1. General ethical rules and norms for the work of a psychologist
Competence.
Psychologists make every effort to raise standards and define the limits of competence in their work. They engage only in those activities and use only those methods for which they have documented qualifications and personal experience. Psychologists are aware of the fact that the competence required to teach, serve, or study groups of people often depends largely on the characteristics of those groups themselves. In those areas of activity in which professional standards and norms have not yet been developed, psychologists show increased responsibility and do everything possible to protect the well-being of those with whom they work. They improve their skills in relation to their areas of activity and recognize the need in time additional training. Psychologists pay attention to scientific, professional, technical and administrative materials, trying to find their proper use.
Decency.
Psychologists strive to maintain integrity in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. In their work, psychologists are honest, friendly and respectful of others. In reporting on their qualifications, work, research, and teaching, psychologists should not make false, erroneous, or untruthful statements. Psychologists must be well aware of their personal values, needs, beliefs and the limitations that all this can impose on their activities. To be more effective in their work, psychologists try to clarify their professional roles for others and behave in accordance with these roles. Psychologists try to avoid wrong and potentially dangerous ambiguous relationships.
Professional and scientific responsibility.
Psychologists maintain professional standards of work, are responsible for their professional and scientific activity, trying to use their own methods, differentiated, depending on the needs different groups with which they are dealing. Psychologists cooperate with other professionals and social institutions to better serve the interests of patients, clients or other recipients of their services. The moral standards and norms of a psychologist are as much a private matter as they are of other people, except in cases where these norms may compromise professional responsibility or reduce public confidence in psychology and psychologists. Psychologists are not indifferent to the ethical side of the scientific and professional searches of their colleagues. When necessary, psychologists consult with colleagues to prevent or avoid unethical practices.
Respect for human rights.
Psychologists treat with due respect the fundamental rights, honor and dignity of all people. They respect people's rights to inner world, confidentiality, self-determination and autonomy, but are aware that their legal obligations may conflict with the exercise of these rights. Psychologists are aware of cultural, individual, and role differences, including those related to age, gender, race, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, disease, language, and socioeconomic status. Psychologists try to reduce the influence of these factors on their work and do not knowingly engage in any discriminatory practices.
Concern for the welfare of others.
Psychologists care about the well-being of those with whom they interact. In their professional actions, psychologists consider the well-being and rights of their patients, clients, students, supervisors, research participants, and other concerned individuals. In cases where the duties of psychologists conflict with ethical norms, psychologists try to resolve these conflicts in a non-harmful manner. Psychologists never forget the power over other people that psychology really gives or that is attributed to this profession, and they do not try to use this power for personal gain, as in professional activity, as well as outside of it.
Social responsibility.
Psychologists are aware of their professional and scientific responsibility to the society in which they work and live. They try to popularize psychological knowledge to improve the welfare of society. Psychologists do their best to reduce human suffering. When conducting research, they care primarily about the well-being of people and the deepening of psychological knowledge. Psychologists try to avoid misusing the results of their work. Psychologists, in accordance with the law, try to develop social policies in such a way that they serve the interests of their patients, clients and the public.
Among public professional organizations psychologists, the leading position is occupied by the Russian Psychological Society, which unites psychologists. The Code of Ethics of the Russian psychological society was adopted in 2003 at the 3rd Congress of the RPO.
The Code of Ethics introduces the concepts of "customer" and "client" of psychological services, describes the ethical principles and rules for the activities of a psychologist.
In particular, the concept of "customer" is explained as symbol person who is the object of research, counseling, special education, training, treatment, undergoing professional selection, certification, or a test subject, researched in the interests of human science.
The Code of Ethics of the Russian Psychological Society presents the main ethical principles and rules for the activities of a psychologist:
The principle of not causing damage to the Client;
The principle of the competence of a psychologist;
The principle of impartiality of the Psychologist;
The principle of confidentiality of the psychologist's activities;
The principle of informed consent.
Each of these principles in the Code of Ethics is revealed and substantiated by certain rules. These principles must be known and guided by them in professional activities.
1. The principle of not harming the Client requires the Psychologist to organize his work in such a way that neither its process nor its results harm the Client's health, condition or social status. This principle includes the following rules.
The rule of mutual respect between the psychologist and the client.
The psychologist proceeds from respect for personal dignity, rights and freedoms proclaimed and guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Work with the Client is allowed only after obtaining the Client's consent to participate in it, after notifying him of the purpose of working with him, of the methods used and ways of using the information received. If the Client is not able to make a decision on his participation in the experiment, such a decision must be made by his legal representatives.
Security rule for the Client of the applied methods.
The psychologist uses only such research methods that are not dangerous to the health, condition of the Client, do not present him in the results of the study in a false, distorted light, do not provide information about those psychological properties and characteristics that are not related to specific, agreed tasks of the psychological research.
The rule for preventing dangerous actions of the Customer in relation to the Customer.
The Psychologist formulates his recommendations, organizes the storage, use and publication of the research results in such a way as to exclude their use outside the tasks that were agreed between the Psychologist and the Customer, and which could worsen the situation of the Client. The psychologist informs the Client about the nature of the information transmitted to the Customer and does this only after obtaining the consent of the Client.
2. The principle of the competence of a psychologist. According to this principle, a Psychologist can provide only those services for which he has the necessary qualifications and education. In his work, he is guided by scientific and professional standards and applies tried and tested methodologies. The psychologist must adhere to the principle of scientific integrity and check the results obtained. The psychologist may undertake only such work that makes it possible to comply with the above obligations. This principle is revealed by the following rules.
The rule of cooperation between the Psychologist and the Customer.
The psychologist is obliged to notify the Customer about the real possibilities of modern psychological science in the field of questions posed by the Customer, about the limits of its competence and the limits of its capabilities. The psychologist must inform the Customer about the principles and rules of psychological activity and obtain the Customer's consent to be guided by them in the process of work. Psychologists may not propose special procedures, techniques, or other means that they do not own or whose effectiveness is subject to professional or scientific doubt.
The rule of professional communication between the Psychologist and the Client.
The psychologist must master the methods of psychodiagnostic conversation, observation, psychological and pedagogical influence at a level sufficient to maintain the Client's feeling of sympathy and trust, satisfaction from communicating with the Psychologist. The relationship of a psychologist with a client or patient is of a special nature due to the need to establish trust between them. The psychologist has the right to refuse to take on professional obligations or terminate their fulfillment in the event of termination of a trusting relationship.
The rule of validity of the results of the study of the Psychologist.
The psychologist formulates the results of the study in terms and concepts accepted in psychological science, confirming his conclusions by presenting the primary materials of the study, their mathematical and statistical processing and the positive conclusion of competent colleagues. When solving any psychological problems, research is carried out, always based on a preliminary analysis of the literature data on the question posed.
3. The principle of impartiality of the Psychologist.
The principle of impartiality of the Psychologist does not allow a biased attitude towards the Client. The influence of a positive or negative attitude of the Customer towards the Customer on the formulation of conclusions about the Subject is unacceptable. All actions of the Psychologist in relation to the Client must be based only on the basis of data obtained by scientific methods. The subjective impression that the Client makes, his social position should not have any influence on the conclusions and actions of the Psychologist. This principle is implemented by the following rules.
The rule of adequacy of the methods used by the Psychologist.
The psychologist can apply methods that are adequate to the objectives of the study, age, gender, education, the condition of the Client, the conditions of the experiment. Methods, in addition, must be standardized, normalized, reliable, valid and adapted to the contingent of subjects.
The rule of scientificity of the results of the research of the Psychologist.
The psychologist must apply data processing and interpretation methods that have received scientific recognition and do not depend on his scientific predilections, social hobbies, personal sympathy for a certain type of Client, social status, professional activity. The results of the study should contain only what any other researcher of the same specialization and the same qualifications will certainly receive if he re-interprets the primary data that the psychologist presents.
The rule of weighting the information transmitted to the Customer by the Psychologist.
The Psychologist transfers to the Customer the Results of the study in terms and concepts known to the Customer, in the form of specific recommendations that do not allow and do not dispose to their conjecture, consideration of the Client's personality outside the tasks that were set for the Psychologist. The psychologist is guided only by the interests of the case, and does not transfer to the Customer any information that could worsen the position and condition of the Client, the Customer, the team in which they cooperate.
4. The principle of confidentiality of the psychologist's activities means that the material received by him in the process of working with the Client on the basis of a trusting relationship is not subject to conscious or accidental disclosure outside the agreed conditions. The results of the research must be designed in such a way that they cannot compromise either the Client, or the Customer, or the Psychologist, or psychological science. Psychodiagnostic data obtained regarding students during their training should be treated as confidential, as well as information about clients or patients. When demonstrating specific cases, care should be taken to protect the dignity and well-being of the Client, in respect of which confidentiality rules must be observed. This principle is revealed by the following rules.
The rule of coding information of a psychological nature.
The psychologist is obliged to indicate on all materials of a psychological nature, from protocols to the final report, not the names, first names, patronymics of the Subjects, but the code assigned to them, consisting of an arbitrary set of numbers and letters. The document, which indicates the last name, first name, patronymic of the Client, and the code corresponding to it, known only to the Psychologist, is drawn up in a single copy, stored separately from the experimental materials in a place inaccessible to outsiders and transferred to the Customer according to the act, if necessary under the conditions of work.
The rule of controlled storage of information of a psychological nature.
The psychologist must first agree with the Customer on the list of persons gaining access to materials characterizing the Customer, the place and conditions for their storage, the purpose of their use and the timing of destruction.
The rule of correct use of Research Results.
The psychologist is responsible for the foreseeable scientific and social consequences of his work, including the impact on individuals, groups and organizations participating in or directly affected by the research, as well as indirect effects, such as the impact of scientific psychology on public opinion and the development of ideas about social values. The psychologist must reach an agreement with the Client on the exclusion of accidental or deliberate communication to the Client of the results of his research, which may injure him. Information of a psychological nature about the subject in no case should be subject to open discussion, transfer or communication to anyone outside the forms and purposes recommended by the Psychologist.
5. The principle of informed consent requires that the Psychologist, the Customer and the Client be informed about the Ethical Principles and rules of psychological activity, the goals, means and expected results of psychological activity and take part in it voluntarily.
2. Characteristics of the method of conversation (interview) in psychology
Conversation is a method of collecting primary data based on verbal communication.
It, subject to certain rules, makes it possible to obtain no less reliable information than in observations about past and present events, about stable inclinations, motives for certain actions, about subjective states. It would be a mistake to think that conversation is the easiest method to apply. The art of using this method is to know how to ask, what questions to ask, how to make sure you can trust the answers you get. It is very important that the conversation does not turn into an interrogation, since its effectiveness in this case is very low.
Conversation as a method of psychodiagnostics has some differences in the form and nature of the organization. One of the most common types of conversation is the interview.
An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (interviewee).
It comes in the form:
♦ free (conversation without strict specification of questions, but general program: a slender strategy in in general terms, and tactics are free);
♦ standardized (with detailed development of the entire procedure, including overall plan conversations, sequence of questions, options for possible answers: persistent strategy and tactics);
♦ partly standardized (strong strategy, but tactics are looser).
Diagnostic goals are more consistent with the standardized form of the interview, since it makes it possible to obtain comparable data on different subjects, limits the influence of extraneous influences, and allows you to work out all the questions in full and in the right sequence. However, it should only be used when the respondent is willing to do so. Otherwise, the result may be unsatisfactory, since a standardized interview is perceived by many people as an examination survey situation, which limits the manifestations of the immediacy and sincerity of the respondent. The interview should not be long and boring. Registration of responses should not deter the responder.
Depending on the intended purpose, the interviews are divided into diagnostic and clinical. A diagnostic interview is a method of obtaining information of general content and is aimed at probing various aspects of behavior, personality traits, character, and life in general: finding out interests and inclinations, position in the family, attitudes towards parents, brothers and sisters, etc. It can be controlled and unmanaged (confessional).
A clinical interview is a method of therapeutic conversation that helps a person to become aware of his inner difficulties, conflicts, hidden motives of behavior.
Certain difficulties in applying the method of conversation arise for a psychologist when working with children. In this case, a standardized interview is rarely used. The psychologist strives for more natural forms of conversation (diagnostic interview). Children most often lack any motivation to communicate with a psychologist, and therefore it is not always possible to immediately establish contact with them, which is so necessary during a conversation. In these cases, the psychologist should have at hand bright toys, colored pencils, paper and other entertaining things that arouse the child's interest and incline him to communicate.
In a conversation with children, a correctly formulated question plays a very important role. As mentioned above, questions are the main elements in the structure of the conversation. They are most often divided into three groups:
♦ direct (“Are you afraid of thunderstorms?”);
♦ indirect (“What do you do when there is a thunderstorm?”);
♦ projective (“Are children afraid of thunderstorms? How are you?”).
Indirect and projective questions help to reveal features that are difficult to comprehend. They can be used to exclude socially desirable responses.
When conducting a conversation, it is very important to take the right position in relation to the child, and the principle of non-directive psychotherapy is most suitable here:
♦ the psychologist must create a human warmth, full of understanding attitude towards the child, allowing to establish contact as soon as possible;
♦ he must accept the child as he is;
♦ by his attitude, he should make the child feel an atmosphere of mutual trust, so that the child can freely express his feelings;
♦ The psychologist must be tactful and careful about the positions of the child, he does not condemn anything, but at the same time he does not justify, but at the same time he understands everything.
