Pedagogy is a complex system that consists of independent (of course, relatively) disciplines that are interconnected with each other. Each of these disciplines considers education in its own way. individual position and is engaged in the study of individual sections of pedagogical reality.

But in the whole system of general pedagogy, first of all, the theory of education, called didactics, and the theory of education, which explore the patterns of pedagogical nature in certain areas of education, stand out.

Didactics deals with the study of learning at the theoretical level, which is the most general, and does not focus on the teaching of any particular subject. She is mainly interested in the driving forces and functions of the educational process, as well as its structure and. Didactics is also involved in the formulation of the principles of education, the creation of different ways of building its structure, forms of presentation of educational material and its assimilation, as well as forms of interaction between students and teachers. It is about didactics that will be discussed further.

Instead of an introduction

The society is constantly making every effort to ensure that the knowledge, skills, abilities and experience that it has accumulated at a certain point in time and by a certain point in development are mastered by the new generation through the most effective and fruitful ways. This goal is pursued by both training and educational systems, which are strategically built processes for supplying people with information that reflects the experience accumulated and generalized by mankind.

The task of didactics at any stage of its development in history was to determine the content of the education of new generations, to find the most effective ways arming them with relevant knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as determining the patterns of this process. However, if we take into account the fact that the educational process is directly related to the process of education, mainly moral and mental, we can say that didactics is a theory not only of training and education, but also of education. And above all, this can be attributed to the formation of the worldview of people receiving education.

At this point in time, the subject of didactics is in the process of learning and education in general, in other words, in the content of education, which is implemented by curricula and programs, means and methods, textbooks, organizational forms, educational elements and conditions that favorably affect the active and creative work and mental development of students.

Along with pedagogy, didactics has come a long way historical development, during which she performed the tasks that arose before educational institutions at each individual stage of social development. Development of various scientific directions, changes in trade, production, technology, etc. had a direct impact on the development of the educational sphere, reflecting a special form of human activity in the era of Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over time, this led to the emergence of learning theory itself. It happened in the 17th century, when the most serious work "", the author of which was Jan Comenius, was written - it was he who first set the task of "teaching everyone everything", and also outlined the principles and rules for teaching children.

Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1671) is a humanist teacher of Czech origin, public figure and writer, bishop of the Czech Brotherhood Church, a person who systematized and popularized the class-lesson education system, and the creator of scientific pedagogy. During his life, he was engaged in pedagogy in many European countries (Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland and others), and also compiled textbooks for Sweden, which were subsequently studied in many different countries, thanks to which he gained fame during his lifetime.

Comenius' view of pedagogy

The main feature of the pedagogical views of Jan Comenius was that it was upbringing that seemed to him one of the main prerequisites for establishing constructive, friendly and fair relations between individuals and entire nations. Along with this, the teachings of Comenius are imbued with a humanistic approach to man and learning. The religious education of Comenius and his way of life were reflected in the entire education system he created.

All the teachings of Comenius are based on the principles of nature conformity, didactics and family pedagogy. For example, the principle of conformity to nature says that what is already “embedded in the bud” is subject to development, and it needs to be developed from within, waiting until the “forces ripen”, avoiding pushing nature in the wrong direction - where it does not seek to go. Supporting the idea that the seeds of the mind, piety and morality, as well as the desire of nature to develop them, are characteristic of all people, Jan Comenius designated the role of education in "the easiest motivation and some reasonable guidance" in the naturally flowing process of the student's self-development.

The principle of conformity to nature is rightfully considered the most important, and on the basis of it, Comenius created a truly unique and large-scale project for educating a person, lasting from the moment of birth to 24 years. The scientist considered this project to be universal and scientifically justified because of the correspondence of the pedagogical process to the nature of man and him on the planet. This project was aimed at "teaching everyone everything", in other words, at the rational creation of a "mass school". The most important element of this project was and remains to this day the stages of human maturation.

Stages of growing up

Representing the stages of human maturation, Comenius still relied on the principle of conformity to nature. So, they were allocated four stages, consisting of six years each, and their tasks were defined for all.

So, based on human nature, the following stages are distinguished:

• Childhood (lasts from birth to age 6)
• Adolescence (lasts from 7 to 12 years old)
• Youth (will continue from 13 to 18 years old)
• Manhood (lasts from 19 to 24 years old)

The basis of this division are age characteristics:

• Childhood is characterized by: increased physical growth and development of the senses
• Adolescence is characterized by: and imagination, as well as their executive organs - language and hands
• Youth is characterized by: the development of more high level thinking (in addition to all of the above)
• Maturity is characterized by: and the ability to harmonious existence

Each of the presented periods, based on their characteristic features, suggests an individual level of education. Children under 6 years old, according to Comenius, should be "trained" in the mother's school, where the mother gives preschool education. During adolescence, the child goes to a six-year school mother tongue, which should be available in any community, village, etc. Boys study in gymnasiums or Latin schools, available in all cities. Mature young people are trained in academies, also available in all major settlements any state.

In order to substantiate the idea of ​​the school of the native language, Comenius always spoke of the natural conformity of human development. Such disciplines as, for example, civics and homeland studies are argued by the natural aspirations of the child and the conditions of the reality surrounding him. In the Latin school there must be a "class of ethics" where man will be studied with his own actions - man who is the master of things. The "pivot subject of history" should also be studied, the knowledge of which is capable of "illuminating all life." Also subject to study: General history(mainly the history of the fatherland), the history of religious rites different peoples world, the history of morality, inventions, natural science. Comenius considered the “seven free arts” supplemented by the foundations of sciences that were new for the time to be the traditional subjects of the school of the Middle Ages.

"Seven Liberal Arts"

The Seven Liberal Arts included grammar, dialectics (logic), rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Comenius, as we have already said, supplemented them with the foundations of modern sciences at that time. Entirely and completely the content of general education was addressed to a person in order to make his worldview holistic, and the aspirations to speak, act, be able and know were in harmony.

If we turn to the procedural side of education, then in Comenius it is expressed by the search for a natural method focused on the diverse work of his intellect, his holistic personality and “natural knowledge”, contrary to the “book learning” taken by the student with the help of memory and intense will.

The spiritual world of Jan Comenius was a very complex and unique complex of views of the eras of Antiquity and the Renaissance, Protestantism and Catholic theology, natural science and contemporary humanitarian knowledge. Jan Comenius was able to substantiate the humanistic and democratic idea of ​​universal education, which for several centuries remained fundamental among people for whom universal education was the right of all people.

Pedagogical system of Comenius

The pedagogical system of Comenius is a "strict" pedagogy, implying an attitude towards the student as a responsible, active and conscious being both in thoughts and actions. The activity of a teacher in this system is considered as the most complex art of human development in a person. The Comenius system shines with optimism and faith in human potential, the potential of education, "unification of generous, courageous, exalted people." The tasks of education were associated by Comenius with a direct appeal to inner world a person and the upbringing of the spiritual in him, and the attitude to knowledge as a value is another integral feature of his system.

Each subsequent age stage is an occasion for the introduction of new theological and ethical rules and norms of behavior, designed to spiritualize the inner life of the student by treating as a value not only knowledge, but also to himself and to people around him. A humane person, according to the scientist, must have a number of "cardinal virtues" that can be traced in medieval Christian ethics and rooted in Plato's philosophy: justice, courage, moderation and wisdom.

In an effort to develop and elevate spirituality in people, Comenius tried to form morality and piety as a constant active spiritual life and practical work of a person. Proceeding from this, the pedagogical system appears as a humanistic model of the educational process aimed at the purposeful, valuable and holistic development of the natural forces and potential of the developing individual.

This goal is realized by organizing the life of students in a healthy from the point of view of morality, spiritually rich, and constantly stimulating the all-round development of the environment, where a person is surrounded by a variety of activities that contribute to the natural development of abilities and everything human; in an environment where humane relations prevail between students and students, between students and teachers, due to which the tasks and goals of the educational process become the students' own tasks and goals, and the process of education is transformed into a process of self-education.

The result of the entire pedagogical process will be the achievement by the student of a high level, including self-determination, self-awareness, and the need to continue self-development, self-education and self-education. Freedom that is different personal development student, is provided with the same opportunities for self-development and pedagogical influence, excluding "violence" in any form. This pattern can be traced back to the most effective pedagogical systems of the past. In addition, it is quite harmoniously integrated into modern education systems, which is why Kamensky's discoveries can be safely called universal.

But we will consider modern educational systems a little later, but for now we will say a few words about the didactic principles of Comenius.

Principles of Comenius' didactics

Jan Comenius is a man who, for the first time in the history of didactics, told people about the importance of using principles in teaching and outlined them:

The principle of consciousness and activity- according to him, teaching should be such that students acquire knowledge not with the help of mechanical tasks or memorization, i.e. passively, but actively, with maximum involvement and . If there is no consciousness, then education will be only dogmatic, and formalities will dominate in knowledge;

The principle of visualization of learning- it is assumed here that students must acquire knowledge through direct observation of objects and phenomena, through their perception with their senses. This rule Comenius called "golden";

The principle of gradual and systematic knowledge- means that the study of any knowledge and science should be only systematic. However, for this, students must receive information in a specific methodological and logical sequence.

In order for this principle to be properly observed, Kamensky gives some rules:

1. Information should be distributed in such a way that specific learning objectives are set for each school hour, day, month and year. They must also be carefully thought out by the teacher and understood by the student;
2. The solution of all educational tasks should be distributed taking into account age characteristics, which means that it must correspond to the tasks of each individual class;
3. Each subject must be taught until the moment when the student is fully and completely mastered;
4. Classes should be designed so that the basis of any current material was the previous one, and the subsequent one consolidated it;
5. Education must be built from the general to the specific, from the simple to the complex, from the close to the remote, from the known to the unknown.

Such a sequence, according to Comenius, must be observed everywhere, and the understanding of things with the mind must move from the historical to the rational, and only after that - to the application of everything learned.

The Principle of Exercise and Strong Mastery of Skills- says that an indicator of how complete knowledge and skills are, are only systematic exercises and their repetitions.

There are also a number of requirements developed by Comenius for the last principle:

1. Any rules must necessarily serve to maintain and consolidate the practice;
2. Pupils should do not what brings them pleasure, but what the laws say and what the teachers point to;
3. For the exercises of the mind, special lessons should be created, taking Kamensky's system as a basis;
4. Any task should be initially illustrated and explained, then you need to make sure that the students understood it, and how they understood it. It is recommended to arrange repetitions after a week.

All these provisions tell us that Comenius compares the assimilation of knowledge with the task of a complete and conscious study of the material. Perhaps that is why pedagogical provisions of this outstanding person, even in our time, remain significant both in theory and in practice.

Transformation of the teachings of Comenius

Comenius made an invaluable contribution to the history of pedagogy, consisting in the disclosure of two aspects of education - the objective, including the laws of pedagogy, and the subjective, including the practical application of these laws. This was the beginning of didactics and the art of teaching.

The impact of the ideas of Comenius' didactics had a huge impact on education in European countries, but in practice, in the Middle Ages, society was still dominated by established traditions, according to which diligence and humility were especially valued, and the student's own initiative, firstly, was not encouraged, but, in secondly, it served as a reflection of his “sinfulness”. For this reason, didactics itself was not fully accepted.

