. State structure of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. M., 1993
Nadirov Sh.G. Tsedenbal, 1984. M., 1995
Graivoronsky V.V. Modern aratstvo of Mongolia. Social problems of the transition period, 1980–1995. M., 1997
Kulpin E.S. Golden Horde. M., 1998
Walker S.S. Genghis Khan. Rostov-on-Don, 1998
Pershin D.P. Baron Ungern, Urga and Altan-Bulak. Samara, 1999

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Mongolia is an amazing country with a long history, the birthplace of the great Genghis Khan. On the territory of the country there are endless steppes, the hot Gobi desert, and the majestic peaks of Altai. Only here there are about a dozen horses per inhabitant, and the difference between summer and winter temperatures is 80 degrees!

Location, composition and cities

The state of Mongolia is located in the northeast of Asia. Administratively, the country consists of 21 aimags, which in turn are divided into 329 soums.

The capital of Mongolia is the city of Ulaanbaatar.

Borders and area

Land borders of Mongolia with countries such as Russia and China.

Mongolia covers an area of ​​1,654 thousand square kilometers.

Mongolia map

Timezone

Population

2,964,000 people as of the end of 2015.

Language

The official language is Mongolian.

Religion

Buddhism is the main religion for the entire population of Mongolia. It is practiced by more than ninety percent of the entire population. Shamanism, Islam and other religions are also widespread in the territory of Mongolia.

Finance

The official currency is the Tugrik.

Medical care and insurance

Medical care is relatively good. It should be noted that there are few medical institutions in which tourists can receive qualified assistance. Emergency assistance is provided free of charge. There is no health insurance system in Mongolia.

Mains voltage

220 V, frequency 50 Hertz. Type of sockets - C and E.

International dialing code

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Basic moments

Hundreds of kilometers of land separate Mongolia from the nearest seas. This is the second largest country on the planet after Kazakhstan, which does not have access to the oceans. Mongolia is also known for being the most sparsely populated among all sovereign states in the world, and its main city- Ulaanbaatar - is one of the coldest capitals along with Reykjavik, Helsinki, Ottawa. But, despite such alarming records, the mysterious and original Mongolia does not cease to attract travelers. The birthplace of Genghis Khan is famous for its rich cultural and historical heritage, fantastic landscapes, diverse landscapes. Mongolia is called the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky", because the sun shines here for more than 250 days a year.

The country has 22 national parks, most of them have a well-developed tourist infrastructure. Roads, hiking trails are laid along the protected areas, campsites, souvenir shops, cafes, bird and animal watching sites are equipped for tourists. In each of the parks, travelers are offered their own unique destinations and excursion programs. In Ulaanbaatar and Kharkhorin, which stands on the site of the ancient Mongolian capital, you can see monuments of Buddhist and Chinese architecture of world significance, in mountain caves along the rivers - rock paintings by primitive artists, in the Mongolian steppes, stone steles with weathered images of ancient gods are found everywhere.

Tourists willingly go to Mongolia, who like adventure and exotic. They go to the desert or climb mountains, travel on horseback and camels. Spectrum of active sports entertainment very wide - from rafting on mountain rivers to paragliding. Ecologically clean reservoirs of Mongolia, where salmon, whitefish, sturgeon are found - the dream of lovers of nice fishing. There are separate programs in Mongolia for those who want to go on a yoga tour or hunt with a golden eagle.

All cities of Mongolia

History of Mongolia

Tribes of primitive people began to populate the territory of modern Mongolia at least 800,000 years ago, and scientists attribute traces of Homo sapiens to these lands to the 40th millennium BC. e. Archaeological excavations show that the nomadic way of life, which determined the history, culture, traditions of the Mongols, established itself in these lands in 3500-2500 BC. e., when people reduced the cultivation of scarce land to a minimum, giving preference to nomadic pastoralism.

IN different times, right up to the early Middle Ages, on the Mongolian lands they replaced, pushed back and partially assimilated with each other the tribes of the Huns, Xianbi, Juan, ancient Turks, Uighurs, Khitan. Each of these peoples contributed to the formation of the Mongolian ethnic group, as well as the language - the Mongol-speaking of the ancient Khitans was authentically confirmed. The ethnonym "Mongol" in the form "mengu" or "mengu-li" first appeared in the Chinese historical annals of the Tang dynasty (7th-10th centuries AD). The Chinese gave this name to the "barbarians" who roamed near their northern borders, and it probably corresponded to the self-name of the tribes themselves.