Registration of responses should not disrupt communication and inhibit children's spontaneity. It is more preferable to use a recording by hand than a tape recorder, since it allows you to preserve the naturalness of the situation, distracts the child less, does not constrain. In the course of the conversation, such moments as pauses, intonations, tone, tempo of speech, etc., should also be noted.
3. Characteristics of the method of analysis of products of activity in psychology
psychologist ethical rule conversation
Analysis of activity products (content analysis). In psychodiagnostics, there is another way to obtain information about a person - this is quantitatively qualitative analysis documentary and material sources, allowing to study the products of human activity.
The term "documentary source" means: letters, autobiographies, diaries, photographs, videos, creative results V different types art, materials of various means mass media(newspapers, magazines, etc.).
In order to overcome the subjectivity of the researcher when studying documents, identify reliable information and record it accurately enough, a special method was developed, called content analysis (literally, “content analysis”). It was first used in the 1920s. of the last century for the processing of mass media materials. This is a more or less formalized method of document analysis, when, based on the researcher's hypothesis, special units of information are identified in documentary materials, and then the frequency of their use is calculated. So, for example, in the 20s. 20th century Russian researcher N. A. Rybnikov, in the course of analyzing essays, traced how schoolchildren's positive and negative assessments of their lives are distributed depending on age and gender. Or another example: in the 80s. 20th century N. N. Lepekhin and Ch. A. Shakeyeva conducted a content analysis of episodes of cruelty and aggression in Western and Russian films.
Thus, the main content analysis procedure is related to the translation of qualitative information into the language of the account. For this purpose, two types of units are distinguished: semantic, or qualitative, units of analysis and units of account, or quantitative. The main difficulty in working with documentary sources is the ability to conduct a qualitative analysis, i.e., to identify semantic units. This largely depends on the personal competence of the researcher, the level of his creative abilities.
Since content analysis is based on the principle of repetition, the frequency of using various semantic units (for example, certain concepts, judgments, images, etc.), it should be used only when there is a sufficient amount of material for analysis.
In content analysis, from a simple calculation of the frequencies of occurrence of certain semantic units, they gradually moved on to more complex statistical techniques (correlation technique and factor analysis). A new stage in the development of this method was its computerization. This is especially widely used in the United States - standard programs for analyzing various documents are being developed there, allowing you to quickly and reliably analyze a huge amount of information and free encoders from the tedious manual method.
In psychological diagnostics, content analysis is most often used as an auxiliary method or procedure for processing data obtained from other studies. With its help, the speech messages of the subject, accompanying almost any diagnostic examination, are analyzed, especially with an individual procedure. Specifically, content analysis can be used when processing data obtained through projective techniques (for example, TAT, Rorschach technique, Sentence Completion Technique); interviews, the content of conversations, other speech and written products of the subject; open questions of questionnaires, etc. For example, in the methods of diagnosing personality traits (anxiety, neuroticism, etc.), a content analysis of the grammatical and stylistic structures of the subject's speech is carried out: the number of thematic statements (illness, fear, uncertainty, etc.). ), verbs, logical blocks, etc. Such an analysis often makes it possible to reveal and objectify a hidden tendency in the answers of the subject.
4. Characteristics of the method of observation in psychology
Observation is usually called a purposeful, deliberate and specially organized perception, due to the task of the observer and not requiring him to "intervention" by creating special conditions in the "life" of the observed process, phenomenon. Observation differs from aimless passive “gazing”, which also does not change the conditions for the existence of the phenomenon under consideration, primarily in that it is subordinated to a specific goal, is carried out according to a previously developed plan, and is equipped with objective means for carrying out the very process of observation and fixing its results.
Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about the objects of observation, or test the initial assumptions associated with them. Precisely because observation provides knowledge through direct contact with the object of study using the senses, it has become historically the first scientific method.
General requirements for the organization of surveillance.
Observation should begin with the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which the activity will be observed, the definition of units of observation, the definition of the language and form of description of the observation.
The observation record should be factual, include a description of the entire situation (subject and social). The entry is made in a categorized or free form and is recorded in a continuous protocol or in an observation diary.
Facts are recorded in a continuous protocol in the form of their own description, where it is recorded what happened and how. The protocol is kept during the observation, and verbatim fixation is also possible.
An observation diary is usually used for multiple, multi-day observations. Sometimes the diary is kept for months, years in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for comments. Be sure to take into account the date, time, place and situation of observation, social and objective environment. For an accurate transmission of the observed facts, it is necessary to observe unambiguous terminology throughout the entire period of observation.
Requirements for observation as a scientific method:
1. purposefulness,
2. selectivity,
3. planning,
4. consistency,
5. organization,
6. fixability,
8. completeness.
Types of observation situations:
1. natural or artificial,
2. managed or unmanaged,
3. spontaneous or organized,
4. standard or unusual,
5. normal or extreme,
6. gaming, educational, industrial, military, illegal.
7. Direct - indirect,
8. Verbal - non-verbal,
9. Short-term - long-term.
Purposeful scientific observation is used in the following main cases:
1) orientation in the problem (obtaining material that helps to clarify the problem, clarify questions, formulate hypotheses); 2) the main collection of data about the object and subject of research, when other methods are unacceptable or their application is difficult; 3) addition, refinement or control of the results obtained by other methods; 4) illustration of the proposed theories, hypotheses, conjectures.
The advantage of observation as a research method is that the collection of information, as a rule, does not affect the course of events and does not interfere with the naturalness of the mental manifestations of the observed.
The disadvantages of the method include:
1) the passive role of an observer, waiting for events of interest to him, although the probability of their occurrence is not always high;
2) the difficulty of formalizing data, which complicates their quantitative analysis;
3) the difficulty of accurately establishing the causes of the observed phenomena due to the impossibility of taking into account all the influencing factors;
4) involuntary partiality of the observer, due to some patterns of social perception such as the "halo effect", causal attribution”, “contrasting ideas”, the effects of “primacy” and “novelty”, the phenomena of identification, empathy, referentiality, etc.
Types of observation method.
Objective - observation from the outside, observation of objects external to the observer.
Self-observation (introspection) - the subject's observation of himself, of the acts of his own consciousness and behavior.
Field (natural) - observation of objects in their natural conditions Everyday life and activities.
Laboratory (experimental) - observation in artificially created conditions.
Individual - observation carried out by one observer.
Collective - observation carried out jointly by several observers.
Random - an observation not planned in advance, made due to unexpected circumstances.
Intentional - a pre-planned observation that is part of the researcher's plan and pursues certain goals.
Systematic is a deliberate observation made according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule.
Non-systematic is non-strict observation without a definite plan.
Incomplete - observation, in which the attention of the observer is drawn to the optimal (less often to the minimum) number of parameters of the situation and the behavior of the observed.
Continuous - continuous observation of the object without interruption.
Selective - observation carried out at separate intervals, chosen by the researcher at his own discretion.
Ascertaining - observation, in which the observed phenomena and actions are only fixed and are not subject to discussion or evaluation by the researcher during the observation.
Evaluative - observation, accompanied by the observer's assessment of the situation or recorded phenomena and facts.
Standardized - observation carried out according to a predetermined scheme that prescribes the form of fixation and the list of parameters to be recorded.
Unstandardized - unregulated observation, in which the description of what is happening is made by the observer in a free form.
Open - observation in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research.
Covert - an observation that is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them.
Included - observation in which the observer is part of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside.
Non-included - observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. Objective, external observation.
Direct (immediate) - observation carried out directly by the observer himself.
Indirect (mediated) - observation carried out through intermediaries. Obtaining data from witnesses and participants of interest to the observer of events.
Provoked - observation, during which the researcher provokes the observed to any actions and deeds.
Unprovoked - observation, the procedure of which does not provide for a special provocative influence on the course of observed events.
5. Methods of zero-dimensional and one-dimensional scaling
Zero-dimensional scaling is the construction of a psychological scale that has a single value and zero dimension.
In many psychological studies, the problem arises of determining the unique or special value of a psychological variable. This special value of a psychological variable is called a threshold. The development of experimental psychology has shown that the threshold is a universal psychological characteristic, and threshold measurements have become widespread, especially in research on cognitive processes. In terms of measurement theory, the definition of a threshold is the finding of one scale value or the localization of a point on a psychological scale.
One-dimensional scaling.
The next step in the development of psychological measurements is focused on the development of methods that allow us to build a scale that contains not one single, but all the values of the psychological variable of interest to us. The first contribution to the creation of these procedures was made by Fechner (1860), who developed the first model of one-dimensional scaling. But the main detailed study of the procedures for one-dimensional scaling was carried out by Thurstone (1927, 1929), and then by Stephens and his colleagues (1937, 1955), who developed a method for direct evaluation of stimulation. Further, these methods were developed in the works of Swedish: psychophysicists under strong influence Ekman (1965). The methods they developed for constructing "strong" scales made it possible for psychologists to make rapid progress in solving many psychophysiological problems associated with various areas of cognitive processes.
These methods began to spread widely, and immediately there were fundamental limitations associated with establishing the correspondence between the dimension of change in the qualitative parameters of the estimated psychological property and the gradation used to measure the physical scale.
Unlike the operation of direct metric measurement of psychological stimuli, the operations of establishing order or equivalence are much simpler and more stable. An essential advantage of ordinal scaling is the possibility of using it to measure stimuli that, due to their complexity, are not amenable to rigid, metric measurements. That is why the procedures for constructing order scales are extremely common in such sections of psychology as psychodiagnostics, the study of emotions, intelligence, etc.
Bibliography
1. Vachkov I.V., Grinshpun G.B., Pryazhnikov N.S. Introduction to the profession of psychologist. M., 2002.
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Psychological diagnostics, edited by M.K. Akimova. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. S.-59.
Psychological diagnostics, edited by M.K. Akimova. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. S.-60.
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temperament character ability questionnaire
Characteristics of the basic concepts: temperament, character, abilities
Study of temperament, character and abilities
Analysis of results
Literature
Application
Characteristics of the basic concepts: temperament,character, ability
Temperament. Among the variety of individual characteristics of a person, neurodynamic properties that form temperament are of great interest.
Temperament is a system of stable, individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of his mental life and social being. Outwardly, they are equally manifested in its various forms (objective activity or communication), regardless of their content, goals and motives, and remain almost unchanged throughout life. With a relative equality of motives for behavior or activity and under the same external circumstances, people differ from each other in impulsiveness, in emotionality, in speed, in pace, in the degree of energy shown, in impressionability. These differences are revealed already in early childhood, they are distinguished by special constancy and appear in various spheres of social life.
The properties of temperament do not affect the content of a person's mental life: his goals, plans, thoughts, memories, fantasies, etc. Therefore, they are called formal dynamic. The doctrine of temperament arose in ancient times. This concept was first introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC), who believed that people have a different ratio of four fluids in the body: bile (“chole”), blood (“sangvis”), lymph (“ phlegm") and black bile ("melanos chole"). Depending on the predominance of one of them in the body, types of temperament were distinguished: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. His teaching was developed by the German philosopher I. Kant. He believed that the natural basis of temperament are individual characteristics blood. Kant singled out the temperaments of feelings (sanguine and melancholic) and the temperaments of activity (choleric and phlegmatic). He considered sanguine temperament as a characteristic of people of a cheerful disposition, optimists, humorists. They are also distinguished by kindness, responsiveness, readiness to help. The melancholic temperament is characteristic of people of a gloomy mood, increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. The choleric temperament is found in quick-tempered people who quickly ignite, but quickly cool down. Phlegmatic temperament refers to cold-blooded, calm and slow people. They master new activities for a long time, maintain working condition for a long time.
The scientific doctrine of temperaments was created by IP Pavlov. He associated temperament with the functioning of the central nervous system. When studying and isshi nervous activity he managed to discover the phi of its main properties: strength, balance and mobility. The strength of the nervous system is determined by its ability to withstand intense loads: prolonged work, stress, etc. Depending on this, two types of it were distinguished: strong and weak. A person with a strong type of nervous system is able to maintain their functional characteristics under conditions of increased tension and stress, which is not inherent in a person with a weak type.
The balance of the nervous system is determined by the ratio of the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition. It manifests itself in contradictory and conflict situations that simultaneously initiate two oppositely directed ways of behavior in a person: to be active - to be restrained, to speak - to be silent, to immediately make a decision - to delay, etc. these processes, in terms of strength, distinguish two types of the nervous system and the corresponding types of temperament: balanced and unbalanced with a predominance of excitation strength. The mobility of the nervous system is determined by the temporal parameters of the functioning of the processes of excitation and inhibition. It manifests itself in situations of mastering skills, changing activities, entering activities, etc. In accordance with this, two types of the nervous system were distinguished: mobile and inert. They differ in the speed of the corresponding nervous processes and the corresponding external or internal actions (thinking, memory, imagination, etc.). For example, a student with a mobile nervous system, other things being equal, will solve a problem faster than a child with an inert nervous system [15, p. 95].