With the development of society, some social phenomena were replaced by new ones, and Comenius' ideas either became part of some others, or were supplemented by them. Due to the emergence of ever new problems in the field of education, new theories have appeared, where completely different factors and concepts are taken as a basis. However, only knowing the basics of Comenius's teachings, one can understand and trace the changes that have taken place in this area.

Modern theories of education

Below we suggest that you get acquainted with modern theories of education in general terms, some of which can serve as an alternative to didactics, and some of which are fundamentally different from it.

Progressivism

Progressivism is a theory of education that arose as a reaction to traditional education, which focused on the methods of formal influence on the student and memorization of the material.

The main ideas of progressivism were the idea of ​​self-expression and personal development, the idea of ​​the free activity of children, the idea of ​​learning through experience, the idea of ​​mastering skills and abilities to achieve, the idea of ​​maximizing the potential of the present, and the idea of ​​understanding and applying the dynamics of an ever-changing world.

Humanism

Humanism arose from the foundations of progressivism, from which it took most of its ideas. For humanists, the child should be at the center of the educational process, the teacher is not an absolute authority, the student is always active and involved in the process of obtaining knowledge. In addition, humanism includes the ideas of cooperation and the principles of democracy.

One of the foundations of humanism was also the creation of a special educational environment, in which there is no competition between students, and . The goal of the humanists was to get rid of the relationship of enmity between students and teachers and to form a relationship in which trust and a sense of security predominate.

perennialism

Perennialism can be called a response to progressivism, according to the views of perennialists, destroying complete system education. According to them, education should not contribute to the adaptation of the student to the world, but should adapt him to the truth. The content of the curriculum should not depend on the interests of students, but should be based only on what is relevant at the moment for society.

Professional pedagogy here is not a function of education, the school should educate, mainly, the intellect, and the educational system should guide a person to the knowledge of eternal truth. Hence the main focus on fine arts, philosophy, natural sciences, mathematics, history and languages.

Essentialism

Essentialism was the second reaction to progressivism. The similarity of essentialism with perennialism is that progressivism is also too soft a system for it. Essentialists argued that the school should provide basic knowledge, the basis of which was the basic arts and subjects that could instill skills and prepare for life in society.

Primary School must adhere school curriculum, cultivating the development of literacy skills and . The emphasis was on mathematics, writing and reading. High school should teach history, mathematics, science, native language and literature. In general, the Essentialist program is based on teaching the younger generation only fundamental knowledge.

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism was the exact opposite of the traditional education system. Education in it was not just a transmitter of culture, but the main organ of social reforms. If you build education right, it will be able to reconstruct the social order.

According to the reconstructionists, traditional schools can only transmit the social, political and economic vices that are a problem for society. A person is in front of the threat of self-destruction, and in order to avoid this, it is necessary to radically change the education system. Educational methods should be based on the principles of democracy, where the natural intelligence of the majority is at the head of everything, which is aimed at finding solutions to the problems of mankind and their practical application.

Futurism

Futurism arose much later than the theories that we examined - if all of them arose in the period from the 30s to the 50s of the 20th century, then futurism arose already in the 70s. According to its supporters, the modern (at that time) education system, even in the best educational institutions, is erroneous and inefficient, because. the theories and methods that it uses are no longer relevant, because society has managed to move from the industrial era to the super-industrial one.

The result of this is teaching the new generation what was important, necessary and in demand in the past, despite the fact that they live in a constantly changing and developing world. To get out of this situation, it is necessary to create a super-industrial educational system focused on the future, which will be able to prepare people for life who are able to navigate in new conditions, quickly respond to them, and .

Behaviorism

Behaviorism turned out to be not only, but also the strongest system of educational views. He was able to push the boundaries of psychological interests to pedagogical interests.

From the position of behaviorism, education is a process of behavioral technique. According to its supporters, the environment in which people live programs them for certain behavior. People are rewarded for some actions but punished for others. Actions that led to the receipt of a reward will be repeated, and the opposite will be extinguished. This forms the behavioral patterns of the individual.

Based on the foregoing, it follows that the behavior of people can be manipulated. And the task of education is precisely the creation of such environmental conditions that will contribute to optimal human behavior. Thus, educational institutions should be considered as institutions for the formation of a society's culture.

Pedagogical anarchism

Pedagogical anarchism has its origins in the publication of Ivan Illich's "Deschooled Society" in reaction to hundreds of failed attempts. The approach of his adherents to the organization of society was based on the rejection of any educational institutions due to the fact that they managed to monopolize all the opportunities and services of education, establishing prohibitively expensive ways to obtain it.

The school was considered the enemy of a decent life. forced students to look at the existing educational system as a standard, perceive not the content, but the form, confuse the concepts of "learning" and "teaching", the transition from class to class with a real education, a diploma with professional suitability, etc.

Anarchists called for the disorganization of schools, the abolition of compulsory education, and the introduction of a system of teacher subsidies, through which educational funds would be directed directly to the intended purpose - to interested people. Also, a proper educational system should allow those who want to have access to any source, allow those who are able to teach to find those willing to learn, and allow all who wish to contribute their ideas and works to society.

The theories of education that we have discussed have greatly influenced educational form at all. Today it has reached the level where a real war for education is being waged. All theories of education have become the basis of many pedagogical experiments and literature worthy of attention and study. But be that as it may, it is Jan Comenius, even now, who is the only teacher-philosopher who could see in education and teaching the basis of human progress. For this reason, in the next lesson we will talk in more detail about the basic principles of didactics and reveal all their features.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Theory of Education and Education">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-2.jpg" alt="> Object and subject of pedagogy. Pedagogy is a science,"> Объект и предмет педагогики. Педагогика – это наука, изучающая закономерности передачи социального опыта страшим поколением и активного его усвоения младшим поколением. Объект – это область действительности, которую исследует !} given science. The object of pedagogy is the phenomena of reality, which determine the development of the individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. Such a phenomenon of reality is education - a purposeful process of education and training in the interests of a person, society and the state. A subject is a way of seeing an object from the standpoint of a given science. The subject of pedagogy is a consciously and purposefully organized pedagogical process.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-3.jpg" alt="> Pedagogical process The pedagogical process is a specially organized interaction of educators"> Педагогический процесс Педагогический процесс - специально организованное взаимодействие воспитателей и воспитанников, направленное на достижение поставленной цели и призванное привести к преобразованию личностных свойств и качеств воспитанников. Педагогическая наука исследует сущность, закономерности, принципы, тенденции и перспективы развития педагогического процесса, разрабатывает теорию и технологию его организации, совершенствует содержание и создает новые организационные формы, методы и приемы пед. деятельности воспитателей и воспитанников (детей и взрослых). Вывод: педагогика – это наука о воспитании, обучении и образовании детей и взрослых.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> The main tasks of pedagogy 1. The study of the essence, features and patterns of ped. process and"> Основные задачи педагогики 1. Изучение сущности, особенностей и закономерностей пед. процесса и его составных частей: обучения, воспитания, психологической подготовки, развития, самовоспитания и самообразования. 2. Дальнейшая разработка требований принципов обучения и воспитания в соответствии с происходящими изменениями в жизни страны с учетом постоянного совершенствования системы образования. 3. Выявление и обоснование условий успешной реализации требований и принципов обучения и воспитания в учебно-!} educational process. 4. Development of means and techniques for improving the methodological systems of education and upbringing. 5. Determination of ways to improve and develop organizational forms of educational and educational work, increasing the effectiveness of various methods of monitoring and evaluating the level of education and upbringing of students. 6. Forecasting the development of the ped-th process. 7. Search for techniques, ways and means of enhancing the cognitive activity of students. 8. Development of a methodology for studying, generalizing and disseminating the best practices of educational and educational institutions. 9. Study and critical reflection of ped. heritage of the past, experience of training and education in foreign countries.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> Categories of Pedagogy 1) Education is a process of purposeful formation of personality. Given"> Категории педагогики 1) Воспитание – процесс целенаправленного формирования личности. Данный процесс представляет собой специально организованное, управляемое и контролируемое взаимодействие обучаемых и педагога. Конечным результатом воспитания в современной педагогике принято считать формирование личности, отвечающей требованиям социального заказа общества. 2) Обучение – целенаправленный и систематический процесс приобретения учащимися знаний, навыков и умений, необходимых для выполнения задач в их будущей !} professional activity. 3) Education - this term can be understood in two ways: Firstly as a process of mastering a certain system of knowledge, skills, abilities by students; secondly, as a result of their assimilation, expressed in a certain level of theoretical and practical preparedness and development of intellectual forces. 4) Development - a purposeful process of improving the mental and physical activity of the student in the context of the tasks and conditions of future professional activity.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-6.jpg" alt="> Pedagogy functions 1) General theoretical (scientific and cognitive) - consists of"> Функции педагогики 1) Общетеоретическая (научно-познавательная) - состоит в теоретическом анализе закономерностей педагогического процесса. Наука описывает педагогические факты, явления, процессы, объясняет, по каким законам, при каких условиях, почему они протекают, делает выводы. 2) Прогностическая (прогнозирующая) - состоит в обоснованном предвидении развития педагогической реальности (какой, например, будет школа будущего, как будет изменяться контингент учащихся и т. п.). На базе научно обоснованного прогноза становится возможным более уверенное планирование. В области воспитания значимость научных прогнозов очень велика, т. к. по своей природе воспитание обращено в будущее. 3) Практическая (преобразующая, прикладная) - состоит в том, что на основе фундаментального знания усовершенствуется педагогическая практика, разрабатываются новые методы, средства, формы, системы обучения, воспитания, управления образовательными структурами.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-7.jpg" alt=">The structure of pedagogical science General pedagogy: a) general fundamentals pedagogy; b) the theory of education (didactics): "> The structure of pedagogical science General pedagogy: a) the general foundations of pedagogy; b) the theory of education (didactics): c) the theory of education: d) management educational systems

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-8.jpg" alt="> THEORY OF LEARNING (DIDACTICS) "Didactics" - from the Greek words ""> ТЕОРИЯ ОБУЧЕНИЯ (ДИДАКТИКА) «Дидактика» - от греческих слов « didaktikos » - поучающий и « didasko » - изучающий(впервые введен в научный оборот немецким педагогом Вольфгангом Ратке (1571 -1635) для обозначения искусства обучения). Дидактика – это педагогическая теория обучения, дающая научное обоснование его содержания, методов и организационных форм. Предмет дидактики – это закономерности и принципы обучения, его цели, научные основы содержания образования, методы, формы, средства обучения.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-9.jpg" alt="> General and specific didactics General didactics - explores the learning process"> Общая и частная дидактика Общая дидактика - исследует процесс обучения вместе с факторами, которые его порождают, условиями, в которых он протекает, а также результатами, к которым он приводит. Она изучает закономерности, ход и результаты процесса обучения, определяет методы, организационные формы и средства, обеспечивающие осуществление запланированных целей и задач. Частные дидактики изучают закономерности протекания процесса, содержание, формы и методы преподавания различных учебных предметов. Частные дидактики называют методиками преподавания (соответствующего !} subject).