By the end of the 12th century, on the vast lands stretching from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia and from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur, numerous tribal tribes united in unions roamed. At the beginning of the 13th century, Khan Temujin, who belonged to the ancient Mongol clan Borjigin, managed to unite most of these tribes under his rule. In 1206, at a kurultai - a congress of the Mongol nobility - other khans recognized Temujin's supremacy over themselves, proclaiming him the great kagan. The supreme ruler took the name Genghis. He became famous as the founder of the most extensive continental empire in the history of mankind, which extended its power over most of Eurasia.

Genghis Khan swiftly carried out a series of reforms to centralize power, created a powerful army and introduced strict discipline into it. Already in 1207, the Mongols conquered the peoples of Siberia, and in 1213 they invaded the territory of the Chinese state of Jin. In the first quarter of the 13th century, Northern China, Central Asia, the territories of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Armenia were under the rule of the Mongol Empire. In 1223, the Mongols appeared in the Black Sea steppes, on the Kalka River they crushed the combined Russian-Polovtsian troops. The Mongols pursued the surviving warriors to the Dnieper, invading the territory of Rus'. Having studied the future theater of operations, they returned to Central Asia.

After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the unity of the Mongol Empire began to acquire only a nominal character. Its territory was divided into four uluses - the hereditary possessions of the sons of the great conqueror. Each of the uluses gravitated towards independence, only formally maintaining subordination central region with its capital in Karakorum. In the future, Mongolia was ruled by the direct descendants of Genghis Khan - the Genghisids, who bore the titles of great khans. The names of many of them are imprinted on the pages of history books that tell about the times of the Mongol-Tatar occupation of Rus'.

In 1260, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan became the Great Khan. Having conquered the Middle Kingdom, he proclaimed himself the Chinese emperor, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. On the lands conquered by the Mongols, Khubilai established a strict administrative order and introduced a strict system of taxes, but the ever-growing exactions caused more and more resistance from the conquered peoples. After a powerful anti-Mongol uprising in China (1378), the Yuan dynasty was defeated. Chinese troops invaded the territory of Mongolia and burned its capital, Karakorum. At the same time, the Mongols began to lose their positions in the West. In the middle of the 14th century, the star of a new great conqueror, Timur Tamerlane, rose, who defeated the Golden Horde in Central Asia. In 1380, on the Kulikovo field, Russian squads, led by Dmitry Donskoy, utterly defeated the Golden Horde, initiating the deliverance of Rus' from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

At the end of the 14th century, federalization processes intensified in feudal Mongolia. The collapse of the empire dragged on for 300 years, and as a result, three large ethnic formations were outlined on its territory, which in turn were divided into several khanates. In the 30s XVII century The Manchu Qing dynasty, ruling in Northeast China, began to claim Mongolian lands. The first to be conquered were the southern Mongol khanates (now Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of China), the last to fall under the rule of the Qing dynasty was the Dzungar Khanate, which resisted until 1758.

After the Xinhai Revolution (1911), which destroyed the Qing Empire, a national liberation movement unfolded throughout the former Mongol Empire, which led to the creation of a feudal-theocratic state - the Bogd Khan Mongolia. It consistently had the status of an independent power, a protectorate Russian Empire, an autonomy within China, whose ruler was the Buddhist leader Bogdo Gegen XVIII. In 1919, the Chinese annulled the autonomy, but two years later they were ousted from Urga (today Ulaanbaatar) by the division of the Russian General Ungern-Sternberg. The White Guards, in turn, were defeated by the troops of the Red Army. A People's Government was created in Urga, the power of the Bogdo Gegen was limited, and after his death in 1924, Mongolia was proclaimed a People's Republic. Until the end of World War II, only the USSR recognized its sovereignty.

Most of Mongolia is a vast plateau located at an altitude of 1000 m with mountain ranges, steppe expanses, and hilly valleys. The western lands are divided by a continuous chain of valleys and basins into mountainous regions - the Mongolian Altai with highest point the countries of Munkh-Khairkhan-Ula (4362 m), Gobi Altai and Khangai, bounded in the south by the semi-desert Valley of Lakes, and in the West by the Basin of the Great Lakes. In the northeast of Mongolia, near the border with Russia, the Khentei highlands are located. Its northern spurs stretch in Transbaikalia, and the southwestern ones, descending to the central part of the country, surround its capital - Ulaanbaatar. The southern regions of Mongolia are occupied by the rocky Gobi Desert. Administratively, the country is divided into 21 aimags, the capital has the status of an independent unit.