Depending on the ratio of these processes, four types of higher nervous activity and the corresponding temperaments were distinguished: sanguine -- strong balanced mobile; phlegmatic -- strong balanced inert; choleric - strong unbalanced; melancholic -- weak type. The type of nervous activity is a natural feature of a person. It is hereditary, although it may vary slightly under the influence of environmental conditions. It is also known that there are age-related changes in the properties of nervous processes.
I.P. Pavlov’s theory of temperament is called neurophysiological. In addition to it, there is also a psychological theory of temperament, the author of which is V.S. Merlin. It is based on the study of the behavior of people in various life situations, in accordance with which several stable, extremely generalized formal (empty) properties of a person were identified, called emotional-dynamic or temperament properties. These include sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of reactivity and activity, the rate of reactions, extraversion, emotional excitability.
sensitivity- the sensitivity of the psyche, which is judged by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any human reaction, and what is the speed of this reaction.
Reactivity- the degree of involuntary reaction to external and internal influences of the same strength (for example, a critical remark, an offensive word, etc.).
Activity- the degree of energy with which a person acts on the outside world and overcomes obstacles in the implementation of goals.
The ratio of reactivity and activity, which is judged by what a person’s activity depends to a greater extent: from random external or internal circumstances (from moods, desires, random events) or from goals, intentions, aspirations, beliefs of a person.
Rate of reactions- the speed of various mental reactions and processes (speed of movement, rate of speech, resourcefulness, speed of memorization).
extraversion- dependence of reaction and activity and a person on external impressions that arise at the moment, and introversion - dependence of reactions and activity on internal images, appeal to one's inner world.
Emotional excitability characterizes the minimum force of influence necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction, and the speed with which it occurs.
The selected properties are not personal, but individual. They are distinguished by a rather rigid genetic predetermination, which significantly limits the possibility of changing them with the help of educational actions. The task of parents and teachers is not to change them in a child, but to accept them as a given, adapt to them and instill in him the ability to reasonably rely on them in the process of solving various life problems. For example, a sensitive person should, if possible, avoid situations associated with increased responsibility, risk, mental or physical overload, etc. They seem difficult for him to overcome, and therefore unprofitable. The properties of temperament, not being personal, are very important in the formation of various personal formations: self-esteem, character, abilities. This should also be taken into account when building the educational process.
Temperament types
The selected properties of temperament are presented in different people not in a random combination, but in a regular ratio, that is, as a stable system. Depending on this, the corresponding types of temperament are distinguished.
Sanguine temperament characterized by increased reactivity and activity, due to which it responds vividly to everything new. He has a balanced ratio of activity and reactivity, he can restrain his reactions and manifestations of feelings. The rate of reactions is quite high, which is manifested in rapid movements, the rate of speech, thinking and other mental processes. This person is very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Productive in dynamic and varied work. Able to quickly focus his attention, he is characterized by flexibility of mind, resourcefulness. The sanguine person is extroverted, quickly adapts to changing situations, finds contact with other people, is sociable, quickly switches from one type of activity to another. Emotionally unstable, easily amenable to feelings, they are usually not strong and shallow. Inclined to positive emotions.
At the core choleric temperament lies an unbalanced type of nervous system. The choleric, as well as the sanguine, is characterized by high reactivity and activity, a fast pace of reactions, but reactivity prevails over activity. He is distinguished by increased excitability, imbalance, which manifests itself in communication and activity: he enthusiastically gets down to business, takes the initiative, but the energy is quickly depleted. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. It is difficult for a choleric person to do activities that require smooth movements, a calm, slow pace, he often shows impatience, sharpness of movements, impetuousness. In dealing with people, the choleric is quick-tempered, unrestrained, irritable, which can lead to conflict situations.
Phlegmatic temperament characterized by calmness, poise, low mobility, great rigidity (lack of flexibility) and introversion. Activity prevails over reactivity. Mental processes are slow, he needs time to focus on any activity. Phlegmatic people are characterized by low reactivity and low emotional excitability. The movements of the phlegmatic are slow, he hardly switches his attention, he does not adapt well to the new environment. In activity shows perseverance, patience and perseverance. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. In relations with people, the phlegmatic is even, calm, it is not easy to piss him off. As a rule, he hardly converges with new people, weakly responds to new impressions, is introverted.
Melancholic temperament characterized by high emotional sensitivity, impressionability, increased vulnerability, a tendency to low mood, anxiety, and resentment. Hypersensitivity with great inertia, it leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause tears in him and fixation on the injury. The melancholic is distinguished by a slow mental pace, sluggish and slow movements. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet. Low reactivity and reduced activity are manifested in the fact that he is unsure of himself, often gets lost, and tends not to complete the work. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. He is introverted, prone to isolation, restrained in expressing feelings, avoiding communication with unfamiliar people.
A comparison of temperament types shows that there are no good and bad temperaments - each of them has its positive and negative sides. Therefore, the main efforts should be directed not to its correction, but to the reasonable use of its merits in specific activities and the leveling of negative features. Features of temperament are manifested, first of all, in the originality of ways, and not in the effectiveness of the activity. Yes, research labor activity showed that people with different types of temperament can adapt to the same types of activity by updating only their inherent properties, thanks to which they develop an individual system of techniques and methods of activity. The combination of the properties of temperament, manifested in the behavior and communication of a person, determines his individual style of activity and communication.
An individual style of activity is not an innate characteristic of a person. It can be considered as the result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system to the conditions of the activity performed, and more broadly, to the conditions of social life.
At the same time, in certain types of activity, not only the course of their implementation, but also the result may depend on the properties of temperament. In those areas of work where rather stringent requirements are imposed on the pace or intensity of actions, the individual characteristics of the dynamic manifestations of the psyche can become a factor influencing suitability for activity.
In some types of activity, where the requirements for the qualities of the psyche are quite high, there is a need for professional selection according to the qualities of temperament. For example, in professions that require a high rate of reactions (airport controllers, test pilots, etc.), it is necessary to have a mobile type of nervous system. But in most professions, the properties of temperament do not affect the final productivity of the activity. Shortcomings in temperament can be compensated for by good professional training, strong-willed qualities, interests and other mental properties.
Temperament acts as an individual basis for various personality traits, primarily character. It defines the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding properties. For example, kindness as a character trait has different forms of expression in people of different temperaments. The properties of temperament can facilitate or hinder the formation of certain character traits in a person. Therefore, the main task of the educator should be to, through systematic work, promote the development of his positive qualities and at the same time counteract the appearance of negative ones.
Character. Each person, along with many of his inherent features, has the most pronounced features and properties that are best manifested in his activities and communication with people, and therefore characterize his personality. The totality of these bright features is called character.
In the relationship of a person with the surrounding reality, in his activity, an infinite number of different individual psychological characteristics are formed and revealed. Many of them are insignificant, such as poorly developed taste sensations (unless, of course, we are talking about a taster). Other individual characteristics, although very significant, may be short-term, transient - for example, lethargy and slowness after illness. Still others (for example, poor mechanical memory) may not affect a person's attitude to the environment and even not affect his activity, being compensated by other features.
But there are also such individual psychological characteristics of a person that manifest themselves quite steadily and are essential features of all his behavior. Difficult shifting of attention can, in connection with a certain attitude to the environment and with certain behavior, become absent-mindedness.
Usually, when trying to evaluate or characterize a particular person, they talk about his character(from the Greek. Character - printing, chasing). In psychology, the concept of "character" means a set of individual mental properties that develop in activity and manifest themselves in the ways of activity and forms of behavior typical for a given person.
All character traits are personality traits; but personality traits only become character traits when they are more clearly expressed than others, are closely interconnected, determine each other and the style of actions and attitudes towards the environment characteristic of a given person.
For each person, the number of individual character traits can be extremely large, and the number of shades of each of them is boundless. However, some properties will always be leading, and it is by them that a person can be characterized.
The main feature of character as a psychological phenomenon is that character is always manifested in activity, in relation to a person to the surrounding reality and people. For example, the main character traits can be found in the characteristics of the activity that a person prefers to engage in. Some people prefer the most complex and difficult activities, it is a pleasure for them to seek and overcome obstacles; others choose simpler pursuits. For some, it is important with what results they performed this or that work, whether they managed to surpass others, while for others it may be indifferent, and they are content with the fact that they did the job no worse than others, having achieved mediocre quality. Therefore, when they determine the character of a person, they do not say that such and such a person showed courage, truthfulness, frankness, but that this person is brave, truthful, frank, i.e. these characteristics of a person's actions are attributed to the person himself. However, not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only essential and stable ones. For example, even very cheerful people can experience a feeling of sadness, but this does not make them whiners and pessimists.
Character is a lifetime formation and can be transformed throughout life. The formation of character is closely connected with the thoughts, feelings and motives of a person. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, his character is also formed. Therefore, lifestyle, social conditions and specific life circumstances play an important role in the formation of character.
Character formation takes place in groups that differ in their characteristics and level of development (family, friendly company, sports team, labor collective, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference for the individual and what values this group supports and cultivates, a person develops relevant character traits. Character traits are understood as the mental properties of a person that determine his behavior in typical circumstances. For example, courage or cowardice is manifested in a situation of danger, sociability or isolation in a situation of communication, etc. There are quite a few classifications of character traits. In the domestic psychological literature, two approaches are most often encountered. In one case, all character traits are associated with mental processes and therefore volitional, emotional and intellectual traits are distinguished. At the same time, decisiveness, perseverance, self-control, independence, activity, organization, etc. are referred to volitional character traits. curiosity, etc.
In another case, character traits are considered in accordance with the orientation of the personality. Moreover, the content of the orientation of the personality is manifested in relation to people, activities, the world around and to oneself. For example, a person's attitude to the world around him can manifest itself either in the presence of certain beliefs, or in unscrupulousness. This category of traits characterizes the life orientation of the individual, i.e., her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the personality determines the goals, life plans of a person, the degree of his life activity. In the formed character, the leading component is the system of beliefs. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person's behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work he performs.
Another group of character traits are those that characterize a person's relationship to activity. This refers not only to the attitude of a person to a specific type of work performed, but also to activities in general. The main condition for the formation of character is the existence of life goals. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or dispersion of goals. Character traits associated with the attitude to activity find their expression in the stable interests of a person. Moreover, the superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person's personality. Conversely, the depth and content of interests testify to the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual. However, the similarity of interests does not imply the similarity of character traits. So, among people with close interests there can be cheerful and sad, modest and obsessive, egoists and altruists. Moreover, people with a similar focus can go completely different ways to achieve goals, using their own, special techniques and methods for this. This dissimilarity also determines the specific nature of the personality, which manifests itself in a situation of choosing actions or ways of behaving. From this point of view, as a character trait, one can consider the degree of expression of an individual's achievement motivation - his need to achieve success. Depending on this, some people are characterized by the choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, competitive activity, striving for risk, etc.), while others are more likely to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoiding manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).
Indicative for the understanding of character can also be the affections and interests of a person related to his leisure. They reveal new features, facets of character. For example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - playing in the towns, D.I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels.
Another manifestation of a person's character is his attitude towards people. At the same time, such character traits as honesty, truthfulness, justice, sociability, politeness, sensitivity, responsiveness, etc. are distinguished. No less indicative is the group of character traits that determine a person’s attitude towards himself. From this point of view, people most often speak of egoism or altruism. The egoist always puts personal interests above the interests of other people. An altruist, on the other hand, puts the interests of other people above his own.
All personality traits of a person can be conditionally divided into motivational And instrumental. Motivational ones encourage and direct activity, while instrumental ones give it a certain style. Character can be manifested in the choice of the goal of the action, i.e. as a motivational personality trait. However, when the goal is defined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. determines the means to achieve the goal.
It must also be emphasized that character is one of the main manifestations of personality. Therefore, personality traits may well be considered as character traits. Among such traits, first of all, it is necessary to include those personality traits that determine the choice of goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence, or their opposite qualities can appear. Secondly, the character structure includes traits that are manifested in actions aimed at achieving the set goals: perseverance, purposefulness, consistency, etc. In this case, the character approaches the will of a person. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes instrumental traits that are directly related to temperament, for example, extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsiveness, switchability - rigidity, etc.
Capabilities- individual personality traits, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. Abilities are not limited to the individual's knowledge, skills and abilities. They are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of some activity and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of acquiring them. IN domestic psychology largest contribution B.M. introduced into experimental studies of abilities. Teplov
There are the following types of abilities:
1. educational and creative
2. mental and special
3. mathematical
4. constructive and technical
5. musical
6. literary
7. artistic and visual
8. physical ability
Educational and Creative skills differ from each other in that the former determine the success of education and upbringing, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and the formation of personality traits by a person, while the latter determines the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and works, in a word - - individual creativity in various fields of human activity.
The nature of special abilities. By studying specifically the psychological characteristics of abilities, one can single out more general qualities that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity, and special qualities that meet a narrower range of requirements for this activity. In the structure of the abilities of some individuals, these general qualities can be extremely pronounced, which indicates that people have versatile abilities, about general abilities for a wide range of different activities, specialties and occupations.
Specific example: It is not enough for a mathematician to have a good memory and attention. What distinguishes people capable of mathematics is the ability to grasp the order in which the elements necessary for a mathematical proof should be located. The presence of this kind of intuition is the basic element of mathematical creativity.