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">Didactics deals with the development of problems: - why teach? (goals of education , training); - whom"> Дидактика занимается разработкой проблем: - для чего учить? (цели образования, обучения); - кого учить? (субъекты обучения); - какие стратегии обучения наиболее эффективны? (принципы обучения); - чему учить? (содержание образования, обучения); - как учить? (методы обучения); - как организовать обучение? (формы организации обучения) - какие необходимы средства обучения? (учебники, !} study guides, computer programs and etc.); - What is achieved as a result of training? (criteria and indicators characterizing learning outcomes); - how to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes? (methods of monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes).

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-11.jpg" alt="> Basic didactic categories Education is the process and result of learning associated with"> Основные дидактические категории Образование - это процесс и результат обучения, связанный с усвоением учащимися знаний, умений и навыков, формированием мировоззрения, нравственных качеств личности, развитием их !} creative forces and abilities. Learning is an active purposeful cognitive activity of a student under the guidance of a teacher, as a result of which the student acquires a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, he develops an interest in learning, develops cognitive and Creative skills and needs, and moral qualities personality. The learning process is the interaction of a teacher and students, in which students, with the help and under the guidance of a teacher, realize the motives of their cognitive activity, master the system of scientific knowledge about the world around them and form a scientific worldview, comprehensively develop intelligence and the ability to learn, as well as moral qualities and values. guidelines in accordance with personal and public interests and needs.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-12.jpg" alt="> Main didactic categories Teaching is a purposeful, conscious active"> Основные дидактические категории Учение – это целенаправленная, осознанная активная познавательная деятельность ученика, заключающаяся в восприятии и овладении научными знаниями, в обобщении воспринятых фактов, в закреплении и применении полученных знаний в практической деятельности по заданиям учителя или на основе собственных познавательных потребностей. Преподавание – это целенаправленная деятельность учителя по формированию у учащихся положительных мотивов учения, организации восприятия, осмысления излагаемых фактов и явлений, обеспечению умениями пользоваться полученными знаниями и умениями приобретать знания самостоятельно.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-13.jpg" alt="> The essence of education as a pedagogical category Education -"> Сущность образования как педагогической категории Образование – 1) совокупность знаний, полученных !} special education[Ozhegov]; 2) the totality of systematized knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs achieved as a result of educational work [Kodzhaspirova, Kodzhaspirov]; 3) the process of pedagogically organized socialization, carried out in the interests of the individual and society [Slastenin, Isaev, Shiyanov]. Education is a system of knowledge, skills, abilities, ways of thinking acquired in the process of learning.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-14.jpg" alt="> The essence of the learning process Learning is a specially organized, controlled process of interaction"> Сущность процесса обучения Обучение – специально организованный, управляемый процесс взаимодействия учителей и учеников, направленный на усвоение знаний, умений и навыков, формирование мировоззрения, развитие умственных сил и потенциальных возможностей обучаемых, выработку и закрепление навыков самообразования в соответствии с поставленными целями [Коджаспирова Г. М. , Коджаспиров А. Ю. ].!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-15.jpg" alt="> Knowledge is a reflection of the cognizable world in human thoughts, a set of ideas, in"> Знания – отражение познаваемого мира в мысли человека, совокупность идей, в которых выражается теоретическое овладение определенным предметом. Умения – овладение способами (приемами, действиями) применения усвоенных знаний на практике. Навыки – умения, доведенные до автоматизма, высокой степени совершенства.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-16.jpg" alt="> Contradictions in the learning process 1. between the amount of knowledge accumulated"> Противоречия процесса обучения 1. между объемом знаний, накопленных цивилизацией, и объемом знаний, перенимаемых учеником 2. между практическими задачами, стоящими перед учеником, и его индивидуальными способностями 3. между !} learning objectives and the level of development of the student 4. between science and school subject 5. between the ever-increasing demands of learning, and the possibilities of students

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-17.jpg" alt="> Functions and structure of the learning process Educational function Developmental learning function"> Функции и структура процесса обучения Образовательная функция Развивающая функция обучения Воспитывающая функция обучения Побудительная и организующая функции Структура процесса обучения: содержательный, процессуальный и мотивационный компоненты.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-18.jpg" alt="> The main components of the learning process The target component is teacher awareness, and"> Основные компоненты процесса обучения Целевой компонент - осознание учителем, а учениками принятие целей и задач изучения тем, разделов учебных предметов в целом. Стимулирующе-мотивационный компонент - стимулирование у обучаемых интересов и потребностей в решении задач Содержательный компонент определяется учебным планом, государственными учебными программами Операционно-деятельностный компонент непосредственно отражает процессуальную сущность обучения. Контрольно-регулировочный компонент - одновременное проведение учителем контроля над ходом решения поставленных задач обучения и развитым самоконтролем обучаемых!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-19.jpg" alt="> Drivers of the learning process educational process is "> The driving forces of the learning process The driving force of the learning process is the contradiction between the cognitive and practical tasks put forward by the course of training and the current level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students - their mental development.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-20.jpg" alt="> Patterns of learning Pattern - manifestation of the law of learning in specific conditions"> Закономерности обучения Закономерность – проявление закона обучения в конкретных условиях Закономерности – внешние и внутренние Внешние закономерности зависят от социальных процессов, !} political situation, the level of culture in society, etc. Internal patterns are associated with the goals, methods and forms of education.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-21.jpg" alt="> Internal patterns 1. The learning process is both educational and"> Внутренние закономерности 1. Процесс обучения носит как образовательный, так и воспитательный характер. В ходе его реализации влияние на ученика может склоняться в одну либо в другую сторону. 2. Процесс обучения требует постоянного повторения пройденного материала. 3. Процесс обучения требует интенсивности и сознательности работы ученика и учителя. 4. Процесс обучения требует от обучаемого применения поисковых методов и анализа изученного материала.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-22.jpg" alt="> Psychological, physiological, epistemological laws and regularities Epistemological:"> Психологические, физиологические, гносеологические законы и закономерности Гносеологические: 1. Результатом процесса обучения являются конкретные знания, которые могут быть выявлены в ходе их проверки (устной или письменной). 2. В процессе обучения рациональнее пользоваться методом восхождения от абстрактного к конкретному, что поможет лучше усваивать знания.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-23.jpg" alt="> Psychological patterns Learning productivity (within known limits) is directly proportional to"> Психологические закономерности Продуктивность обучения (в известных пределах) прямо пропорциональна интересу обучаемых к !} learning activities. The productivity of learning (within certain limits) is directly proportional to the learning abilities of students. The productivity of training (within certain limits) is directly proportional to the number of training exercises. The productivity of training (within known limits) is directly proportional to the intensity of training. The productivity of learning (within certain limits) is directly proportional to the level of cognitive activity of students. The productivity of learning (within certain limits) is directly proportional to the level and persistence of students' attention.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-24.jpg" alt=">"> Результаты усвоения конкретного учебного материала зависят от способности учащихся к овладению конкретными знаниями, умениями, от индивидуальных склонностей обучаемых. Продуктивность обучения зависит от уровня, силы, интенсивности и особенностей мышления обучаемых. Продуктивность обучения (в известных пределах) зависит от уровня развития памяти. Обученность прямо пропорциональна обучаемости. Продуктивность обучения (в известных пределах) прямо пропорциональна работоспособности обучаемых.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-25.jpg" alt="> Organizational Patterns"> Организационные закономерности Эффективность обучения зависит от организации. Лишь такая организация обучения является хорошей, которая развивает у учащихся потребность учиться, формирует !} cognitive interests brings satisfaction, stimulates cognitive activity. The learning outcomes (within certain limits) are directly proportional to the attitude of students to educational work, their educational duties. Learning outcomes (within certain limits) are directly proportional to the performance of students. Learning outcomes depend on the performance of the teacher.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-26.jpg" alt="> Didactic principles (principles of didactics) are the main provisions that determine"> Дидактические принципы (принципы дидактики) - это основные положения, определяющие содержание, организационные формы и методы учебного процесса в соответствии с его !} common goals and laws. The principles of teaching express the normative foundations of teaching, taken in a concrete historical form. Acting as categories of didactics, the principles of learning characterize the ways in which laws and regularities are used in accordance with the intended goals.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-27.jpg" alt="> Learning principles Learning principles - initial, guiding ideas, normative"> Принципы обучения Принципы обучения - исходные, руководящие идеи, нормативные требования к организации и осуществлению образовательного процесса. Принципы обучения определяют деятельность обучающего и характер познавательной деятельности обучаемого.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-28.jpg" alt="> Learning Principles Scientific Principle Accessibility Principle"> Принципы обучения Принцип научности Принцип доступности Принцип сознательности и активности Принцип наглядности Принцип систематичности и последовательности Принцип прочности усвоения знаний Принцип воспитывающего обучения Принцип связи теории с практикой Принцип соответствия обучения возрастным и индивидуальным особенностям обучаемых (принцип личностного подхода в обучении)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-29.jpg" alt="> Learning Principles"> Принципы обучения Принцип научности обучения требует, чтобы учащимся на каждом шагу их обучения предлагались для усвоения подлинные, прочно установленные наукой знания и при этом использовались методы обучения, по характеру приближающиеся к методам изучаемой науки. Правила реализации принципа: Каждое нововведенное научное понятие систематически повторяйте, применяйте и используйте на всем протяжении !} training course for what is not practiced is forgotten. Study the laws of science, taking into account the most important aspects of the process of development of the phenomena under study, depending on external conditions, place and time, specific forms of change in the phenomenon, the struggle between the old and the new, content and form.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-30.jpg" alt="> In teaching methods, reflect the methods of scientific knowledge, develop the thinking of students, summing their"> В методах преподавания отражайте методы научного познания, развивайте мышление учащихся, подводя их к поисковой, !} creative work in teaching. Systematically inform students about new achievements in science, technology, culture; associate new achievements with the system of knowledge formed by students. Use the latest scientific terminology, do not use outdated terms, stay up to date scientific achievements in your subject. Reveal the genesis of scientific knowledge, the embryology of truth, consistently implement the requirements of historicism in teaching. disclose to students the main ideas of scientific achievements, teach them to follow scientific information, encourage collective discussion of scientific, technical and social problems. Encourage research work schoolchildren. Find opportunities to acquaint them with the technique of experimental and experimental work, algorithms for solving inventive problems, processing primary sources and reference materials, archival documents.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-31.jpg" alt="> Accessibility principle Accessible is that which corresponds to the amount of knowledge, skills, methods"> Принцип доступности Доступным является, что соответствует объему знаний, умений, способам мышления. Классические правила принципа (Я. А. Коменский): от легкого к трудному, от известного к неизвестному, от простого к сложному все подлежащее изучению должно быть распределено сообразно ступеням возраста так, чтобы предлагалось для изучения только то, что доступно восприятию в каждом возрасте!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-32.jpg" alt="> Visual principle"> Принцип наглядности Правила: Золотое правило обучающих: все, что только можно, следует представлять для восприятия чувствами, а именно: видимое - для восприятия зрением, слышимое - слухом, запахи - обонянием, подлежащее вкусу - вкусом, доступное осязанию - путем осязания!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-33.jpg" alt=">"> Принцип сознательности и активности В его основе лежат установленные наукой закономерные положения: подлинную сущность человеческого образования составляют глубоко и самостоятельно осмысленные знания, приобретаемые путем интенсивного напряжения собственной умственной деятельности; сознательное усвоение знаний зависит от ряда условий и факторов: мотивов обучения, уровня и характера познавательной активности учащихся, организации учебновоспитательного процесса, управления познавательной деятельностью учащихся, применяемых учителем методов и средств обучения и др. ; собственная познавательная активность школьника является !} an important factor learning and has a decisive influence on the pace, depth and strength of mastering the educational material.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-34.jpg" alt="> Rules of principle Clear understanding of the goals and objectives of the work ahead"> Правила принципа Ясное понимание целей и задач предстоящей работы - необходимое условие сознательного обучения; То, что учащимся неизвестно, логически увязывайте с известным: где нет логической связи между усвоенными и усваиваемыми знаниями, там нет сознательного обучения. Учите находить и различать главное и второстепенное в изучаемом, выделяйте главное, добивайтесь прежде всего понимания и усвоения главного. Вводите оптимальное количество примеров, но так, чтобы они не затмили сущность главного. Постоянно изучайте и используйте индивидуальные интересы своих учащихся, развивайте и направляйте их таким образом, чтобы они согласовывались с личными и общественными потребностями.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-35.jpg" alt=">The principle of systematic and consistent"> Принцип систематичности и последовательности Человек только тогда обладает настоящим и действенным знанием, когда в его мозгу отражается четкая картина внешнего мира, представляющая систему взаимосвязанных понятий; универсальным средством и главным способом формирования системы научных знаний является определенным образом организованное обучение; система научных знаний создается в той последовательности, которая определяется внутренней логикой учебного материала и познавательными возможностями учащихся; процесс обучения состоит из отдельных шагов и протекает тем успешнее, приносит тем большие результаты, чем меньше в нем перерывов, нарушений последовательности, неуправляемых моментов; если систематически не упражнять навыков - они утрачиваются; если не приучать учащихся к !} logical thinking, then they will constantly experience difficulties in their mental activity; if you do not follow the systems and sequences in learning, then the process of student development slows down.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-36.jpg" alt="> Systematic and Consistent Rules Use diagrams, plans,"> Правила принципа систематичности и последовательности Используйте схемы, планы, чтобы обеспечить усвоение учащимися системы знаний. Разделяйте содержание учебного материала на логически завершенные части (модули, шаги), последовательно их реализуйте, приучайте к этому учащихся. Не допускайте нарушения системы как в содержании, так и в способах обучения, а если система нарушена, немедленно ликвидируйте пробелы, чтобы предупредить неуспеваемость.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-37.jpg" alt="> Basic didactic concepts. Didactic concept (lat. conceptio - system"> Основные дидактические концепции. Дидактическая концепция (лат. conceptio - система взглядов, то или иное понимание явлений, процессов) - система взглядов на процесс обучения. Психолого-педагогические концепции часто называют дидактическими системами. Дидактическая система - это совокупность элементов, образующих единую цельную структуру, направленную на достижение целей обучения.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-38.jpg" alt="> traditional didactic concept"> традиционная дидактическая концепция В традиционной системе обучения главенствующей ролью является роль учителя, преподавание. Основу данной системы являются работы таких педагогов, как Я. Коменский, И. Песталоцци, И. Гербарт. Например, дидактику И. Гербарта характеризуют такие слова, как «деятельность учителя» , «управление» , «руководство учителя» , «регламентация» , «правила» , «предписания» и т. д. Структура !} traditional learning includes four steps: – presentation; - understanding; - generalization; - application. The logical meaning of the learning process is that the movement comes from providing material to students through its explanation to understanding, generalization, application of knowledge. I. Herbart sought to systematize and organize the activities of the teacher, which was quite important for didactics.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-39.jpg" alt="> Pedocentric didactic concept The main role in this concept is given to teaching - activity"> Педоцентристская дидактическая концепция Главная роль в данной концепции отводится учению – деятельности ребенка. Основой педоцентрической технологии стала система американского педагога Д. Дьюи, а также трудовая школа Г. Кершенштейна и В. Лая. Свое название система получила из-за того, что Дьюи говорил о том, что данную концепцию нужно строить, основываясь на потребностях, интересах учащихся, их способностях, при этом стремясь развивать умственные способности и разнообразные умения учащихся, когда процесс обучения носит спонтанный, самостоятельный, естественный характер, а получение умений и навыков происходит через непосредственную деятельность, т. е. обучение через выполнение действий. Однако такой вид обучения стал приводить к снижению уровня обучения, случайному отбору материала, утрате систематичности в обучении, переоценке спонтанной деятельности детей.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-40.jpg" alt="> Modern didactic concept The modern didactic system is based on the fact that"> Современная дидактическая концепция Современная дидактическая система строится на том, что обе стороны – преподавание и учение – составляют процесс обучения. В основе современной дидактической концепции лежат такие направления, как программированное, проблемное, развивающее обучение, !} humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology, pedagogical technology, pedagogy of cooperation. The purpose of modern didactic systems is not only in the formation of knowledge, but also in the overall development of students, their intellectual, labor, artistic skills, satisfaction of the cognitive and spiritual needs of students.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-41.jpg" alt="> Associative-reflex theory (S. L. Rubinshtein N. A . Menchinskaya, D."> Ассоциативно-рефлекторная теория (С. Л. Рубинштейн Н. А. Менчинская, Д. Н. Богоявленский): Усвоение знаний, формирование умений и навыков, развитие личностных качеств есть !} education process in the mind of a person of various connections (associations). Stages: 1. Perception of educational material. 2. Understanding. 3. Memorization. 4. Application of knowledge in practice. Developmental education (L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov, D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov). Features: 1. Training is conducted at a high level of difficulty (ped. influences are ahead and stimulate the development of hereditary data). 2. In primary education the leading role is given to theoretical knowledge. 3. The child is the subject of activity. The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina): Psychological doctrine of internalization (transformation of external reality into internal mental activity).