A quarter of the territory of Mongolia is covered by mountain steppes and forests. This belt, covering mainly the Khangai-Khentei and Altai mountain regions, as well as a small territory of the Khangan region, is the most favorable for life and, accordingly, the best developed region. In the steppe regions, people are engaged in agriculture, grazing livestock. In the floodplains of the rivers, water meadows with high forbs are often used as hayfields. The northern moist slopes of the mountains are covered with forests, mostly deciduous. The banks of the rivers are bordered by narrow strips of mixed forests, where poplar, willow, bird cherry, sea buckthorn, and birch predominate.

The forests are inhabited by deer, elk, roe deer, deer, brown bears, as well as fur-bearing animals - lynxes, wolverines, manuls, squirrels. There are many wolves, foxes, hares, wild boars in the mountain-steppe regions, ungulates live in the steppe, in particular gazelle antelopes, marmots, birds of prey, partridges.

Full-flowing rivers are born in the mountains. The largest of them is the Selenga (1024 km), which crosses Mongolia, then flows within Russian Buryatia and flows into Lake Baikal. Another large river - Kerulen (1254 km) - carries its waters to Lake Dalainor (Gulun-Nur), located in China. There are more than a thousand lakes on the territory of Mongolia, their number increases during the rainy season, but shallow seasonal reservoirs soon dry up. 400 km west of Ulaanbaatar, in a tectonic depression in the region of the Khangai Mountains, there is a large lake Khuvsgulcollecting the waters of 96 tributaries. This mountain lake lies at an altitude of 1646 m, its depth reaches 262 m. In terms of the composition of the water and the presence of a unique relic fauna, Lake Khubsugul is similar to Baikal, from which it is only 200 km away. The water temperature in the lake varies between +10...+14 °C.

Climate

Mongolia, located inland, is characterized by a sharply continental climate with long and extremely cold winters, short hot summers, capricious springs, dry air and incredible temperature changes. Precipitation is rare here, most of it falls in the summer. Winters in Mongolia have little or no snow, rare snowfalls are considered a natural disaster, as they do not allow livestock to get to feed in the steppe. The lack of snow cover cools the bare ground and leads to the formation of permafrost patches in the northern regions of the country. It is worth saying that nowhere else on the planet in similar latitudes is permafrost found. The rivers and lakes of Mongolia are covered with ice in winter, many reservoirs literally freeze to the bottom. They are free from ice for less than six months, from May to September.

In winter, the whole country falls under the influence of the Siberian anticyclone. Here the high Atmosphere pressure. Weak winds rarely blow, they do not bring clouds. At this time, the sun reigns in the sky from morning to evening, illuminating and somewhat warming snowless cities, towns and pastures. The average temperature in January, the coldest month, ranges from -15°C in the south to -35°C in the northwest. In mountain hollows, frosty air stagnates, and the thermometers sometimes record a temperature of -50 °C.

In the warm season, Atlantic air masses approach Mongolia. True, overcoming a long journey over land, they waste their moisture. Its remnants go mainly to the mountains, especially their northern and western slopes. The least rain falls in the desert region of the Gobi. Summer in the country is warm, with an average daily temperature from north to south from +15 °С to +26 °С. In the Gobi Desert, the air temperature can exceed +50 °C; in this corner of the planet, characterized by an extreme climate, the amplitude of summer and winter temperatures is 113 °C.

Spring weather in Mongolia is extremely unstable. The air at this time becomes extremely dry, the winds carrying sand and dust sometimes reach the strength of a hurricane. Temperature fluctuations in a short period can be tens of degrees. Autumn here, on the contrary, is everywhere quiet, warm, sunny, but it lasts until the first days of November, the arrival of which marks the beginning of winter.

Culture and traditions

Mongolia is a mono-ethnic country. About 95% of its population are Mongols, a little less than 5% are peoples of Turkic origin who speak dialects of the Mongolian language, a small part are Chinese, Russians. The culture of the Mongols was originally formed under the influence of a nomadic lifestyle, later it was strongly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism.