Musical abilities can be divided into two groups:
1. technical (playing a given musical instrument or singing)
2. auditory (ear of music).
Musical abilities in the existing general psychological classification are classified as special, that is, those that are necessary for successful practice and are determined by the very nature of music as such.
Levels of development of abilities: 1. Inclinations 2. Abilities 3. Giftedness 4. Talent 5. Genius
Let us note one more very significant circumstance. It is not success in the performance of activities that depends on giftedness, but only the possibility of achieving this success. Successful performance of any activity requires not only giftedness, that is, the presence of an appropriate combination of abilities, but also the possession of the necessary skills and abilities. No matter how phenomenal and musical talent a person has, if he did not study music and did not systematically engage in musical activities, he would not be able to perform the functions of an opera conductor or pop pianist.
Thus, abilities are not the only factor determining the choice of activity and determining the success of this activity.
So, temperament acts as an individual basis for various personal properties, primarily character. It defines the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding properties. The properties of temperament can facilitate or hinder the formation of certain character traits in a person. Therefore, the main task of the educator should be to, through systematic work, promote the development of his positive qualities and at the same time counteract the appearance of negative ones.
Character is not an innate quality of a person; it is created, formed and transformed throughout life. A person himself participates in the development of his character and must always bear responsibility for it.
Abilities are not limited to the individual's knowledge, skills and abilities. They are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of some activity and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of acquiring them.
Study of temperament, character and abilities
In the experimental part of our work, we decided to study the characteristics of temperament, character and abilities of one particular person and analyze the data obtained.
FULL NAME.: Reshetova Natalia Nikolaevna
Age: 43 years Floor: female
Education: secondary special
Profession: grocery store clerk
Work experience in the specialty - 21 years old.
Research protocols
Study Protocol #1.
Methodology : Eysenck test questionnaire
date : 01/18/2009
1. yes 25. yes 49. yes
2. yes 26. yes 50. no
3. yes 27. yes 51. yes
4. yes 28. no 52. no
5. yes 29. no 53. yes
6. yes 30. no 54. yes
7. no 31. no 55. no
8. yes 32. yes 56. yes
9. yes 33. no 57. no
10. yes 34. no
11. no 35. yes
12. no 36. no
13. yes 37. yes
14. yes 38. no
15. yes 39. yes
16. yes 40. yes
17. yes 41. yes
18. yes 42. no
19. yes 43. yes
20. yes 44. yes
21. yes 45. no Sincerity -3,
22. yes 46. yes Extraversion - 14,
23. no 47. yes Neuroticism - 12,
24. yes 48. no
Conclusion : Frankness, ambivalence, normosthenia. Sanguine.
Study protocol #2.
Methodology : Thrill Seeking Scale
date : 01/15/2009
8 - a 16 - b Risk appetite - 4 points
Conclusion : the predominance of foresight and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and order to the unknown and unexpected in life.
Study Protocol No.3 .
Methodology : Characterological questionnaire of K. Leonhard
date : 01/15/2009
1. no 25. no 49. yes 73. yes
2. yes 26. no 50. yes 74. yes
3. yes 27. yes 51. yes 75. no
4. yes 28. yes 52. no 76. yes
5. no 29. no 53. yes 77. yes
6. yes 30. no 54. yes 78. yes
7. no 31. no 55. no 79. yes
8. yes 32. yes 56. no 80. yes
9. yes 33. no 57. yes 81. yes
10. yes 34. no 58. yes 82. yes
11. no 35. yes 59. yes 83. yes
12. no 36. no 60. yes 84. yes
13. yes 37. yes 61. no 85. no
14. yes 38. yes 62. yes 86. yes
15. yes 39. no 63. no 87. no
16. no 40. yes 64. no 88. no
17. yes 41. yes 65. yes
18. yes 42. no 66. yes
19. yes 43. yes 67. yes
20. yes 44. yes 68. yes
21. yes 45. no 69. no
22. yes 46. yes 70. yes
23. yes 47. no 71. yes
24. no 48. yes 72. yes
1- hyperthymia,
2- excitability
3- emotivity
4- pedantry
5- anxiety
6- cycling
7- demonstrativeness
8- imbalance
9- distimity
10- exaltation
Conclusion : Pronounced accentuation of character according to the cyclic, exalted types, significant accentuation according to the pedantic type of personality.
Study Protocol #4.
Methodology : Style of conflict behavior
date : 01/16/2009
Conclusion: The predominant types of behavior are compromise, the least preferred type of behavior is avoidance.
Study Protocol #5.
Methodology : The Need for Communication and Affiliation Motivation
date : 01/17/2009
Conclusion: the subject expressed a desire for affiliation; there is sufficient sociability, not hindered by fear of rejection.
Analysis of results
As a result of our diagnostic study, the subject revealed the following personality traits:
1) When determining the type of temperament according to the Eysenck method - frankness, ambivalence, normosthenia. Temperament type - sanguine.
2) When determining the propensity to take risks according to the "Thrill Seeking Scale" - the predominance of foresight and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and order to the unknown and unexpected in life.
3) When determining characterological tendencies according to the Shmishek questionnaire - a pronounced accentuation of the character according to the cyclical, exalted types, a significant accentuation according to the pedantic type of personality.
4) When determining the style of conflict behavior - the predominant types of behavior - compromise, the least preferred type of behavior - avoidance.
5) When determining the need for communication - sufficient sociability, not hindered by the fear of rejection.
General conclusion
Thus, our subject, Reshetova Natalya Nikolaevna, revealed a sanguine type of temperament, a pronounced accentuation of cyclothymic and exalted types of character, a low propensity for risk, sufficient sociability with a tendency to compromise in behavior. These qualities of character correspond to the profession of the seller and help her in working with people.
List of sources used
1 Aristotle. Works: In 4 volumes - M., 1975. - T. 1. - S. 371.
2 Baranovsky V.A. Salesman. -- Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2005.-145p.
3 Besedina I., Fedotova N. Technology of career guidance in vocational educational institutions. Saratov, 2004 - 372p.
4 Bityanova M.R. Social psychology.: science, practice and way of thinking. Uch. Pos. / M .: Eksmo-Press Publishing House, 2004 - 576s.
5 Brown L. Image - the path to success. SPb., Moscow~Kharkov-Minsk, 2004.-274p.
6 Group professional consultation (methodological recommendations for specialists of the employment service). Izhevsk, 1995. S. 3-10.
7 Dashkov L.P., Pambukhchyyants V.K. Commerce and trade technology. M., 2005.-293s.
8 Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology. -- EKOR, 2003.-465p.
9 Zhikarentsev V. Path to freedom: a look into yourself. - St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 2002.-258s.
10 Zolotareva V. M., Fast I. V. Guidelines vocational training women / Committee on labor and employment of the population Volgogr. region Volgograd, 2006.- 264p.
11 Zolotareva V. Organization of professional consultation as an interaction between a consultant and a client: Method. recommendations / Committee on Labor and Employment Volgogr. region Volgograd, 2005.- 265p.
12 I. Sabat Ann Mary. Business etiquette. - M.: ITD, 2006 - 246s.
13 Klimov E. A. Psychology of professional self-determination of youth / E. A. Klimov. Rostov-on-Don, 2006.- 283p.
14 Klimov E. General typology of situations (incidents) and the structure of mental tasks arising in the practice of a professional consultant // Tr. VNII vocational education. L., 1976. S. 5-25.
15 Brief Psychological Dictionary / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M: Politizdat, 2004. - 274p.
18 Maslova T.D., Bozhuk S.G., Kovalik L.N. Marketing. SPb., Moscow-Kharkov-Minsk, 2002.- 364p.
19 Maslow A. Psychology of being. - M., 1997. - S. 34.
20 Melnikov V.M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental psychology of personality. M., 2004-436s.
Application
1. Eysenck test questionnaire
A list of questions.
1. Do you often feel cravings for new experiences in order to be distracted, to experience strong sensations? (Not really)
2. Do you often feel that you need friends who can understand you, encourage you, express sympathy?
3. Do you consider yourself a carefree person?
4. Is it very difficult for you to give up your intentions?
5. Do you think things over slowly and prefer to wait before acting?
6. Do you always keep your promises, even if it is not profitable for you?
7. Do you often have ups and downs in your mood?
8. Do you usually act and speak quickly, and do you spend a lot of time thinking?
9. Have you ever felt that you are unhappy, although there was no serious reason for this?
10. Is it true that you can decide on everything on a bet?
11. Do you feel embarrassed when you want to meet a person of the opposite sex who you like?
12. Do you sometimes lose your temper when you get angry?
13. Do you often act on the spur of the moment?
14. Do you often worry about the thought that you should not do or say something?
15. Do you prefer reading books to meeting people?
16. Are you easily offended?
17. Do you like to be in the company often?
18. Do you sometimes have thoughts that you would not like to share with other people?
19. Is it true that sometimes you are so full of energy that everything burns in your hands, and sometimes you feel very lethargic?
20. Do you try to limit your circle of acquaintances to a small number of close people?
21. Do you dream a lot?
22. When someone yells at you, do you respond in kind?
23. Do you often feel guilty?
24. Are all your habits good and desirable?
25. Are you able to give free rein to your own feelings and have plenty of fun in a noisy company?
26. Can you say that your nerves are often tense to the limit?
27. Are you considered a lively and cheerful person?
28. After a job is done, do you often go back to it mentally and think about what you could do better?
29. Is it true that you are usually silent and reserved when you are around people?
30. Do you ever spread rumors?
31. Does it happen that you can't sleep because different thoughts come into your head?
32. Is it true that it is often more pleasant and easier for you to read about what interests you in a book, although you can quickly ask and find out more easily from friends?
33. Do you have a strong heartbeat?
34. Do you like work that requires close attention?
35. Do you have trembling attacks?
36. Is it true that you always say only good things about people you know, even when you are sure that they will not know about it?
37. Is it true that it is unpleasant for you to be in a company where they constantly make fun of each other?
38. Is it true that you are irritable?
39. Do you like work that requires quick action?
40. Is it true that you are often haunted by thoughts of various troubles and "horrors" that could happen, although everything ended well?
41. Is it true that you are slow in your movements?
42. Have you ever been late for a date or work?
43. Do you often have nightmares?
44. Is it true that you are such a talker that you never miss opportunity talk to a stranger?
45. Do you suffer from any pain?
46. Would you be upset if you could not see your friends for a long time?
47. Can you call yourself a nervous person?
48. Are there any among your acquaintances that you clearly do not like?
49. Are you easily offended by criticism of your shortcomings or your work?
50. Would you say that you are a confident person?
51. Is it difficult to get real pleasure from events in which there are many participants?
52. Are you bothered by the feeling that you are somehow worse than others?
53. Would you be able to spice up a boring company?
54. Does it happen that you talk about things that you do not understand at all?
55. Do you worry about your health?
56. Do you like to play pranks on others?
57. Do you suffer from insomnia?
Questionnaire code
Sincerity: yes answers to questions 6,24, 36;
answers "no" to questions 12, 18, 30, 42, 48, 54.
Extraversion: answers "yes" to questions 1,3, 8,10,13,17,22, 27, 39,44, 46, 49, 53, 56;
answers "no" to questions 5, 15.20, 29, 32, 34, 37, 41, 51.
Neuroticism: yes answers to questions 2,4, 7, 9, 11,14, 16, 19, 21,23,26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43,45, 47, 50, 52, 55, 57.
We offer an extended interpretation of the G. Eysenck test, which should be carried out using the following two tables. For each answer that matches the questionnaire code, 1 point is awarded.
Interpretation of indicators on the scale "Sincerity"
* In this case, we are talking only about an extra degree of sincerity when answering test questions, and not at all about deceit as a personal characteristic.
2. Thrill Seeking Scale
Questionnaire text
1. a) I would prefer a job that requires many trips, travel,
b) I would prefer to work in one place.
2. a) A fresh, cool day invigorates me.
b) On a cool day, I can't wait to get home.
H.a) I don't like all bodily odors.
b) I like certain bodily odors.
4. a) I would not like to try any drug that could have an unknown effect on me.
b) I would try some of the unknown drugs that cause hallucinations.
5. a) I would prefer to live in an ideal society where everyone is safe, secure and happy.
b) I would rather live in the uncertain, troubled days of our history.
6. a) I can't bear to ride with a person who loves speed.
b) Sometimes I like to drive very fast because I find it exciting.
7. a) If I were a salesman, I would prefer a fixed salary, rather than piecework wages with the risk of earning little or nothing.
b) If I were a salesman, then I would prefer to work piecework, since I would have the opportunity to earn more than sitting on a salary.
8. a) I do not like to argue with people whose views differ sharply from mine, because such disputes are always unresolvable.
b) I find that people who disagree with my view are more stimulating than people who agree with me.
9. a) Most people spend too much money on insurance overall.
b) Insurance is something that no man could afford to do without.
10. a) I would not want to be hypnotized.
b) I would like to try to be hypnotized.
11. a) The most important goal in life is to live to the fullest and get as much from it as possible,
b) The most important goal in life is to find peace and happiness.
12. a) B cold water I go in gradually, giving myself time to get used to it.
b) I like to immediately dive or jump into the sea or a cold pool.