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-42.jpg" alt="> Problem-Based Learning Theory (A. M. Matyushkin, M. I . Makhmutov):"> Теория проблемного обучения (А. М. Матюшкин, М. И. Махмутов): Развитие умственных способностей, самостоятельности и творческого мышления учащихся на основе создания проблемной ситуации.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-43.jpg" alt="> content of education content of education - a set of systematized knowledge"> содержание образования содержание образования - совокупность систематизированных знаний, умений и навы ков, взглядов и убеждений, а также определенный уровень развития позна вательных сил и практической подготовки, достигнутый в результате учебно-воспитательной работы. При таком подходе (знаниево -ориентированном) к определению сущ ности содержания образования в центре внимания находятся знания, они выступают абсолютной ценностью и заслоняют самого человека.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-44.jpg" alt="> A student-centered approach to determining the essence of the content of education I. Ya."> Личностно-ориентированный подход к определению сущности содержания образования И. Я. Лернер и М. Н. Скаткин под содержанием образования понимают педагогически адаптированную систему знаний, навыков и уме- ний, опыта !} creative activity and experience of emotional-volitional attitude, the assimilation of which is designed to ensure the formation of a comprehensively developed personality, prepared for the reproduction and development of the material and spiritual culture of society.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-45.jpg" alt=">S. A. Smirnov: The content of education can be represented by the following components :"> С. А. Смирнов: Содержание образования может быть представлено следующими компонентами: - когнитивный опыт личности; - опыт практической деятельности; - опыт творческой деятельности; - опыт отношений.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-46.jpg" alt="> Education content Education content is a collection of"> Содержание образования Содержание образования – это совокупность систематизированных знаний, умений и навыков, овладение которыми закладывает основы для развития и формирования личности. Теории формирования содержания образования: Материальная теория - Цель: отбор знаний, умений, необходимых для !} Everyday life and practical activities. Formal theory - Goal: development of abilities, interests and cognitive mental processes students.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-48.jpg" alt=">Criteria for selecting the content of education 1. Formation of a basic personality culture. 2. Scientific"> Критерии отбора содержания образования 1. Формирование базовой культуры личности. 2. Научная и практическая значимость. 3. Соответствие содержания учебным возможностям детей. 4. Соответствие объема содержания учебного предмета времени на его изучение. 5. Учет международного опыта построения содержания общего среднего образования. 6. Соответствие содержания образования имеющейся учебно-методической и материальной базе школы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-49.jpg" alt="> General education content selection principles 1. Compliance"> Принципы отбора содержания общего образования 1. Соответствие содержания образования требованиям общества. 2. Единство содержательной и процессуальной сторон обучения. 3. Структурное единство содержания образования (согласование учебного материала, !} pedagogical activity and personality traits of the student. 4. Humanitarianization of education (mastering the basis of universal culture - the basic culture of the individual). 5. Fundamentalization of the content of education (integration of humanitarian and natural science knowledge; equipping schoolchildren with methods of obtaining new knowledge).

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-50.jpg" alt="> State educational standard"> Государственный образовательный стандарт Под стандартом образования понимается система основных параметров, принимаемых в качестве государственной нормы образованно сти, отражающей общественный идеал и учитывающей возможности реальной личности и системы образования по достижению этого идеала Нормативные документы, регламентирующие содержание общего среднего образования (учебный план, учебная программа, !} educational literature)

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-51.jpg" alt="> Education content components: Educational component Developmental component"> Компоненты содержания образования: Образовательный компонент Развивающий компонент Воспитательный компонент!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-52.jpg" alt="> Teaching methods method” (Greek) - “research, method, way to achieve the goal”">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-53.jpg" alt="> Didactic methods"> Дидактические методы История развития и становления методов: древние времена - методы обучения, основывавшиеся на подражании. Ученики наблюдали за педагогом и повторяли определенные действия средние века - догматический метод обучения эпоха Возрождения - развитие человеческой личности на основе самодеятельности и активности, сознательного усвоения знаний Я. А. Коменский - обучение сообразно с силами и возрастом обучающихся, от частного к общему, от простого к сложному, сочетание слова и наглядности XIX век - И. Г. Песталоцци, И. Ф. Гербарт, Ф. А. Дистервег, К. Ушинский - возможность трудиться самостоятельно при незаметном и умелом руководстве их учебным трудом. рубеж ХIX–XX - !} heuristic methods

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-54.jpg" alt="> Development of teaching methods Russian Ped. Encyclopedia (1993): method"> Развитие методов обучения Российская пед. Энциклопедия (1993 год): метод обучения - система последовательных взаимосвязанных действий учителя и учащихся, обеспечивающих усвоение содержания образования. И. П. Подласый (1996 г.): метод обучения – это упорядоченная деятельность педагога и учащихся, направленная на достижение заданной цели. При этом способы обучающей деятельности преподавателя (преподавание) и способы учебной деятельности учащихся (учение) тесно связаны между собой; И. Ф. Харламов (1997 г.): методы обучения - это“способы обучающей работы учителя и организации управления познавательной деятельности учащихся по решению различных дидактических задач, направленных на овладение изучаемым материалом”.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-55.jpg" alt="> Functions of teaching methods teaching (realizes learning objectives in practice);"> Функции методов обучения обучающая (реализует на практике цели обучения); развивающая (задает темп и уровень развития учащихся); воспитывающая (влияет на результаты воспитания); побуждающая (выступает как средство побуждения к учению); контрольно-корректировочная (диагностика и управление процессом обучения учащихся).!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-56.jpg" alt="> Classifications of teaching methods: (name - base - groups of methods) Traditional"> Классификации методов обучения: (название – основание – группы методов) Традиционная - Источник знаний - Словесные, наглядные, практические По назначению - Последовательность этапов обучения - Приобретения знаний; формирования умений и навыков; применения знаний; творческой деятельности; закрепления ЗУН; проверки ЗУН По дидактическим целям - Цели обучения - Методы, способствующие: а) первичному усвоению материала; б) закреплению и совершенствованию приобретенных знаний Классификация методов обучения по Ю. К. Бабанскому - Аспекты !} educational and cognitive activities (UPD) - Organization and implementation of the UPD; stimulation and motivation of UPD; control and self-control over the effectiveness of UPD Classification of teaching methods according to I. Ya. Lerner and M. N. Skatkin - The nature of the students' activities - Explanatory and illustrative; reproductive; problem statement; partial search; research