Throughout the history of Mongolia, shamanism has been widely practiced here - an ethnic religion widespread among the nomads of Central Asia. Gradually, shamanism gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, this religion became official at the end of the 16th century. The first Buddhist temple was built here in 1586, and by the beginning of the 1930s there were more than 800 monasteries and about 3,000 temples in the country. During the years of militant atheism, religious buildings were closed or destroyed, thousands of monks were executed. In the 1990s, after the fall of communism, traditional religions began to revive. Tibetan Buddhism has returned to its dominant position, but shamanism continues to be practiced. The peoples of Turkic origin living here traditionally profess Islam.

Before the reign of Genghis Khan, there was no written language in Mongolia. The oldest work of Mongolian literature was " secret history Mongols" (or "Secret Legend"), dedicated to the formation of the clan of the great conqueror. It was written after his death, in the first half of the 13th century. Old Mongolian writing, created on the basis of the alphabet borrowed from the Uighurs, existed with some changes until the middle of the 20th century. Today in Mongolia, the Cyrillic alphabet is used, which differs from the Russian alphabet by two letters: Ө and Y.

Mongolian music was formed under the influence of nature, nomadic lifestyle, shamanism, Buddhism. The symbol of the Mongolian nation is the traditional stringed musical instrument morin khur, the head of its neck is made in the form of a horse's head. Long, melodic Mongolian music usually accompanies solo singing. Praised in epic national songs motherland or a favorite horse, lyrical motifs sound, as a rule, at weddings or at family celebrations. Throat and overtone singing is also famous, which, with the help of a special breathing technique, creates the impression that the performer has two voices. Tourists are introduced to this original art form during ethnographic excursions.

The nomadic way of life of the Mongols found its expression in the local architecture. In the 16th-17th centuries, Buddhist temples were designed as rooms with six and twelve corners under a pyramidal roof, resembling the shape of a yurt, the traditional dwelling of the Mongols. Later, temples began to be built in the Tibetan and Chinese architectural traditions. The yurts themselves - mobile collapsible tent houses with a frame covered with felt felt, are still housing for 40% of the country's population. Their doors are still turned to the south - to the warmth, and in the northern, most honorable side of the yurt, they are always ready to welcome the guest.

The hospitality of the Mongols is legendary. According to one of them, Genghis Khan bequeathed to his people to always welcome travelers. And today, in the Mongolian steppes, nomads never refuse lodging and food to strangers. And the Mongols are very patriotic and united. It seems that they are all one big friendly family. They treat each other with warmth, calling strangers “sister”, “brother”, demonstrating that respectful relationships instilled in the family extend beyond its borders.

Visa

All sights of Mongolia

Central Mongolia

In the middle of the Tuva (Central) aimag, the main city of the country, Ulaanbaatar, and its administratively subordinate territories are located as an enclave. Almost half of the population of Mongolia lives here. This bright original city, surrounded by a dense ring of yurts, impresses with its contrasts. High-rise buildings coexist here with ancient Buddhist monasteries, modern skyscrapers - with faceless buildings of the times of socialism. The capital has the best hotels, shopping centers, restaurants, nightclubs, national park entertainment.

The city has many monuments dedicated to national heroes and masterpieces of religious architecture. The architectural symbol of Ulaanbaatar is the Gandan monastery, where 600 monks live permanently and religious ceremonies are held daily. The main attraction of the temple is a 26-meter statue of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, one of the most revered representatives of the Buddhist pantheon, covered with gold leaf. The Chinese architectural tradition is represented by the Bogd Gegen palace complex. The last ruler of Mongolia lived here until 1924.

In the bowels of the modern city, behind a palisade of skyscrapers, the beautiful temple complex of Choijin-lamyn-sum (Choyjin Lama Temple) hides. It includes several buildings, one of which houses the Museum of Tibetan-Mongolian Religious Art. There are about a dozen excellent museums with rich collections in Ulaanbaatar. The most famous of them are the National Museum of the History of Mongolia, the Museum of Natural History, the Museum of Fine Arts.

Incredibly picturesque near and far neighborhoods of Ulaanbaatar, where, surrounded by mountains, are located National parks. Among them, the most famous Bogd-Khan-Uulsurrounding the mountain of the same name. In its gorge, according to legend, the young Genghis Khan hid from his enemies. A walking route runs through the park, leading to the top of the mountain, from where a spectacular panorama of Ulaanbaatar opens.

From the capital of Buryatia Ulan-Ude to Ulaanbaatar buses depart daily. Departure - at 07:00, arrival at the station at the railway station of Ulaanbaatar - at 20:00. The bus goes through the Mongolian cities of Sukhe Bator and Darkhan.