13. a) In most types of modern music, I do not like disorder and disharmony,
b) I like to listen to new and unusual types of music.
14. a) The worst social disadvantage is to be a rude, ill-mannered person.
b) The worst social disadvantage is to be a boring person, a bore.
15. a) I prefer emotionally expressive people,
even if they are a little unbalanced,
b) I prefer more people who are calm, even "adjusted".
16. a) People who ride motorcycles must have some unconscious need to hurt themselves, harm them.
b) I would like to drive or ride a motorcycle.
Data processing and interpretation of results
The responses received correspond to the key:
1-a; 2-a; 3-b; 4-6; 5 B; 7-6; 8-6; 9-a; 10-6; 11-a; 12-6; 13-6; 14-6; 15-a; 16-6.
Each answer that matches the key is worth one point. The points received are summed up. The sum of the matches is an indicator of the level of need for thrills. The search for new sensations is of great importance for a person, because it stimulates emotions and imagination, develops creativity, which ultimately leads to his personal growth.
A high level of thrill needs (11 - 16 points) indicates the presence of an attraction, possibly uncontrolled, to new, nerve-wracking impressions, which can often provoke the subject to participate in risky adventures.
From 6 to 10 points - the average level. It testifies to the ability to control such needs, to moderation in their satisfaction, that is, on the one hand, to openness to new experience, on the other, to restraint and prudence at critical moments in life.
A low level (from 0 to 5 points) indicates the predominance of foresight and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and order to the unknown and unexpected in life.
3. CharacterolK. Leonhard's logical questionnaire
Instruction: "You will be offered statements relating to your character. If you agree with the statement, put a "+" sign (yes) next to its number, if not, a "-" sign (no). Do not think about questions for a long time, correct and There are no wrong answers."
Questionnaire text
1. Are you often in a cheerful and carefree mood?
2. Are you sensitive to insults?
3. Does it happen that tears come to your eyes in the cinema, theater, in conversation, etc.?
4. After doing something, do you doubt whether everything is done right, and do not calm down until you are sure once again that everything is done right?
5. As a child, were you as brave as your peers?
6. Do you often have a sharp mood change from a state of boundless glee to disgust for life, for yourself?
7. Are you usually the center of attention in society, company?
8. Does it happen that you are in such a grouchy mood for no reason that it is better not to talk to you?
9. Are you a serious person?
10. Are you able to admire, admire something?
11. Are you enterprising?
12. Do you quickly forget if someone offended you?
13. Are you soft-hearted?
14. When dropping a letter into a mailbox, do you check by running your hand over the slot of the box that the letter has completely fallen into it?
16. Did you ever get scared as a child during a thunderstorm or when meeting an unfamiliar dog (or maybe this feeling happens now, in adulthood)?
17. Do you strive to keep order in everything and everywhere?
18. Does your mood depend on external factors?
19. Do your friends love you?
20. Do you often have a feeling of inner unrest, a feeling of possible trouble, trouble?
21. Do you often have a somewhat depressed mood?
22. Have you ever had a tantrum or a nervous breakdown at least once?
23. Do you find it difficult to sit in one place for a long time?
24. If you were treated unfairly, do you vigorously defend your interests?
25. Can you slaughter a chicken or a sheep?
26. Does it annoy you if a curtain or tablecloth hangs unevenly at home, or do you immediately try to fix it?
27. Were you afraid to be alone in the house as a child?
28. Do you often have mood swings?
29. Do you always strive to be strong enough in your profession?
30. Do you quickly get angry or angry?
31. Can you be absolutely, carefree fun?
32. Does it happen that a feeling of boundless happiness literally permeates you?
33. Do you think you would make a host in a humorous performance?
34. Do you usually express your opinion to people quite frankly, directly and unambiguously?
35. Do you find it difficult to bear the sight of blood? Does this make you uncomfortable?
36. Do you enjoy working with high personal responsibility?
37. Do you tend to act in defense of persons against whom you have acted unfairly?
38. Is it difficult or scary for you to go down into a dark basement?
39. Do you prefer a job where you have to act quickly, but the requirements for the quality of performance are low?
40. Are you sociable?
41. Did you willingly recite poetry at school?
42. Did you run away from home as a child?
43. Do you find life difficult?
44. Does it happen that after a conflict, resentment, you were so upset that going to work seemed unbearable?
45. Can you say that when you fail, you do not lose your sense of humor?
46. Would you take the first steps towards reconciliation if someone offended you?
47. Do you like animals very much?
48. Do you return to make sure you left the house or workplace in such a state that nothing will happen there?
49. Do you sometimes have a vague idea that something terrible can happen to you and your loved ones?
50. Do you feel that your mood is very changeable?
51. Do you find it difficult to report (perform on stage) in front of big amount of people?
52. Can you hit the offender if he offends you?
53. Do you have a very great need to communicate with other people?
54. Are you one of those who, when disappointed, falls into deep despair?
55. Do you like work that requires vigorous organizational activity?
56. Do you persistently achieve your goal if you have to overcome a lot of obstacles on the way to it?
57. Can a tragic film move you so that tears come to your eyes?
58. Do you often find it difficult to fall asleep because the problems of the past day or the future are constantly spinning in your thoughts?
59. At school, did you sometimes tell your comrades or let them cheat?
60. Will it take you a lot of willpower to go through a cemetery alone?
61. Do you carefully ensure that every thing in your apartment is always in the same place?
62. Does it happen that being before going to bed in good mood Do you get up the next day depressed, lasting several hours?
63. Do you easily get used to new situations?
64. Do you have headaches?
65. Do you often laugh?
66. Can you be friendly even with those whom you clearly do not appreciate, love, or respect?
67. Are you an active person?
68. Are you very worried about injustice?
69. Do you love nature so much that you can call it a friend?
70. When you leave home or go to bed, do you check if the gas is turned off, if the lights are off, if the doors are locked?
71. Are you very timid?
72. Does your mood change when you drink alcohol?
73. In your youth, did you willingly participate in an amateur art circle?
74. Do you regard life somewhat pessimistically, without expectation of joy?
75. Do you often feel like traveling?
76. Can your mood change so abruptly that the state of joy is suddenly replaced by gloomy and depressed?
77. Is it easy for you to cheer up friends in the company?
78. How long do you experience resentment?
79. How long do you experience the sorrows of other people?
80. When you were a schoolboy, did you often rewrite a page in your notebook if you accidentally left an inkblot in it?
81. Do you treat people with distrust and caution rather than gullibility?
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© Cogito Center, 2014 ISBN 978-5-89353-430-6
From the author
The words "psychology" and "psychologist" leave few people indifferent. Society and its individual representatives expect psychology to solve a variety of problems, and too often their expectations are deceived, so “psychologist” is sometimes pronounced with superstitious reverence, like a “sorcerer” or “all-knowing wizard”, and often, on the contrary, with disappointment and disdain.
Many considerations can be given about the reasons for such a biased and ambiguous attitude to psychology, but now we will touch on only one of them. The fact is that the very word "psychology" can refer to completely different concepts and areas of human activity. different meanings Many people confuse this word and substitute one for the other.
There is a psychology the science; like any science, it is engaged in identifying patterns, formulating and testing hypotheses, generalizing the data obtained, etc.
However, there is a psychology practical, that is, techniques and methods of providing psychological assistance to people, component professional activity. Knowledge and skills practical psychology can be basic for work if it is the work of a practical psychologist, and can be used in other professions - a teacher, social worker, doctor, sales manager, PR manager, etc.
What is the relationship between scientific and practical psychology? Approximately the same as biology and medicine or physics and technology. Science is theoretical basis a practice unthinkable without it, but there is not much in common between them. No one will demand from a biologist that he treat people, but from a physicist that he design complex mechanisms.
With psychology, unfortunately, everything is much more confusing. Professional training psychologists is still reduced mainly to the study of the intricacies of psychological science, and society is in demand, first of all, practice; graduates of numerous departments of psychology are expected to have practical knowledge and skills, which, alas, they usually do not possess. On the other hand, if practicing psychologists who have not received the “correct” psychological education delve into psychological science in search of answers to their questions, most often they do not find these answers (although this does not mean that they really are not there!).
There is another psychology worldly,"Specialist" in which each of us is, but about it a little later.
This book is aimed primarily at those who are interested in practical psychology, whether they are students - psychologists and students of psychology - or just those who are passionate about psychology, so its main content is practical tasks, and the book is intended not so much for reading as for their implementation.
However, the author is a “classical” psychologist who respects psychological science, and therefore each task is preceded by theoretical introduction, without studying which its implementation is of little use, if at all feasible. The purpose of the book is to show the reader the possibilities of scientific psychology for understanding and explaining practical and everyday problems. psychological phenomena, to draw connections from scientific psychology to everyday and practical.
To work with the book, no special knowledge is needed, but an interest in living contact with a person is very desirable, which is always much more complicated than any scientific theories. We need a willingness to invest effort, time, thoughts, because when we are faced with the need to understand not an abstract subject, but a specific Vasya or Masha, we very quickly realize that there are no right and wrong answers and cannot be, but the best book guide - just a hint for your own thoughts. It is important not to be afraid to make mistakes and at the same time remember that a person is not a “guinea pig”, our mistakes can cost him dearly.
This publication is based on the book Psychological workshop for dummies” (Barlas, 2001), which summarized the experience of working with students of the second higher education – adults who have chosen psychology as their profession and have considerable worldly psychological experience. Over the years that have passed since then, a wider circle of students has worked with tasks: students of the first higher education - future psychologists and educational psychologists, students of "non-psychological" specialties, schoolchildren. Many new tasks were invented for them, and the experience of working with old ones increased significantly. Now there is a need for a new edition.
When preparing a new version of the workshop, the number and subject matter of assignments were significantly expanded, and recommendations and new examples were added to most of the old assignments based on experience with them. Several tasks that were too time-consuming or not very interesting to complete were excluded.
In addition, the book received a new structure; it consists of four chapters, each of which is a new step in mastering the experience of practical psychology. The first chapter introduces the reader to the "classical" methods of psychology - experiment, conversation, observation, etc. Most of the tasks in this section are relatively simple, they are accessible to everyone, and I hope they are interesting to complete.
The second chapter provides an opportunity to use the methods familiar from the first chapter in various areas of practical psychology: in working with children, selecting personnel, studying the psychology of the urban environment, the features of decision-making in everyday life, etc. The tasks are generally more difficult than in the first chapter, they require a more serious relationship, and some of them also have “worldly baggage” that can help build interaction in difficult situations.
The third chapter is devoted to an in-depth study of the most subtle and delicate structures of the psyche - the motivational-personal sphere. The performance of tasks implies a high involvement of the subject, they may have pronounced emotional reactions. From those who work with the subject and then analyze the results, sensitivity, adherence to ethical standards, the ability to correlate a person’s intuitive worldly understanding with the results of his implementation of psychological techniques will be required.
Most of the tasks in the first three chapters are modifications of well-known methods, whose authorship is not always possible to determine. Modifications, as well as the principles of analysis and interpretation, were created, as a rule, on the basis of many years of experience in completing assignments by students and are author's developments.
The fourth chapter is different from the first three; its task is to master scientific psychology on the basis of worldly psychological wisdom, embodied in fiction, songs, advertising and other realities of our life. When completing tasks, you will need the ability to reflect, compare, as well as imagination and ... a sense of humor.
In conclusion, I would like to thank the students without whose efforts this book could not have appeared: students of the Institute of Practical Psychology and Psychoanalysis (second higher education, speciality " psychological counseling”), students of the Moscow State Linguistic University (first higher education, specialties “psychology”, “pedagogy and psychology”, “psychological and pedagogical education”, “tourism”), high school students of Lyceum No. 1555 of Moscow. Thanks to their questions, mistakes, perplexities, considerations, thanks to the reports, fragments of which made up the bulk of the examples, this book was born. Thank you!
General guidance for completing assignments
The main stages of the task
The tasks included in the book are quite heterogeneous, but the sequence and execution plan are common to most of them (although by no means to all). Therefore, we list its main stages.
1. Formulation of the goal and hypothesis. The goal is what will determine all further work; formulating the goal, you decide what exactly you want to know, completing the task, what result you expect to get. For the tasks given in the book, there are several options for goals:
- Research goal, that is, the identification or verification of psychological patterns. Of course, it is unlikely that you will be able to discover something new or even test a well-known fact in accordance with the strict canons of psychological science, but you can make your own small discoveries. The research goal is formulated approximately as follows: “Identification of the relationship between ....”, “Identification of the features of the influence ... on ...”, “Analysis of changes ... depending on ...”, “Comparison of effectiveness ...”.
- Diagnostic goal, that is, the identification of the individual psychological characteristics of the subject. In this case, the goal is something like this: “Analysis (study, identification) of features ... (name mental process, properties, state that you are studying) of the subject.
- Educational (developing, forming a goal), or training, the development of some psychological properties, characteristics of the subject. Accordingly, the goal is formulated.
Please note that in each task, as a rule, only one goal is formulated.
A hypothesis characterizes the result that you expect to get. Even if you don't have assumptions, a hypothesis is usually worth formulating; if it is not confirmed, there is nothing surprising in this: hypotheses are often not confirmed.