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-57.jpg" alt="> Traditional (E. I. Perovsky, E. Ya. Golant , D. O. Lordkipanidze)."> Традиционная (Е. И. Перовский, Е. Я. Голант, Д. О. Лордкипанидзе). Критерий классификации – источник получения информации. Три группы методов: словесные (беседа, рассказ, лекция, объяснение, работа с книгой), наглядные (показ, демонстрация моделей, схем), практические (упражнения, тренажи, решение задач)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-58.jpg" alt="> By appointment (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov) Criterion -"> По назначению (М. А. Данилов, Б. П. Есипов). Критерий – последовательность этапов процесса обучения. Методы обучения: 1) приобретения знаний; 2) формирования умений и навыков; 3) применения знаний; 4) творческой деятельности; 5) закрепления знаний, умений и навыков; 6) проверки знаний, умений и навыков!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-59.jpg" alt="> For didactic purposes (G. I. Schukina, I. T Ogorodnikov) Methods,"> По дидактическим целям (Г. И. Щукина, И. Т. Огородников) Методы, способствующие: а) первичному усвоению учебного материала; б) закреплению и совершенствованию приобретенных знаний!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-60.jpg" alt="> Classification of teaching methods proposed by Yu. K. Babansky 1. Methods"> Классификация методов обучения, предложенная Ю. К. Бабанским 1. Методы организации и осуществления учебно-познавательной деятельности: – словесные, наглядные и практические (аспект восприятия и передачи учебной информации); – индуктивные и дедуктивные (логические аспекты); – репродуктивные и проблемно-поисковые (аспект мышления); – самостоятельной работы и работы под руководством преподавателя (аспект управления учением). 2. Методы стимулирования и мотивации учебно-познавательной деятельности: – интереса к учению; – долга и ответственности в учении. 3. Методы контроля и самоконтроля за эффективностью учебно- познавательной деятельности: – устный, письменный, лабораторно-практический!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-61.jpg" alt=">By the nature (degree of independence and creativity) of students' activities (I. J. Lerner and M."> По характеру (степени самостоятельности и творчества) деятельности обучающихся (И. Я. Лернер и М. Н. Скаткин) Метод Вид Уровни Сущность деятель- умственной ности деятельнос знаний обучающего ти обучающего ся Объясни- Получение I– I – знания- Традиционн тельно- знаний с узнавание ое обучение знакомства иллюстра – помощью – процесс преподават передачи тивный готовых еля известных знаний!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-62.jpg" alt=">Reproduction - Application II - knowledge- learned reproduction -"> Репродук - Применение II – знания- изученного воспроизве - тивный копии на основе дение образца (репродук - ция) Проблемное Изучение III – знание- Проблемное изложение способов обучение – применение умение решения процесс проблемных активного задач с поиска и помощью открытия преподава - обучающи - мися новых теля знаний!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-63.jpg" alt=">Partial-Active III - knowledge-exploratory search application skill"> Частично- Активный III – знание- поисковый поиск применение умение решения IV – знание- задачи под трансформа руководст - творчест во вом ция преподава - теля Исследова- Самостояте IV – знание- тельский льный творчество трансформа поиск ция варианта решения!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-64.jpg" alt="> The choice of teaching methods can be determined by: - ​​the general goals of education,"> Выбор методов обучения может определяться: – общими целями образования, воспитания, развития и психологической подготовки курсантов и слушателей; – особенностями методики преподавания конкретной !} academic discipline and the specifics of its requirements for the selection of didactic methods; - goals, objectives and content of the material of a particular lesson; - the time allotted for the study of a particular material; - the level of preparedness of students; - the level of material equipment, the availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means; - the level of preparedness and personal qualities of the teacher himself

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-65.jpg" alt="> The choice of teaching methods can be determined by: Yu. K. Babansky:"> Выбор методов обучения может определяться: Ю. К. Бабанский: – принять решение о том, будет ли материал изучаться самостоятельно или под руководством педагога; – определить соотношение репродуктивных и продуктивных методов. Если есть условия, предпочтение должно отдаваться продуктивным методам; – определить соотношение индуктивной и дедуктивной логик, аналитического и синтетического путей познания, меру и способы сочетания словесных, наглядных, практических методов; – определить способы и средства стимулирования деятельности обучающихся; – определить “точки”, интервалы и методы контроля и самоконтроля; – продумать запасные варианты на случай отклонения реального процесса обучения от запланированного!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-66.jpg" alt=">"> Дидактические средства обучения Главное назначение средств – ускорить процесс усвоения учебного материала студентами, т. е. приблизить его к наиболее эффективным характеристикам. средства обучения - вспомогательные материалы и орудия, разнообразное оборудование и реальные объекты, которые позволяют преподавателю более успешно и рационально достигать поставленных целей, решая при этом определенные дидактические задачи!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-67.jpg" alt="> Learning Tools Polish teacher-researcher V. Okon: simple and complex"> Средства обучения Польский педагог-исследователь В. Оконь: простые и сложные простые: словесные – учебники и другие тексты; простые визуальные средства – реальные предметы, модели, картины сложные: механические визуальные приборы – диаскоп, микроскоп, кодоскоп и пр. ; аудиальные средства – магнитофон; аудиовизуальные средства – кинопроектор, телевизор, видеомагнитофон; средства автоматизирующие процесс обучения – лингвистические кабинеты, компьютеры, !} Information Systems, telecommunication networks

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-68.jpg" alt="> P.I."> Средства обучения П. И. Пидкасистый (материальные или идеальные объекты, которые используются педагогом и обучающимися для усвоения знаний): 1. средства – источники информации 2. средства – инструменты освоения учебного материала к материальным средствам относятся учебники, учебные пособия, !} didactic materials, primary source books, pedagogical tests, models, visual aids, technical means and laboratory equipment Ideal teaching aids include generally accepted sign systems(language ( oral speech), writing (written language), system symbols various disciplines (notation, mathematical apparatus, etc.), cultural achievements or works of art (painting, music, literature, etc.), pedagogical software products, organizing and coordinating the activities of a teacher, the level of his qualifications and internal culture, methods and forms of organization of educational activities, the entire education system that exists in a given educational institution, the system of general university requirements

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-69.jpg" alt="> teaching aids S. A. Smirnov: classification of teaching aids"> средства обучения С. А. Смирнов: классификация средств обучения в соответствии с уровнями реализации содержания образования (уровень учебного занятия, учебного предмета и всего обучения (по всем предметам и на протяжении всех лет обучения в вузе) уровень учебного занятия: Идеальные (!} language systems signs used in oral and written speech; works of art and other cultural achievements (painting, music, literature); visual aids (diagrams, drawings, drawings, diagrams, photos, etc.); educational computer programs on the topic of the lesson; organizing and coordinating activities of the teacher, the level of qualification and internal culture of the teacher; forms of organization of educational activities on training session, material (separate texts from the textbook, manuals and books; individual tasks, exercises, tasks from textbooks, problem books, didactic materials; test material; visual aids (objects, operating layouts, exhibits); technical training aids; laboratory equipment) subject level: Ideal: a system of symbols for various disciplines (notation, mathematical apparatus, etc.); artificial environment for the accumulation of skills in this subject (swimming pool, special language environment for teaching foreign languages, created in language laboratories, etc.); educational computer programs covering the entire course of study in the subject. Material: textbooks and teaching aids; didactic materials; methodological developments(recommendations) on the subject; primary source books

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-70.jpg" alt="> Level of all education: Ideal: education system; methods; system of general university requirements."> Уровень всего обучения: Идеальные: система обучения; методы; система общевузовских требований. Материальные, сюда входит большая часть материально-технической базы !} educational institution: premises for training, libraries, canteens, canteens, a medical office, premises for administration, teachers and employees of an educational institution

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-71.jpg" alt="> A. A. Zolotarev: basis - didactic tasks for which D.S."> А. А. Золотарев: основание - дидактические задачи, под которые Д. С. разрабатываются 1. средства, разработанные для создания ориентировочной основы деятельности обучающихся: компьютерные (электронные) и компьютеризированные учебники (КУ) и учебные пособия (КУП) 2. средства, ориентированные на приобретение обучающимися знаний в определенной предметной области: автоматизированные и экспертные обучающие системы (АОС и ЭОС), автоматизированные системы контроля знаний (АСКЗ), компьютерные задачники (КЗ), компьютерные лабораторные практикумы (КЛП) и компьютерные обучающие программы (КОП), которые служат для автоматизированного обучения студентов, комплексной оценки знаний и управления познавательной деятельностью 3. компьютерные средства, используемые для формирования у обучающихся в процессе учения необходимых профессиональных навыков и умений 4. средства, применение которых возможно для решения нескольких дидактических задач одновременно. Это автоматизированные библиотечные системы (АБС), автоматизированные справочные системы (АСС), информационно-поисковые системы (ИПС), информационно- расчетные системы (ИРС), банки данных (БД) и базы знаний (БЗ), электронные таблицы (ЭТ), математические пакеты (МП) и средства мультимедиа (СММ), позволяющие решать значительную часть прикладных учебных задач.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-72.jpg" alt="> LEARNING FORMS. LESSON IS THE MAIN FORM OF ORGANIZING LEARNING"> ФОРМЫ ОБУЧЕНИЯ. УРОК – ОСНОВНАЯ ФОРМА ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ УЧЕБНОГО ПРОЦЕССА В ШКОЛЕ Латинское слово forma означает наружный вид, внешнее очертание. Форма обучения как дидактическая категория обозначает внешнюю сторону организации учебного процесса, которая связана с количеством обучаемых, временем и местом обучения, а также порядком его осуществления. Форма обучения – это целенаправленное, четко организованное, содержательно насыщенное и методически оснащенное общение и взаимодействие учителя и учащихся.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-73.jpg" alt="> Ya. A. Comenius - in the book "Great Didactics""> Я. А. Коменский – в книге «Великая дидактика» обосновал целесообразность проведения занятий в классах с постоянным составом детей одного уровня подготовки по твердому расписанию и определенной программе под руководством учителя. Совершенствование классно-урочной системы повлекло за собой внедрение в педагогику таких понятий, как учебный год, учебный день, урок, перерыв между занятиями, каникулы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-74.jpg" alt="> Features of the class-lesson form of education - a constant composition of students of approximately the same age"> Особенности классно-урочной формы обучения - постоянный состав учащихся примерно одного возраста и уровня подготовленности (класс); - каждый класс работает в соответствии со своим годовым планом (планирование обучения); - учебный процесс осуществляется в виде отдельных взаимосвязанных, следующих одна за другой частей (уроков); - каждый урок посвящается только одному предмету (монизм); - постоянное чередование уроков (расписание); - руководящая роль учителя (педагогическое управление); - применение различных видов и форм познавательной деятельности учащихся (вариативность деятельности).!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-75.jpg" alt="> Classification of lessons by didactic purposes (B. P."> Типология уроков классификация уроков по дидактическим целям (Б. П. Есипов, М. А. Данилов, Г. И. Щукина, В. А. Онищук): - урок изучения нового учебного материала – основное время отводится на передачу и усвоение новых знаний; - урок совершенствования знаний, умений и навыков – систематизация и обобщение новых знаний; повторение и закрепление ранее усвоенных знаний; применение знаний на практике для углубления и расширения ранее усвоенного материала; формирование умений и навыков; контроль за ходом изучения учебного материла и совершенствования знаний, умений и навыков;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-76.jpg" alt="> knowledge testing and control lesson - lessons of this type are intended"> урок проверки и контроля знаний – уроки этого типа предназначаются для оценки результатов учения, уровня усвоения учащимися теоретического материала, системы !} scientific concepts the course being studied, the formation of skills and abilities, the experience of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren, establishing the diagnosis of the level of students' learning, correction in the learning process in accordance with the diagnosis of the state of children's learning;