2. Preparation. First of all, carefully read the relevant section of the book (both the theoretical part and the text of the assignment itself) and make sure that you understand what and how you should do. Prepare the necessary materials, convenient recording accessories, texts of tests and methods, equipment for audio or video recording, etc. The texts with which the subject will work must be copied from the book so that there is nothing superfluous in front of the subject during the work.
This stage also includes the choice of the subject, the agreement on the place and time of the study (this will be discussed in more detail below).
3. Completion of the task described in detail for each task.
4. Processing of results - transcribing an audio recording, putting in order the recordings that were made directly during the task, calculations or other actions in accordance with the instructions for the task.
5. Analysis and discussion of results- the most creative part of the work; this is something that is almost impossible to teach, but can be learned from one's own experience, and this process lasts as long as the psychologist works. What can you advise a beginner, besides the indications that are given in each section and those questions, based on which you will conduct an analysis?
Firstly, do not be afraid that everything turned out completely different for you, as it is written in a book or textbook. Rather, on the contrary, it will be surprising if everything goes “as expected”: this almost never happens. Psychology is interesting because human behavior is much more diverse than, say, a chemical reaction or the movement of physical bodies, and depends on a huge number of factors, most of which are simply unknown to you. However, you can think, compare facts, ask yourself questions, put forward hypotheses, look for sources of verification, confirm and refute.
Secondly, the source of information, and hence the basis for the formulation of hypotheses and conclusions, is almost everything that happens during the study (therefore, it is important to collect and record this information as completely as possible): questions and remarks that, it would seem, not related to the task, features of clothing, grammatical errors, handwriting, margin drawings and more. All this is worth noticing and, if possible, analyzing and using it. At the same time, the task itself and what is connected with its purpose should nevertheless become the basis for analysis.
Remember to justify your assumptions. A single fact, as a rule, is not yet a basis for a conclusion, but only for a hypothesis that needs to be tested. How can you try to check it? Look for confirmation among the available material and additional information (for example, from the available information about the life of the subject). Ask questions to the examinee. Conduct additional research. Finally, if none of the above succeeds, and the hypothesis seems important and plausible to you, it remains a hypothesis and is concluded in this form, that is, it is expressed as something possible or probable.
Try to avoid bias, no matter how difficult it may be. It is very easy to be captured by stereotypes that have developed on the basis of everyday experience, opinions, ideas. However, the advantage of psychological research lies in the fact that it demonstrates new and sometimes unexpected aspects of people and phenomena that seem to be well known to us.
6. Statement of conclusions. Conclusions are generally consistent with the objective of the assignment and the hypothesis; they briefly formulate the main results obtained. At the same time, if in the course of the work interesting data were obtained that were not foreseen by the objectives of the study (for example, in the study of memory, information was obtained about some significant features motivation or interpersonal relationships), then this information should also be included in the conclusions.
As a rule, the conclusions follow logically from the discussion, but in contrast to it, they are short (usually each conclusion is one phrase), do not contain substantiation and argumentation. The wording of the conclusions should be as clear as possible.
The number of conclusions is usually small: one or two, perhaps three, but hardly more.
7. Reflection of the experience gained. Training in practical psychology involves not only the development of theoretical knowledge of methods and techniques, but also self-change, personal growth psychologist (as you know, "the main tool of the psychologist's work is himself").
Psychology cannot be mastered by training on rats or dummies. Education in psychology is a contact with a person who always, even when working, it would seem, with the most a simple task, unpredictable. In the course of completing many tasks, you will have to act in a new role for yourself as a psychologist (albeit a beginner), to face unusual situations, possibly quite strong, including negative experiences of the subjects. This experience is desirable to realize and comprehend.
The foregoing explains why reflection is an important step in working on a task. Here is a sample list of questions to be answered:
What did you find difficult about completing the assignment?
What thoughts and feelings did you experience while doing the task?
- Did you enjoy doing the task? Why?
Did the task seem useful? Why?
- What would you change in your actions when you repeat the task?
8. Reporting. This step is mandatory for students. The rest can be recommended to do at least part of the work of compiling the report in writing. Putting thoughts on paper stimulates thinking, allows you to clearly express and formalize your ideas, and often the most interesting of them are born precisely in the process of writing a text. In addition, writing conclusions is one of the essential elements of the work of a practical psychologist, which requires training.
The design of the report should meet the requirements of the teacher, but its approximate structure is as follows:
- Job title.
- Brief theoretical information on the topic. This part may be brief or absent altogether if the theoretical preparation for the task is reduced to the study of the manual. If the author independently studied the literature on the topic, then the information important for the performance of the work is presented in this section.
- Goal of the work.
– Hypothesis.
- Subject (subjects, observed). For a task performed on one or two or three subjects, the name (can be a fictitious or nickname) or initials, gender, age, occupation (for a student with an indication of the course and future specialty) must be reported. Other information (eg, marital status, hobbies, school performance, left-handedness) may or may not be included depending on the content of the assignment and how relevant it is to the analysis and discussion of the results. When characterizing a group of subjects, the total number of subjects, their composition by sex and age is given; if the group is homogeneous (for example, students of the same institute), then the attribute that unites them is indicated.
– Material and technique. If it is standard (that is, it is given by the teacher and is the same for everyone), then you can limit yourself to the name or brief description in one or two phrases (for example, “questionnaires X and Y were completed; the subject completed the Z method”). Any implementation options, changes and additions to the methodology are described with the greatest possible completeness.
- Results. Protocols are given, original questionnaires filled out by the subject, transcripts of dictaphone records, etc. (if the protocols are long and uninformative or carelessly written, they can be included in the appendix). Also in this section is a description of the behavior of the subject and interaction with him.
- Treatment. Processing in accordance with the job plan, quantitative results.
– Analysis and discussion.
– Conclusion (conclusions).
- Description of the final conversation with the subject (if any).
- Reflection of the experience gained.
– Appendix: Forms and protocols, if they were not completely given in the “Results” section. Submission of original materials is mandatory.
As already mentioned, most tasks involve working with test subjects, that is, with people who, at your request, agree to be "guinea pigs" and perform the tasks offered to them. Such tasks are simple, but real and completely serious variants of psychological practice. This section discusses how best to organize interaction with the subject on different stages completing the task.
First of all, for those who work with the subjects, it is obligatory to obey ethical standards, that regulate the work of a psychologist; ethical standards ensure that the rights of the individual are respected and that no harm is done to those with whom you work. One of them is the voluntary work with a psychologist. Therefore, the first difficult task that will face you on preparatory stage – selection of the subject and obtaining his consent to work with you.
Each task stipulates specific requirements for the subjects, based on which it is selected. As a rule, it is more interesting to work with those whom you know relatively well, in order to compare the results obtained with your everyday impressions; such a comparison can be quite useful and informative. However, certain restrictions should also be observed: in the tasks of the third chapter, it is not allowed to use close relatives and family members as subjects. These tasks affect the personality and interpersonal relationships, they require sufficient frankness, which is not always possible if in life you are in close or even not very simple relations with the subject. Personal relationships are superimposed on the situation of interaction in unusual conditions for you and can distort it beyond recognition. In addition, the prevailing ideas about a loved one will prevent you from objectively analyzing the results and drawing conclusions.
In a preliminary conversation, you need to get consent to participate in the study, explain the goals of the work, and create motivation for it. The specific forms of this conversation depend on the subject and on your relationship with him. It could be a phone call, or a chat, or a few phrases just before starting work. To a small child you can simply offer “Let's play” or “Let's solve interesting problems”, adults need to explain why they should complete the tasks offered to them and explain in such a way that they have a desire to sincerely and conscientiously do everything that is required of them.
The best explanation is a request for help in teaching psychology; usually such a request is met with understanding, especially since many are interested in psychology and self-knowledge and will be happy to “participate in psychological experiments”, “take tests”, etc. As a rule, you should say something like “the results will help you to know and understand yourself better, solve some personal problems, improve, for example, memory” (depending on the task being performed) , but the less experience you have, the more careful you should be in the wording, because the promise must be kept.
The ethics of psychological research requires that all results obtained be a secret, that is, they should not be available to anyone but you; the subject should be warned about this, if the task is educational, then it should be said that the teacher will check the work, but the name and surname of the subject will remain unknown to him. An exception is made for parents who can obtain information about their children - preschoolers and junior schoolchildren. When working with teenagers, it is advisable to inform parents with their consent.
If at the stage of the preliminary conversation you are faced with doubts, excitement, expressed tension, it is better not to insist and find another subject.
When choosing a place and time to complete tasks, keep in mind that it is advisable to work in a separate room where there are no strangers; An exception can be made for the parents of those young children who experience anxiety when alone with a stranger. The subject should not be in a hurry. It is desirable (and mandatory for some tasks) that neither he nor the psychologist be distracted by phone calls and household chores. It is possible to perform tasks in public places (cafes, university classrooms) provided that there is silence and no interference from unauthorized persons.
Issues for discussion
The problem of correlation between the subject and method of psychology. Methodological principles psychological science.
general characteristics methods of psychology. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method of psychological research?
Method and methodology of research. What are the differences between these two concepts?
Read Stanley Milgram's description of the Obedience to Authority Experiment. Formulate a series of questions that you would like to ask the researcher.
Do you think there might be ethical restrictions on the dissemination of some psychological research data?
What methods of psychology can be used in the process of pedagogical activity?
Tasks for independent work
Prepare written answers to the following questions:
What are the differences between worldly and scientific knowledge? What, in your opinion, are the differences between everyday psychology and scientific psychology? Give examples of well-established worldly "psychological" beliefs.
Branches of modern psychological science?
In what areas of public life today can not do without psychological knowledge?
What place does psychology take or can take in your life? Describe those areas of your own life where the psychological knowledge you receive can be applied.
Gippenreiter, Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. - M., 1998, p. 22-88.
Godfroy, J. What is psychology In 2 volumes - M., 1994, v.1, pp.101-126.
Myers, D. Social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 1997, pp. 278-285.
Workshop number 2. The main stages in the development of ideas about the subject of psychology
Issues for discussion
The development of psychology within the framework of philosophy. Materialistic and idealistic directions in the study of the psyche in the history of psychology.
Psychology as a science of behavior. Behaviorism about the subject of psychology.
The contribution of psychoanalysis to the development of ideas about the human psyche.
Humanistic psychology.
Domestic psychology.
1. Make a table reflecting the contribution of each of the areas of psychology known to you to science and practice. It is recommended to include the following sections in the table: name of the direction, leading representatives, subject of research, methods of studying the subject, main provisions, possibilities of practical application.
2. The famous American psychologist Albert Bandura argued that a person learns through the assimilation of social models, role models demonstrated to a person by society. Analyze the content of one or more television programs (radio programs, magazine articles). What role model is she relaying? What does it teach?
1. Gippenreiter, Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology: A Course of Lectures. - M., 1998. - 3-36 p.
2. Reader on the history of psychology / Ed. P.Ya.Galperina, A.N.Zhdan. - M., Moscow State University, 1980. - S. 14-44.
3. Reader for the course "Introduction to Psychology": Textbook /Ed.-comp. E.E.Sokolova. - M., 1999. - Section II. – S. 68-296.
Workshop number 3. The image of "I" and the possibilities of its study
Personality in psychology is called the systemic socio-psychological quality of a person, which is formed and developed in him in the process of life in society as he masters various types of activities and communication. The personality exists in the space of various relations characteristic of society. Having consciousness, a person orients himself in a complex system of relationships, enters into interactions, realizes himself, comparing with others, experiences situations of success and failure. The motivational function of activity and communication is realized in the form of motives, drives, desires, orientation due to such personality components as needs, motives, interests. Orientation in life, especially in people, including oneself, in interpersonal relationships, is possible due to cognitive processes and is revealed not only in concepts, judgments, ideas and conclusions, but also in ideals, self-consciousness, beliefs, worldview. The implementation of human behavior, the programming of his activities and communication are associated with goal setting, abilities, attitudes and beliefs. Regulation and control of activities, communication and relationships occurs not only due to temperament and character, but also to the claims and self-esteem of the individual.
Issues for discussion
The driving forces of a person's mental development and the formation of his personality. The role of biological and social components in human development and the formation of his personality.
The image of "I". Self-esteem and the level of claims of the individual.
General idea of the self-concept.
The structure of the self-concept and its properties.
Personal self-assessment study
The purpose of the study: to determine the level of self-esteem. Material and equipment: a list of words or a special form with words characterizing individual qualities of a person, a pen.
This study has two significantly different in terms of procedure options for determining the self-esteem of the individual. In both cases, you can work both with one subject and with a group.
The first version of the study
The basis of the study of self-esteem in this version of the methodology is the method of ranking. The research procedure includes two series. The material with which the subjects work is a list of words printed on a special form that characterizes individual qualities of a person. Each subject receives such a form at the beginning of the study. When working with a group of subjects, it is important to ensure strict independence of the ranking.
First episode
Objective of the first series: to reveal a person's idea of the qualities of his ideal, that is, the "I" is ideal. For this, the words printed on the form, the subject must arrange in order of preference.
Test subject instructions:"Read carefully all the words that characterize personality traits. Consider these qualities from the point of view of their ideal personality, that is, from the point of view of usefulness, social significance and desirability. To do this, rank them, evaluating each in points from 20 to 1. Put a score of 20 in the form, in column No. 1 to the left of the quality that, in your opinion, is the most useful and desirable for people.
Rating 1 - in the same column #1 to the left of the quality that is the least useful, significant and desirable. Place all other marks from 19 to 2 in accordance with your attitude to all other qualities. Make sure that no assessment is repeated twice."
Second series
Task of the second series: reveal a person's idea of his own qualities, that is, his "I" is real. As in the first series, the subject is asked to rank the words printed on the form, but already from the point of view of the characteristic or inherent qualities of the personality they designate for themselves.
Test subject instructions:"Read all the words that characterize personality traits again. Consider these qualities from the point of view of their inherent in you. Rank them in column No. 2, rating each from 20 to 1. Rating 20 - put to the right of the quality that you think is characteristic of you to the greatest extent, a score of 19 - put the quality that is somewhat less characteristic of you than the first, and so on. - the ranks were not repeated twice".
The form with words characterizing personality traits is as follows.
Form
|
personality traits | ||||
|
Compliance | ||||
|
Courage | ||||
|
irascibility | ||||
|
Nervousness | ||||
|
Patience | ||||
|
Enthusiasm | ||||
|
Passivity | ||||
|
Cold | ||||
|
Enthusiasm | ||||
|
Caution | ||||
|
Capriciousness | ||||
|
slowness | ||||
|
indecisiveness | ||||
|
Energy | ||||
|
Cheerfulness | ||||
|
suspiciousness | ||||
|
Stubbornness | ||||
|
Carelessness | ||||
|
Shyness | ||||
|
Responsibility |
Results processing
The purpose of processing the results is to determine the relationship between the ranking assessments of personality traits included in the representations of "I" - ideal and "I" real. The measure of connection is established using Ch. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Scores from 1 to 20 of the proposed qualities in both rows are taken as their ranks. The difference in ranks that determine the place of a particular personality trait makes it possible to calculate the coefficient using the formula:
n - the number of proposed personality traits (n=20);
d is the difference of rank numbers.
To calculate the coefficient, you must first calculate on the form, in a specially designated column, the difference in ranks (d) for each proposed quality. Then each obtained value of the rank difference (d) is squared and the result is recorded on the form in column (d), summed up and the sum (∑d 2) is entered into the formula.
The rank correlation coefficient (r) can range from –1 to +1. If the obtained coefficient is not less than -0.37 and not more than +0.37 (at p = 0.05), then this indicates a weak insignificant relationship (or its absence) between a person's ideas about the qualities of his ideal and his real qualities. Such an indicator may be caused by non-compliance with the instructions by the subjects. But if the instruction was carried out, then a small connection means a fuzzy and undifferentiated representation by a person of his ideal "I" and "I" of the real one.
The value of the correlation coefficient from +0.38 to +1 is evidence of a significant positive relationship between "I" - ideal and "I" - real. This can be interpreted as a manifestation of adequate self-esteem or, with R from +0.39 to -0.89, a tendency to overestimate. But, values from +0.9 to +1 often express inadequately high self-esteem. The value of the correlation coefficient in the range from -0.38 to -1 indicates the presence of a significant negative relationship between the "I"-ideal" and "I"-real". It reflects the inconsistency or divergence of a person's ideas about how he needs to be, and what he, in his opinion, really is. This discrepancy is proposed to be interpreted as low self-esteem. The closer the coefficient is to -1, the greater the degree of inconsistency.
The second version of the study
The second version of the self-assessment study is based on the mode of choice. The material is a list of words that characterize individual qualities of a person. This version of the study also consists of two series.
First episode
The task of the first series: to determine the list and number of reference qualities of the desired and undesired image - I. The subject is asked to look at the words from the list and, having chosen, make two rows. In one row, you need to write down the words denoting those personality traits that relate to the subjective ideal, that is, they make up the "positive" set, and in the other row, those qualities that are undesirable, that is, they make up the "negative" set.
Instruction to the subject: "Look carefully at the list of suggested words that characterize a person. In the left column on a piece of paper, write down the qualities that you would like to have, and in the right column, those that you would not like to have. Qualities, the meaning of which You do not understand or which you cannot attribute to one or the other column, do not write anywhere. Do not think about whether you have this quality or not, only one thing is important: do you want to have it or not. "
Second series
The task of the second series is to determine the set of personality traits of the subject, which, in his opinion, are inherent in him, among the selected reference qualities of the "positive" and "negative" set.
Instruction to the subject: "Look carefully at the words you wrote down in the left and right columns and mark with a cross or a tick those qualities that, in your opinion, are inherent in you."
List of personality traits
Accuracy, carelessness, thoughtfulness, irascibility, susceptibility, pride, rudeness, cheerfulness, caring, envy, shyness, vindictiveness, sincerity, sophistication, capriciousness, gullibility, slowness, dreaminess, suspiciousness, vindictiveness, perseverance, tenderness, ease, nervousness, indecision, intemperance, charm, resentment, caution, responsiveness, pedantry, mobility, suspicion, adherence to principles, poetry, contempt, cordiality, swagger, rationality, decisiveness, self-forgetfulness, restraint, compassion, modesty, patience, cowardice, fascination, perseverance, compliance, coldness, enthusiasm.
Results processing
Purpose of processing results– obtaining coefficients of self-assessment by "positive" (СО+) and "negative" (СО-) sets. To calculate each of the coefficients, the number of qualities in the column, determined by the subject as inherent in him (M), is divided by the total number of qualities in this column (H). The formulas for calculating the coefficients are as follows
М+ М- СО+ = ––; CO– = –– ; where H+ H-
M+ And M-- the number of qualities in the "positive" and "negative" sets, respectively, marked by the subject as inherent in him; H+ and H- - the number of reference qualities, i.e. the number of words in the right and left columns, respectively.
The level and adequacy of self-assessment is determined on the basis of the coefficients obtained using the table.
|
Self-esteem level |
||
|
inadequate, overrated |
||
|
adequate with a tendency to overestimate |
||
|
adequate |
||
|
adequate with a downward trend |
||
|
inadequate, underestimated |
When determining the level of self-esteem and its adequacy, it is important to take into account not only the value of the obtained coefficient, but also the number of qualities that make up a particular set (H+ and H-). The fewer qualities, the more primitive the corresponding standard. In addition, the level of self-esteem in the "positive" and "negative" set of some subjects may not match. This requires special analysis and may be caused by the defense mechanisms of the individual.
Analysis of results
In the two proposed versions of the study of self-esteem, its level and adequacy are defined as the relationship between the ideal "I" and the real "I". A person's ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, regardless of whether they are based on objective knowledge or subjective opinion whether they are true or false. The qualities that a person ascribes to himself are far from always adequate. The process of self-evaluation can take place in two ways: 1) by comparing the level of one's claims with the objective results of one's activities, and 2) by comparing oneself with other people.
However, regardless of whether self-esteem is based on a person’s own judgments about himself or interpretations of other people’s judgments, individual ideals or culturally predetermined standards, self-esteem is always subjective, and its indicators can be adequacy and level.
The adequacy of self-assessment expresses the degree of conformity of a person's ideas about himself with the objective foundations of these ideas. For example, inadequacy in evaluating one's own appearance can be caused, on the one hand, by a person's orientation to external standards, assessments and a distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthese assessments or ignorance of them, on the other hand.
The level of self-esteem expresses the degree of real and ideal or desired ideas about oneself. Adequate self-esteem with a tendency to overestimate can be equated with a positive attitude towards oneself, self-respect, self-acceptance, a sense of one's worth. Low self-esteem, on the contrary, can be associated with a negative attitude towards oneself, rejection of oneself, a feeling of one's own inferiority.
Conclusions about the adequacy and level of self-assessment will be reliable if the results are the same for the two versions of the methodology or are confirmed by observation.
In the process of forming self-esteem, an important role is played by the comparison of the image of the real "I" with the image of the ideal "I". Therefore, one who achieves in reality the characteristics corresponding to the ideal will have high self-esteem, even if the ideal image does not differ in volume and cognitive complexity. If a person reflects on the gap between these characteristics and the reality of his achievements, his self-esteem, in all likelihood, will be low.
The second factor, important for the formation of self-esteem, is associated with the internalization of assessments and social reactions of other people, as well as with the position chosen by a person in the system of social and interpersonal relations. Adequate self-esteem contributes to the achievement of internal consistency.
Self-esteem and a person's attitude towards himself are closely related to the level of claims, motivation and emotional characteristics of the individual. The interpretation of the acquired experience and the expectations of a person regarding himself and other people depend on self-esteem.
Internal inconsistency and distortion of self-image can give rise to suffering, guilt, shame, resentment, disgust, anger in a person. To harmonize the system of self-attitude, there are methods of psychological correction and development, one of which is socio-psychological training.
Tasks for independent work
Describe your "I-concept" and its role in regulating your behavior?
Give a detailed definition of the concepts: self-awareness, self-knowledge, self-efficacy, self-presentation.
1. Burns, R. The development of the self-concept and its properties. - M., 1986. - S. 30-66.
2. Granovskaya, R.M. Elements of practical psychology. - L., 1988. -S. 271-294.
3. Myers, D. Social psychology / Perev. from English. - St. Petersburg: "Peter", 1997. - Ch. 2. - S. 64-79.
Khoroshilov B.M.Extract from the educational standard for the discipline "Psychological practice"
Methods of research in psychology; procedures for obtaining and describing empirical data; standard ways of presenting and processing data and analyzing results; planning of empirical research; types of observation in psychology: standardized, laboratory, field, included, not included; skills of maintaining, processing and interpreting protocols; skills in creating psychological and behavioral portraits of a person based on observation; types of conversation in psychology: standardized, partially standardized, free; conversation skills; preparation and conduct of a partially standardized conversation; psychological measurements: methods of zero-dimensional (classical and modern procedures for measuring sensitivity thresholds), one-dimensional and multidimensional scaling; scale types; experiment and its variations in various psychological schools presented as types of research in psychology; correlation studies and quasi-experimental designs.
1. Organizational and methodological section
1.1. Course name
"Psychological practice". Implemented within the specialty 020400 "Psychology". Refers to general professional disciplines, the federal component.
1.2. Goals and objectives of the course
The subject of this academic discipline is the methodology and technique of empirical research in psychology, primarily the methods of collecting empirical data.
The significance of the discipline is due to the fact that the methods of collecting empirical data are a key tool for empirical research in psychology, both scientific and practical.
The discipline "Psychological Workshop" plays an important role in mastering the theory, methodology and technique of empirical psychological research.
This course is essentially related to such courses as: "Psychodiagnostics", "Mathematical Methods in Psychology", " experimental psychology because all these courses deal with different aspects of empirical psychological research. The course "Psychological Practice" lays the foundations of theoretical knowledge and practical skills for conducting empirical psychological research, on which the above-mentioned training courses are based.
In accordance with this understanding of the purpose of discipline, goals and objectives of the course can be formulated as follows:
Firstly, to acquaint students with the system of concepts and ideas that allow both to analyze the empirical research presented in the publication and to design their own empirical research on their own.
Secondly, the purpose of this academic discipline is to acquire by students the skills to work with specific methods that have a wide scope.
Thirdly, to practically master all the stages of empirical research.
Fourth, learn to practically study the most important psychological characteristics a person as an individual, subject of activity, personality, individuality.
1.3. Requirements for the level of mastering the course content
The discipline "Psychological Workshop" is intended to give theoretical ideas about empirical research in psychology, the main methodological means of conducting research.
In addition, this discipline is focused on obtaining practical skills, such as:
skills and abilities of organizing, planning, conducting an empirical study, processing and analyzing the results, formulating the conclusions of the study;
skills and abilities to apply the basic empirical methods of psychological research: observation, questioning, measurement, experiment;
skills and abilities of methodical analysis of empirical research in psychology;
skills and abilities to use the basic methods and techniques of data collection in research and practical work.
1.4. Forms of control
Final control on the course. To control the assimilation of this discipline curriculum provided: offset.
current control. During the semester, practical work is constantly carried out, on which individual tasks are performed. The results of the performance and defense of these works are the basis for grading current control within control weeks. Practical work performed WEEKLY. The performance of all works is "mandatory for all students. Students who have not completed all these works in full are not allowed by the department to take the exam, as they have not completed the schedule of the educational process in this discipline.
2.1. The novelty of the course
With increased attention to methodical methods and means of empirical psychological research. This course aims to develop methodical researcher's culture and practice.
Section 1. General characteristics of empirical research in psychology
Topic 1.1. Features, structure and dynamics of empirical research in psychology.
The concept of scientific empirical research in psychology. Scientific theory, scientific hypothesis, scientific fact and empirical research. Types of empirical research: fundamental and applied, scientific and practical, correlation and experimental.
Empirical research as activity: functional structure. Stages of research and tasks to be solved at each stage.
Topic 1.2. Statement and analysis of the research problem, hypotheses, logical plan, research program.
Formulation of the research problem, analysis of the history and state of the problem, determination of the position of the researcher in relation to the problem as a condition and prerequisite for the promotion of the main research hypothesis. System of research hypotheses: main versus alternative. Logical research plan as a way to test the truth or falsity of the main hypothesis against alternative ones. Examples of the most typical experimental designs and correlation studies.