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-77.jpg" alt="> the lesson of generalization and systematization of what has been learned - the essence of these lessons is"> урок обобщения и систематизации изученного – сущность этих уроков состоит в активном воспроизведении изученного материала по отдельным разделам учебной программы и в организации упражнений с целью приведения знаний в систему, осмысления их логики, что способствует более прочному овладению ими и совершенствованию практических умений и навыков;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-78.jpg" alt="> combined lesson is the most common type of lesson in the existing"> комбинированный урок – это наиболее распространенный тип урока в существующей практике работы школы. На нем решаются дидактические задачи всех типов уроков!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-79.jpg" alt=">"> Педагогическая ДИАГНОСТИКА ОБУЧЕНИЯ Диагностика – прояснение всех обстоятельств протекания дидактического процесса, точное определение результатов последнего. Целью дидактического диагностирования является своевременное выявление, оценивание и анализ течения учебного процесса в связи с продуктивностью последнего.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-80.jpg" alt="> Diagnosis includes control, verification, evaluation, accumulation of statistical data ,"> Диагностирование включает в себя контроль, проверку, оценивание, накопление статистических данных, их анализ, выявление динамики, тенденций, прогнозирование дальнейшего развития событий.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-81.jpg" alt="> Control means identifying, measuring and evaluating the knowledge and skills of trainees."> Контроль означает выявление, измерение и оценивание знаний, умений обучаемых. Проверка – составной компонент контроля, основной дидактической функцией которого является обеспечение !} feedback between teachers and students, the teacher receiving objective information about the degree of mastering the educational material, timely identification of shortcomings and gaps in knowledge.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-82.jpg" alt="> Principles of diagnosing and monitoring student learning"> Принципы диагностирования и контролирования обученности учащихся Объективность заключается в научно обоснованном содержании диагностических тестов (заданий, вопросов), диагностических процедур, равном отношении педагога ко всем обучаемым, адекватном установленным критериям оценивания знаний, умений. Объективность диагностирования означает, что выставленные оценки совпадают независимо от методов и средств контролирования и педагогов, осуществляющих диагностирование.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-83.jpg" alt="> Systematicity - consists in the need to conduct diagnostic control at milestones"> Систематичность - состоит в необходимости проведения диагностического контролирования на вех этапах дидактического процесса – от начального восприятия знаний и до их !} practical application. Systematicity also lies in the fact that all students are regularly diagnosed from the first to the last day of their stay at the educational institution.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-84.jpg" alt=">"> Принцип наглядности заключается в проведении открытых испытаний всех обучаемых по одним и тем же критериям. Принцип требует оглашения и мотивации оценок. Оценка – это ориентир, по которому обучаемые судят об эталонах требований к ним, а также об объективности педагога. Необходимым условием реализации принципа является объединение результатов диагностических средств, обсуждение и их анализ.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-85.jpg" alt="> Theory of education The theory of education studies education as a pedagogical process,"> Теория воспитания Теория воспитания изучает воспитание как педагогический процесс, организованный и направленный на формирование личности. Термин «воспитание» имеет и узкое педагогическое значение – специально организованная деятельность, направленная на формирование определенных качеств человека, осуществляемая во взаимодействии педагогов и воспитанников в рамках воспитательной системы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-86.jpg" alt=">"> В узком социальном смысле под воспитанием понимается направленное воздействие на человека со стороны общественных институтов с целью формирования у него определенных знаний, взглядов и убеждений, нрав ственных ценностей, политической ориентации и подготовки к жизни. Координаторами воспитательного воздействия выступают учебно-воспитательные учреждения, где осуществляется специально организованное воспитание.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-87.jpg" alt="> In a broad pedagogical sense, education is a specially organized,"> В широком педагогическом смысле воспитание – это специально ор ганизованное, целенаправленное, управляемое и контролируемое взаимо действие воспитателей и воспитанников, конечной своей целью имеющее формирование личности, нужной и полезной обществу. В узком педагогическом смысле воспитание – это процесс и результат в оспитательной работы, направленной на решение воспитательных задач.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-88.jpg" alt="> Features of the upbringing process. 1. Purposefulness. The upbringing process can be"> Особенности процесса воспитания. 1. Целенаправленность. Процесс воспитания может быть эффективен только в том случае, если его цель четко определена, близка и понятна воспитаннику. 2. Многофакторность. Данная особенность объясняется наличием многочисленных объективных и субъективных факторов, обусловливающих сложность протекания процесса воспитания. Соответствие субъективных факторов, выражающих внутренние потребности личности, помогает успешно решать задачи воспитания.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-89.jpg" alt="> 3. Duration. The process of upbringing lasts a lifetime. It is characterized by"> 3. Длительность. Процесс воспитания длится всю жизнь. Для него характерна отдаленность результатов от момента непосредственного воспитательного воздействия. 4. Непрерывность. Процесс воспитания – это процесс непрерывного, систематического взаимодействия воспитателей и воспитанников. В воспитательном процессе необходима системная работа, направленная на реализацию поставленной цели.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-90.jpg" alt="> 5. Complexity. This feature implies the unity of goals, objectives,"> 5. Комплексность. Данная особенность предполагает единство целей, задач, содержания, форм и методов процесса воспитания. Поскольку формирование личностных качеств происходит не поочередно, а одновременно, поэтому педагогическое воздействие должно иметь комплексный характер. 6. Вариативность и неопределенность результатов. Результаты процесса воспитания в одних и тех же условиях его протекания могут быть различны. Это обусловлено целым рядом факторов: с одной стороны индивидуальными различиями воспитанников, их социальным опытом, отношением к воспитанию, с другой – профессиональной подготовленностью воспитателей, их мастерством.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-91.jpg" alt="> 7. Bilateralism. Due to the fact that the process of education"> 7. Двусторонность. В связи с тем, что процесс воспитания в современном понимании – это эффективное взаимодействие (сотрудничество) воспитателей и воспитанников, то реализован он может быть в двух направлениях: от воспитателя к воспитаннику (прямая связь) и от воспитанника к воспитателю (обратная связь).!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-92.jpg" alt="> Laws of upbringing, conformity of upbringing and requirements of society"> Законы воспитания соответствия воспитания и требований общества единства целей, содержания, методов воспитания единства обучения, воспитания и развития личности воспитания в деятельности активности воспитанника в процессе воспитания единства воспитания и общения воспитания в коллективе зависимости воспитания от возрастных и индивидуальных особенностей воспитанников!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-93.jpg" alt="> Principles of education - education should be aimed at personal development,"> Принципы воспитания - воспитание должно быть направлено на развитие личности, на формирование творческой индивидуальности; - воспитание должно осуществляться в соответствии с возрастными и индивидуальными особенностями воспитуемых; - воспитание должно проходить в процессе освоения воспитанниками культуры и в соответствии с особенностями культурной среды, окружения; - воспитание требует вовлечения детей в активную сознательную развивающую деятельность; - воспитание должно быть тесно связано с жизнью окружающего общества, с трудом, с опытом и жизнью воспитанника; - воспитание надо осуществлять в коллективе и с помощью коллектива; - в воспитании следует опираться на !} positive sides pupil; - in education, it is required to combine pedagogical guidance with the independence of pupils. Concept humanistic approach to education

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-94.jpg" alt="> THE PROBLEM OF THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION IN PEDAGOGY"> ПРОБЛЕМА ЦЕЛИ ВОСПИТАНИЯ В ПЕДАГОГИКЕ Цель – предвосхищение идеально воображаемого результата деятельности как желаемого и ожидаемого ее продукта. Цель воспитания – это то, к чему стремится воспитание, будущее, на достижение которого направляются его усилия. Цели воспитания подвижны, изменчивы, имеют конкретно исторический характер. Цель воспитания отражает уровни развития общества, его производительных сил и производственных отношений, экономических и правовых отношений, историю и общественные традиции, идеологию и политику государства.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-95.jpg" alt="> Changing the goals of education during the primitive system, when there was no class"> Изменение целей воспитания при первобытном строе, когда не было классового деления, воспитание было призвано обеспечивать существование всех людей. Его цель состояла в необходимости вооружать человека опытом выживания. При рабовладельческом строе наличие двух классов привело к появлению различий в характере цели воспитания. Целью воспитания детей рабовладельцев стала подготовка их к роли господ, наслаждающихся искусством, приобщающихся к наукам, умеющих защищать свои государства. Воспитание детей рабов заключалось в подготовке к выполнению приказаний господ.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-96.jpg" alt="> Under feudalism, the goals of education were also differentiated: for children"> При феодализме цели воспитания также были дифференцированы: для детей феодалов – рыцарское воспитание, для детей крестьян – трудовое, в «школе» под открытым небом. При капиталистическом строе характер развития производства потребовал более образованных рабочих и вынуждал создавать для них систему !} educational institutions providing specialized training. The bourgeoisie, on the other hand, gave its children such an upbringing that they could manage the state, direct the development of the economy and social processes.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-97.jpg" alt="> Factors such as pace"> На определение цели воспитания оказывают влияние и такие факторы как темпы научно -технического и !} social progress, economic opportunities of society, the level of development of pedagogical theory and practice, the possibilities of educational institutions, educators, etc. The goals of education are divided into general and individual. The goal of education appears as a general one when it expresses the qualities that should be formed in all people, and as individual when it involves the education of an individual.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-98.jpg" alt="> Modern foreign pedagogical concepts of education Pragmatism (from Greek."> Современные зарубежные педагогические концепции воспитания Прагматизм (от греч. «прагма» – дело) – философско-педагогическое направление, выступающее за сближение воспитания с жизнью, достижение целей воспитания в практической деятельности. Основатели прагматической философии Ч. Пирс (1839– 1914) и У. Джеймс (1842– 1910) претендовали на создание новой философии, стоящей вне идеализма и материализма. Идеи ранних прагматистов развил американский философ и педагог Дж. Дьюи (1859 – 1952). Он привел их в систему, которую назвал инструментализмом.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-99.jpg" alt="> The main provisions of this system: - the school should not be torn off"> Основные положения этой системы: - школа не должна быть оторвана от жизни, обучение – от воспитания; - в учебно-воспитательном процессе необходимо опираться на собственную активность учеников, всемерно ее развивать и стимулировать; - воспитание и обучение осуществляются не в теоретически отвлеченных формах, а в процессе выполнения конкретных практических дел, где дети не только познают мир, но и учатся работать вместе, преодолевать трудности и разногласия. Такая школа может воспитывать людей, хорошо приспособленных к жизни; В основе учебно-воспитательного процесса должны лежать интересы ребенка.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/37268649_437269619.pdf-img/37268649_437269619.pdf-100.jpg" alt="> Neopositivism is a philosophical and pedagogical direction that tries to comprehend a complex of phenomena,"> Неопозитивизм – философско-педагогическое направление, пытающееся осмыслить комплекс явлений, вызванных !} scientific and technological revolution. Born in the depths of classical positivism on the ethical ideas of Plato, Aristotle, Hume, I. Kant, the new direction gradually gained strength and became widespread in the West. The current pedagogical neo-positivism is most often referred to as "new humanism". The most prominent representatives of the new humanism and scientism are P. Hers, J. Wilson, R. S. Peters, A. Harris, M. Warnick, L. Kohlberg and others.

Theory of education and training; the essence and driving forces of learning, the content of learning; modern concepts primary and secondary education, their didactic and subject content; the essence and driving forces of learning, the motives of learning at different age stages; management of educational and cognitive activities of schoolchildren; principles, methods and organizational forms of training; lesson at school: types of lessons, their structure, requirements for conducting and analysis; diagnostics and evaluation of educational achievements of schoolchildren.

Comprehensive Goal:

know

• essence and content of training;
• modern concepts of primary and secondary education, their didactic and subject content;
• motives for learning at different age stages;
• principles, methods, forms of organization of training;
• types of lessons, their structure, requirements for conducting and analysis;
• features of the content and organization of the pedagogical process in the conditions different types and types of educational institutions at various levels of education;

be able to

• determine the goals and objectives of education, plan, conduct, analyze lessons;
• exercise pedagogical control, evaluate the process and learning outcomes;

own

The skills of organizing the pedagogical process in conditions of different types and types of educational institutions at various levels of education.

The subject and objectives of learning theory

Theory of education and learning

IN modern world there are significant changes and transformations that affect all areas human life. Mankind faces the main task - to determine the choice of the direction of its further development path in a situation of incessant disasters, both natural and man-made. And education stands out today as a key area of ​​human activity, through which the choice of the path of development of all mankind as a whole and each person individually can be determined.

Today, most developed countries come to the understanding that the most necessary and profitable investments are investments in a person and his improvement, therefore, a civilized development of society is possible only if the status and prestige of education are raised. It is thanks to education and purposeful training that the upbringing of the human personality, the formation and development of its spiritual orientations take place. The organization of the process of education of the individual in the process of its training and education and is engaged in general theory education, which is a relatively independent area of ​​pedagogy.

Before we turn to the consideration of theories of education and learning, let us once again return to the definition of the meaning of the concepts " education " And "education". In modern pedagogy, education the process of assimilation of fundamental worldview, scientific, versatile knowledge, development of skills and abilities, as well as the development of intellect is understood. All this in total indicates a certain level of theoretical and practical training of the student.

In the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" education is given a generalizing multifunctional meaning and it is presented as a purposeful process of mastering a scientific understanding of the world by a person or a group of people, corresponding to the modern level of development of society, scientific and technological progress. An educated person objectively understands and evaluates the events taking place in the world and in people's lives, is aware of himself and his place in society. It is distinguished by the possession of spiritual values, the foundations of a culture of relationships and behavior that promote creativity, creation and self-improvement. result education education, professional competence, human mentality as important property his personality, irreducible unequivocally to the presence of his diplomas. Education is naturally associated with the upbringing, training and development of a person.

The term " education " coincides in its meaning with the term " didactics ", which introduced into scientific circulation the famous German medieval scientist Ratke (Ratichius) (1571 - 1635) and by which he designated practical application the art of learning. This term has its ancient origins in the ancient Greek language, in which the word " didaktikos" meant "teaching pertaining to learning" and the word " didasko " – "studying ". Finally, the term "didactics" as equivalent to the term " education "fixed itself in the field of scientific pedagogical knowledge after the appearance of the famous work of Ya. A. Comenius "Great Didactics", in which for the first time the principles, methods, content and patterns were presented in a systematic way learning. It was from that time didactics as a science of learning turned out to be designed to give the practical teacher answers to the key questions of educational practice: how to teach? who and when to start teaching? what and where to study? and others.

The final selection of the concept " education "into an independent equal component of general pedagogical knowledge occurred only in the second half of the 20th century, which is associated with the emergence of fundamentally different forms of storage and retrieval of information, unknown until then, and hence the emergence of new teaching tools, forms of organization of education, as well as a fundamentally different content education.Therefore, in the modern pedagogical theory of the concept "education" And " didactics " are used as equivalent and denote a purposeful, specially organized, systematic process of interaction between teachers and students, during which the knowledge, skills and abilities that are provided for by the curriculum are mastered. During this process, teachers manage the educational and cognitive activity of students and activate it, instill the ability to independently search for knowledge using modern means of storing and transmitting information, create conditions for the development of thinking, memory, imagination and speech, help to study and assimilate the experience of older generations.The result of learning is the learning of an individual or a group of people.

It is important to take revenge learning in general, as education generally does not exist. Education is always concrete, takes place on specific material, and therefore takes into account the specifics of the organization of activities for the study of this specific material. To the notion education "We address when we characterize the specificity of the learning process and the scope of future professional activity. Therefore education always associated with the specific content of the activity and methods of its organization. At the same time, didactics as a general theory of learning studies general patterns training, education and personal development in educational process, therefore, it is closely related to specific subject methods for studying various disciplines and academic subjects, on the one hand, and will provide starting points for their understanding and integration in a single educational process, on the other.

Basic concepts of pedagogy " upbringing ", "education" And "education "are an interconnected complex trinity, revealing the sequence of human development in the process upbringing, education And learning (Fig. 3.1). Therefore, the development of the individual is an integral result of the pedagogical process, which implements educational, educational and training components.

From the one shown in Fig. 3.1 of the diagram clearly shows that the learning process underlies all subsequent phenomena, however, constituting the core of the entire structure of personality development, it is the least conscious and at first perceived in its most general and obvious manifestations - upbringing and education. The above scheme convincingly shows that the process of considering the category of "education" is impossible in isolation from the categories of "education" and "education", since it reveals the most general laws and principles of their organization and implementation in modern educational practice.

Rice. 3.1.

In the 1960s The Soviet poet L. Martynov wrote a wonderful quatrain, which very accurately indicates the area of ​​value-oriented activity, the formation of which the education system is engaged in:

You do not consider yourself worthy Only here, in the existing, present.

You consider yourself walking along the border of the past with the future.

In these four lines, the semantic richness and the inseparable dialectical interconnection of the three basic concepts of pedagogy are displayed very accurately and briefly, almost in formulaic language: upbringing, education And learning. Let's try to present this process in three successively unfolding steps of the social formation of a person, expressed by the three main categories of pedagogy.

The first step is education. To get started consider yourself worthy every person needs to get primary education, as a result of which, one way or another, he will be able to form some initial idea about himself: to see his place of being, evaluate it and begin to act in it.

step two – education. In order to be able to see, understand and evaluate oneself and the surrounding space as existing and present in which his life flows, a person must be able to isolate the image of the past from this present, understand both himself and society as a continuous education process, in which the present is constantly transformed into the past, and the past, with the same constancy, determines the nature of the processes of education in the present. And now, having once only learned to move around in the surrounding space, a person begins to assert his right to his own way of life in the process of receiving a personally significant education.

Step three is training. And only then, at this third stage, a person acquires an amazing independent ability - the ability to learn, thanks to which he transforms his intuitive sensations into mastered educational tools - the ability to clearly see and distinguish border between the past and the future and most importantly, an irresistible craving, the need to overcome this border, to look beyond its horizon. It is then that a person becomes a real student and begins to learn. "consider yourself walking on the border of the past with the future" in order to learn to distinguish the boundaries of the future and not be afraid to look beyond them.

To date, two main theories of learning have developed: associative (associative-reflex) and activity.

Associative learning theory took shape in the 17th century. Its methodological foundations were developed by J. Locke, who proposed the term "association". The associative theory of learning received its final form in the classroom system of Ya.A. Komensky.

The main principles of this theory are as follows: the mechanism of any act of learning is association; any training has its basis in visibility, i.e. relies on sensory cognition, therefore enriching the student's consciousness with images and ideas is the main task of educational activity; visual images are not important in themselves: they are necessary insofar as they ensure the advancement of consciousness to generalizations based on comparison; The main method of associative learning is exercise. Associative theories underlie the explanatory-illustrative teaching that dominates the modern traditional school. In many respects, this is the reason that school graduates do not receive a full-fledged education, namely: they do not develop experience in creative activity, the ability to independently acquire knowledge, and the willingness to freely engage in any managerial field of activity. Realizing the limitations of explanatory and illustrative education, modern pedagogical science focuses not on passive adaptation to the existing level of development of students, but on the formation of mental functions, the creation of conditions for their development in the learning process. Of enduring methodological significance is the idea of ​​such a construction of training that would take into account the "zone of proximal development" of the individual, i.e. focused not on the current level of development, but on the level of tomorrow that a student can achieve under the guidance and with the help of a teacher (L.S. Lygotsky). For mental development, as established by the studies of D.N. Bogoyavlensky and N.A. Menchinskaya, even a complex and mobile system of knowledge is not enough. Students must master those mental operations with the help of which knowledge is acquired and operated on. N.A. Menchinskaya pays great attention to the development of learning, which is characterized by the generalization of mental activity, economy, independence and flexibility of thinking, semantic memory, the connection of visual-figurative and verbal-logical components of thinking; the development of learning, according to N.A. Menchinskaya, is a reliable way to increase the efficiency of the process of mastering knowledge and learning in general. A rather effective concept of increasing the developmental function of traditional education was proposed by L.V. Zankov. His didactic system, focused on junior schoolchildren, gives a developing effect when working with adolescents and older students, subject to the following principles: building education at a high level of difficulty (subject to a clearly distinguishable measure of difficulty); fast pace of learning the material (of course, within reasonable limits); the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge; students' awareness of the learning process.

The search for ways to improve learning, which is based on associative theories, is aimed at identifying ways and conditions for the development of cognitive independence, activity and creative thinking of students. In this regard, the experience of innovative teachers is indicative: the enlargement of didactic units of assimilation (P.M. Erdniev, B.P. Erdniev), the intensification of learning based on the Principle of visibility (V.F. Shatalov, S.D. Shevchenko, etc.), advanced learning and commenting (S.N. Lysenkova), increasing the educational potential of the lesson (E.N. Ilyin, T.I. Goncharova and others), improving the forms of organization of learning and interaction between teachers and students in the lesson (I.M. Cheredov , S.Yu.Kurganov, V.K.Dyachenko, A.B.Reznik, N.P.Guzik and others), individualization of education (I.P.Volkov and others). Associative learning theories, which are not originally focused on the development of the creative potential of students, are opposed by theories based on an activity approach. These include the theory of problem-based learning (A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov, etc.), the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, etc.), the theory of learning activity (V .VDavydov, D.B. Elkonin and others).