Organizational research plan. Organizational research methods according to B.G. Ananiev: comparative, longitudinal, complex.
Topic 1.3. Collection of research data (empirical methods).
Observation and experiment as general scientific research methods. Observation and other descriptive research methods (survey, analysis of the process and products of activity, biographical methods). Types of observation in psychology: standardized, laboratory, field, included, not included; skills of maintaining, processing and interpreting protocols; skills in creating psychological and behavioral portraits of a person based on observation;
Poll: questionnaire and conversation. Types of conversation in psychology: standardized, partially standardized, free; conversation skills; preparation and conduct of a partially standardized conversation. Experiment and other explanatory methods (simulation); experiment and its varieties in various psychological schools, presented as types of research in psychology; correlation studies and quasi-experimental designs.
Psychological measurement: methods of zero-dimensional (classical and modern procedures for measuring sensitivity thresholds), one-dimensional and multidimensional scaling; scale types; measurement levels and scales.
Complex empirical methods: psychodiagnostic method, analysis of the process and products of activity, biographical method, modeling.
Topic 1.4. Processing and analysis of empirical research data.
Standard ways of presenting and processing data and analyzing results. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of empirical research data. Basic procedures for primary quantitative analysis data (calculation of the most important measures of central tendency, measures of variability, measures of communication. Tables and graphical means of presenting data.
The most universal methods of statistical testing of hypotheses.
Theme 1.5. Data interpretation, conclusions, research report.
Structural and genetic interpretation of empirical data. Features of data interpretation in an experimental, correlation study. The structure of the report on the conducted empirical research.
Section 2. Methods for studying the psychological properties of a person as a subject of activity, activity
Topic 2.1. Methods for studying sensory processes.
Methodological issues in the study of absolute and differential thresholds of sensitivity. Classical psychophysical methods (minimum change method, mean error method, constant stimulus method). Methods of subjective psychophysics by S. Stevens (multiplication method, fractionation method, direct numerical assessment method).
Topic 2.2. Methods for studying perception.
General methodological problems in the study of perception and a review of research methods. Classification of methods for studying perception. Features of the study of spatial, temporal, informational and energy characteristics of perception.
Methods for studying visual perception.
Methods for studying auditory perception.
Methods for studying tactile perception
Topic 2.3. Methods of studying thinking.
Methodical methods for studying the procedural aspects of thinking: reasoning aloud, solving practical problems, using auxiliary problems, solving formalized game problems.
Methodical methods for studying the effectiveness of thinking in tests of intelligence and general abilities. Methods for studying verbal thinking, methods for studying non-verbal thinking.
Topic 2.4. Methods for studying memory.
Methods of studying short-term memory. Techniques for studying verbal long-term memory. Techniques for studying figurative long-term memory. Methods for studying the dynamics of the processes of preservation and forgetting.
Topic 2.5. Methods of studying speech.
Methodical techniques for studying the perception and understanding of oral and written speech messages. Methodical methods of studying the process of generating a speech message.
Psychosemantic methods: Ch. Ozgood's semantic differential and its varieties, Kelly's repertoire grids, etc.
Topic 2.6. Methods for studying the processes of mental regulation: attention, psychomotor and self-regulation
Methods for studying the basic properties of attention, basic methodological techniques. Correction test, Schulte tables, etc.
Methods for studying sensorimotor reactions. Methods for studying perceptual-motor regulation of actions. Methods for studying the regulation of actions in a secondary way (representation), methodological methods for studying the speech-cogitative regulation of action.
Topic 2.7. Methods for studying emotions.
A review of the main methodological techniques for studying emotions.
Objective and subjective indicators emotional phenomena. Scale of differential emotions K. Izard.
Topic 2.8. Methods of studying mental states.
Questionnaires as a means of studying mental states. SAN method. Behavioral indicators of mental states of fatigue, emotional stress, monotony. Indirect studies of mental states on the dynamics of indicators of productivity of cognitive processes and processes of mental regulation of activity.
Section 3. Methods for studying the psychological properties of a person as a person
Topic 3.1. Methods for studying the structure of personality.
Typological and factorial approaches to the study of personality structure. Structural description of personality in the methods of MMPI, 16 PF, PDO A.E. Lichko.
Topic 3.2. Empirical Methods of studying the most integral personal properties.
Methods for studying anxiety. Methods for studying the degree of self-actualization of personality. Methods for studying aggressiveness. Methodology for studying the locus of personality control (according to J. Rotter).
Topic 3.3. Empirical Methods of studying needs, motives, values.
TAT as a method of studying the motives and needs of the individual. List of motives according to G. Murray.
Methods for studying achievement motivation. Methods of studying the professional orientation of the individual.
Topic 3.4. Empirical study of self-consciousness and image - Ya.
Methods for studying the level of personality claims. Methods for studying personality self-esteem: Q - sorting, MIS.
Topic 3.5. Empirical study of the communicative properties of personality.
T. Leary's technique. Scale of empathy A. Megrabyan, N. Epstein.
Section 4. Methods for studying the psychological properties of a person as an individual
Topic 4.1. The problem of methodology, theory, methodology and technology pilot study psychological individuality.
A complex psychological or ideographic study of individuality.
Topic 4.2. Model of a comprehensive study of individuality B.G. Ananiev.
Correlation and connections of individual, subjective and personal properties in the structure of individuality. The ratio of psychological and non-psychological (biological, social, physico-chemical, informational, etc.) indicators in a comprehensive study of individuality.
Topic 4.3. Models of synthetic description of personality in the practice of counseling, psychotherapy and clinical examination.
The program for the study of personality in its relation to the environment A.F. Lazursky and S.L. Frank.
3. Educational and methodological support of discipline
3.1. Essay topics
Not planned.
3.2. Sample Questions for Exam Preparation
Methods of psychophysics method of minimal changes.
Methods of psychophysics method of average error.
Methods of psychophysics method of constant stimuli.
Methods for studying memory and representations Methods for studying the volume of short-term memory.
Methods of studying memory and representations of methods of studying verbal long-term memory.
Techniques for studying memory and representations. Methods for studying figurative long-term memory.
Methods of studying needs, motives, values.
Methods of studying thinking Experimental-psychological methods of studying thinking.
Methods of studying thinking psychodiagnostic methods of studying verbal-logical thinking.
Methods of studying interpersonal relationships of personality.
Methods of studying thinking psychodiagnostic methods of studying figurative and practically effective thinking.
One of the methods proposed for self-fulfillment: a description of the research procedure, data processing, the basics of data analysis.
Methods of studying speech. Methods for studying the perception and generation of speech messages.
Methods of studying speech. Psychosemantic methods.
Methods of studying attention.
Methods of studying psychomotor.
Methods for studying emotions.
Methods of studying the individual. Methods for studying temperament.
Methods for studying the structure of personality. typological approach.
Methods for studying self-actualization, locus of personality control.
Methods of ideographic description of personality (synthetic characteristics).
Methods of complex study of individuality.
Methods for studying the structure of personality. Factor approach
Methods for studying mental states
Methods for studying individual personality traits (anxiety, aggressiveness, empathy).
Methods for studying self-esteem, self-image.
External validity of an empirical study. Threats to the validity of the study.
The difference between experimental research and other types of empirical research (descriptive, correlational).
Data processing methods. The main quantitative indicators used in the processing of psychological data.
Experiment.
Method of measurement. Scales.
psychodiagnostic method.
Analysis of the process and products of activity. biographical method.
Observation technique.
General characteristics of the observation method.
Research organization methods (according to BG Ananiev) Logical models (plans) of research.
The structure of the report on the conducted empirical research.
Internal validity of empirical research and factors threatening it.
Stages of empirical research.
General characteristics of the structure of empirical research.
3.3. List of basic and additional literature
Main literature:
1. Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - M.: Infra-M, 1997 (or St. Petersburg, Peter, 2000 2nd edition.)
2. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to the psychological experiment. - M., 1997.
3. Workshop on general, experimental and applied psychology. / Ed. A.A. Krylova, S.A. Manichev. - St. Petersburg: "Peter", 2000.
4. Modern psychology. / Ed. V.N. Druzhinin. - M.: Infra M, 1999.
5. Solso R. cognitive psychology. - M.: Trivola, 1996.
6. Khjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1997.
Additional literature:
1. Anastasi A. Psychological testing v.2. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982.
2. Ananiev B.G. On the problems of modern human knowledge. - M.: Nauka, 1977.
3. Anastasi A. Psychological testing v.2. Moscow: Pedagogy, 1982.
4. Bazhin E.F., Golynkina E.A., Etkind A.M. Questionnaire of the level of subjective control. - M.: Meaning, 1993.
5. Bardin K.V. The problem of sensitivity thresholds and psychophysical methods. - M.: Nauka, 1976.
6. Bardin K.V., Zabrodin Yu.M. Problems of sensory psychophysics.//Cognitive processes of sensation, perception. Ed. A.V. Zaporozhets, B.F. Lomova, V.P. Zinchenko. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982.
7. Berezin F.B., Miroshnikov M.P., Rozhanets R.V. Methods of multilateral research of personality. - M.; Medicine, 1976.
8. Burlachuk L.F., Morozov S.M. Dictionary-reference book on psychological diagnostics. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999 (or: 1st ed., Kyiv, 1989).
9. Voronin A.N. Methods for diagnosing the properties of attention\\In the book. Methods of psychological diagnostics. Issue 1 / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina, Galkina T.V. - M., 1993.
10. Glass J., Stanley J. Statistical methods in pedagogy and psychology. - M.: "Progress" 1976.
11. Godfroy J.. What is psychology. - v.2. - M.: "Mir", 1996.
12. Gottsdanker R. Fundamentals of psychological experiment. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1982.
13. Druzhinin V.N. Structure and logic of psychological research. Ed.2. - M., 1994.
14. Dzuki E. Introduction to the methodology of socio-psychological research. - Novosibirsk: NGU, 1996.
15. Klaus G. Introduction to the differential psychology of learning. - M.: Progress, 1982.
16. Izard K. Human emotions. – M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1980.
17. Kulikov L.V. Psychological research. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1994.
18. Campbell D. Models of experiments in social psychology and applied research. - M.: Progress, 1980.
19. Leonova A.B. Psychodiagnostics functional states person. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1984.
20. Leontiev D.A. Thematic apperception test. - M.: Meaning, 1996.
21. Libin A.V. Differential psychology. - M.: Meaning, 2000.
22. Marishchuk V.L., Bludov V.M., Plakhtienko V.A., Serova L.K. Methods of psychodiagnostics in sports. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985.
23. Melnikov V.M., Yampolsky L.T. Introduction to experimental personality psychology. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985.
24. Methods of research in psychology: quasi-experiment./Ed. T.V. Kornilova. - M.: Forum, INFRA-M, 1998.
25. General workshop on psychology. Method of observation / Ed. M.B. Mikhalevskaya. - M., 1985, part 1.
26. Pathocharacter diagnostic questionnaire for adolescents and the experience of its practical use \Ed. A.E. Lichko, N.Ya. Ivanova - L .: Research Institute of Psychoneurology, 1976.
27. Petrenko V.F. Fundamentals of psychosemantics. - M., 1997.
28. Petrenko V.F., Nistratov A.A. Construction of a verbal semantic differential based on Russian vocabulary. - In the book: Research into the problems of speech communication, - M .: Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1979.
29. Workshop on psychology. Ed. A.N. Leontiev, Yu.B. Gippenreiter. - M., Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1972.
30. Workshop on general, experimental and applied psychology. \Ed. A.A. Krylova, S.A. Manichev. - SPb., Peter, 2000.
31. Rock I. Introduction to visual perception. tt 1.2. - M.: Pedagogy, 1980.
32. Stolin V.V. Self-consciousness of the individual. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1984.
33. Tikhomirov O.K. Psychology of thinking. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1984.
34. Hekhauzen H. Motivation and activity: In 2 volumes - M .: Pedagogy, 1986.
35. Experimental psychology. / Ed. S. Stevens t1. - M., 1960.
36. Experimental psychology. / Ed. S. Stevens t2. - M., 1963.
37. Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse and J. Piaget. Issue 1,2. - M.: Progress, 1966.
38. Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse and J. Piaget. Issue 3. - M.: Progress, 1970.
39. Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse and J. Piaget. Issue 4. -M.: Progress, 1973.
40. Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse and J. Piaget. Issue 5. - M.: Progress, 1975.
41. Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse and J. Piaget. Issue 6. - M.: Progress, 1978.
42. Shapkin S.A. Experimental Study volitional processes. - M.: Meaning, 1997.
43. Francella F., Bannister D. A new method of personality research. - M., 1987.
44. Khanin Yu.L. A brief guide to the use of the scale of reactive and personal anxiety Ch.D. Spielberger. - L., 1976.
45. Khanin Yu.L. Marlow-Crown scale for the study of approval motivation. - L .: Research Institute of Physical Culture, 1976.
46. Shapkin S.A. Experimental study of volitional processes. - M.: Meaning, 1997.
47. Etkind A. M. The experience of the theoretical interpretation of the semantic differential. - Questions of psychology, 1979, No. 1, p. 17-27.
48. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. - M.: Nauka, 1972.