Problem-Based Learning Theory relies on the concepts of "task" and "action", i.e. that fully characterizes the activity approach. A problem situation is a cognitive task, which is characterized by a contradiction between the students' knowledge, skills, attitudes and the requirement. The significance of the cognitive task lies in the fact that it arouses in students the desire to independently search for its solution by analyzing the conditions and mobilizing their knowledge. A cognitive task causes activity when it is based on previous experience and is the next step in the study of the subject or in the application of the learned law, concept, technique, method of activity. Problem situations can be classified within any subject according to their focus on acquiring a new one (knowledge, methods of action, opportunities to apply knowledge and skills in new conditions, changes in attitudes); according to the degree of difficulty and severity (depending on the preparedness of students); by the nature of the contradictions (between worldly and scientific knowledge). In a problematic situation, the very fact that students see it is important, so it must be distinguished from problematic questions, for example: why does a nail sink, but a ship made of metal does not?

The activity of students in problem-based learning involves the passage of the following stages:

discretion of the problem, its formulation (for example, 2 + 5 x 3 = 17; 2+5x3=21);

analysis of conditions, separation of the known from the unknown;

putting forward hypotheses (options) and choosing a solution plan (either based on known methods, or searching for a fundamentally new approach);

implementation of the solution plan;

finding ways to check the correctness of actions and results.

Depending on the measure of the teacher's participation in the student's independent search, there are several levels of problematic learning. The first level is characterized by the participation of the teacher in the first three stages; for the second - on the first and partially on the second; for the third, which approaches the activities of a scientist, the teacher only directs the research search. The role of the teacher in problem-based learning is as follows:

finding (thinking about) a way to create a problem situation, enumeration options her decisions by the student;

leadership of students' perception of the problem;

clarification of the problem statement;

helping students analyze conditions;

assistance in choosing a solution plan;

consulting in the decision process;

help in finding ways of self-control;

analysis of individual errors or a general discussion of the solution to the problem.

Problem-based learning contributes to the development of mental abilities, independence and creative thinking of students, it ensures the strength and effectiveness of knowledge, since it is emotional in nature, causes a feeling of satisfaction from knowledge. At the same time, it has limitations in its application, since it is uneconomical, although it can be used at all stages of explanatory and illustrative education. In its pure form, problem-based learning is not organized at school, and this is understandable: a significant part of knowledge must be learned based on traditional teaching methods (factual information, axioms, illustrations of certain phenomena, etc.).

The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, developed by P.Ya. Galperin and developed by N.F. Talyzina, mainly concerns the structure of the process of mastering knowledge. The success of assimilation in accordance with this theory is determined by the creation and understanding by the student of the indicative basis of actions, a thorough acquaintance with the very procedure for performing actions. The authors of the concept under the experimental conditions found that the ability to manage the learning process is significantly increased if students are consistently carried out through five interrelated stages: preliminary familiarization with the action, with the conditions for its implementation; the formation of an action in a material (or materialized with the help of models) form with the deployment of all the operations included in it; formation of action in the external plan as external speech; formation of action on inner speech; the transition of action into deep convoluted thought processes. This mechanism of transition of actions from the external plan to the internal one is called internalization. This theory gives good results if it is really possible to start with material or materialized actions during training. About Us better side has proven itself in the training of athletes, operators, musicians, drivers and specialists in other professions, its use in school is limited by the fact that training does not always begin with subject perception.

Theory of learning activity comes from the teachings of L.S. Vygotsky on the relationship between learning and development, according to which learning plays its leading role in mental development primarily through the content of acquired knowledge. The authors of the theory emphasize that the developmental nature of educational activity is due to the fact that its content is theoretical knowledge. However, the educational activity of schoolchildren should be built not as the knowledge of a scientist, which begins with a consideration of the sensory-concrete variety of particular types of movement of an object and leads to the identification of their universal internal basis, but in accordance with the method of presenting scientific knowledge, with the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete (B .V. Davydov).

In accordance with the theory of learning activity, students should not form knowledge, but certain types of activities, in which knowledge is included as a certain element. "A person's knowledge is in unity with his mental actions (abstraction, generalization, etc.)," ​​writes V.V. its receipt (i.e. mental actions)".*

* Davydov V.V. Problems of developmental education: The experience of theoretical and experimental psychological research. - M., 1986. - S. 147.

The deductive-synthetic logic of building the educational process follows from the theory of educational activity, which is realized when the following points are taken into account:

all concepts constituting a given academic subject or its main sections should be assimilated by children by considering the conditions of their origin, due to which they become necessary (i.e., concepts are not given as ready-made knowledge);

the assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance with more particular and specific knowledge, the latter must be derived from the abstract as from its basis;

this stems from the orientation towards clarifying the origin of concepts and corresponds to the requirement of ascent from the abstract to the concrete;

when studying the subject-material sources of certain concepts, students must first of all discover the genetically original, universal connection that determines the content and structure of the entire object of these concepts. For example, for the object of all the concepts of school mathematics, such a universal connection is the general ratio of quantities; for school grammar - the relationship of form and meaning in a word;

this connection must be reproduced in special subject, graphic or letter models that allow studying its properties in a "pure form". For example, children can depict general ratios of quantities in the form of literal formulas, convenient for further study of the properties of these ratios; the structure of the word can be depicted using special graphic schemes;

schoolchildren need to specifically form such objective actions, through which they can identify in the educational material and reproduce in models the essential connection of the object, and then study its properties. For example, in order to identify the connection underlying the concepts of integer, fractional and real numbers, children need to form special actions to determine the short ratio of quantities;

students should gradually and in a timely manner move from objective actions to their implementation in the mental plane (according to V.V. Davydov).

The implementation of these conditions, according to supporters of the theory of learning activity, is the most important way to form the theoretical thinking of students as an important ability of a creative person.

The opponents of the authors of the theory of learning activity point to the absolutization of the deductive-synthetic path of cognition and, accordingly, the diminishing of the role of the logic of the educational process from the particular to the general. Modern didactics also does not accept a narrow interpretation of knowledge, i. only as an element of activity, since the theory of learning activity does not take into account the general logic of building goals and the content of education, where the formation of knowledge is singled out as a particularly important goal. In addition, it is not taken into account that knowledge exists objectively not only in the mind of the individual, but also in the form of information stored in books, "computer banks", etc., which becomes the property of the individual in the process of cognitive activity.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. How are the processes of cognition and learning related? What are their similarities and differences?

2. Describe the main functions of the learning process.

3. Expand the features of the structure of the teacher's activity and the activity of students.

4. What is the logic of the educational process and what is the mechanism of the process of mastering knowledge?

5. Name the main types of training and their characteristic features.

6. What is the fundamental difference between associative and activity learning theories?

7. What does it mean to optimize the learning process?

LITERATURE FOR INDEPENDENT WORK

Babansky Yu.K. Optimization of the learning process: general didactic aspect. - M., 1977. - Ch. 1.

Baranov S.P. The essence of the learning process. - M., 1986.

Davydov V.V. Types of generalization in teaching. - M., 1972.

Danilov M.A. The process of education in the Soviet school. - M., 1960.

Didactics of secondary school / Ed. M.N. Skatkina. - 2nd ed. - M., 1982.

Makhmutov M.I. Organization of problem-based learning at school. - M., 1977.

Talyzina N.F. Management of the learning process. - M., 1975.

Theoretical basis learning process in the Soviet school / Ed. V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner. - M., 1989.

Shamova T.I. Activation of the teachings of schoolchildren. - M., 1982.

Schukina G.I. Activation of cognitive activity of students in the educational process. - M., 1979.

Chapter 13

Diolectics of the collective and individual in the pedagogical process Formation of personality in the team is the leading idea in humanistic pedagogy The essence and organizational foundations of the functioning of the teaching and educational team Stages and levels of development of the teaching and educational team

Section II. Pedagogy

Topic 8. Pedagogy as a theory of learning

8.1. General characteristics of training

Learning is a conscious, organized and purposeful process of joint cognitive activity of the teacher and trainees, which equips students (pupils) with the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the competent performance of their professional duties in the future. How social phenomenon this phenomenon represents the assimilation by young people of the social experience accumulated by older generations.

Basic training requirements:

• Raise the quality of training specialists, productively, creatively apply new technologies in the educational process;
• To give training a greater practical orientation;
• To increase the organization and intensity of pedagogical activity;
• Rationally and competently use the educational and material base, especially computer technology.

Components of the learning system:

1. Target (learning goal)– determines the social order for preparing young people for labor activity(for example, in banking, finance).
2. activity– includes joint work of teachers and trainees.

   The main pedagogical tasks in this case are:

   • Organization of educational activities and competent management of it;
   • Presentation of the material in accordance with the program and plan;
   • Development of students' interest, creativity, activity, initiative in learning;
   • Formation of students' ability to independently acquire knowledge, skills and abilities;
   • Checking the preparedness of specialists.
3. Informative- determines such parameters as the amount of material, forms, methods, techniques, teaching aids.
4. resulting- includes what the teacher strives for, what the trainees must achieve. They are required to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, important professional qualities. If the result of the training corresponds to the goal, then the training has fulfilled its role.

Learning Functions:

1. educational- equips students (schoolchildren) with knowledge, skills, abilities;
2. Educational - is inextricably linked with the first, forms in the trainees the personal qualities of a citizen - a patriot of their homeland;
3. Developing - actively influences the intellectual, professional improvement of students (pupils). Today we need young people with creative imagination, the ability to think outside the box, show initiative, be diligent, diligent, conscientious, competent, with high moral and labor potential;
4. Function of psychological preparation- involves the formation of constant readiness and stability in students (pupils) when performing complex tasks curricula and programs, practical works.

Rice. 1. Learning process

Knowledge is a set of information, concepts and ideas learned by a student (pupil) about objects and phenomena of objective reality.

Skills are automated motor, sensory and mental actions that are performed accurately, easily, quickly with little effort of consciousness and ensure the effectiveness of human activity.

Skills - the creative application of knowledge and skills to achieve the desired result in a constantly changing environment of practical activity.

Rice. 2. The relationship of knowledge, skills and abilities among themselves

Process steps

1. Awareness of the cognitive task, understanding its essence, meaning, relevance;
2. Perception of information under the influence of previous experience, already existing knowledge;
3. Comprehension of the material, its creative processing, dismemberment, highlighting the main thing, generalization of the main parts, etc.;
4. memorization of information;
5. Application of knowledge in practice. They should be used for the main goal - increasing competence, professionalism.

Knowledge classification

1. Knowledge-acquaintance- determine orientation in the environment in the most general terms;
2. Reproduction Knowledge- serve to reproduce information;
3. Knowledge-skills - allow you to confidently use them in any situation;
4. Knowledge-transformation- allow them to be creatively applied and with their help to create new ones.

Teaching is the activity of a teacher in organizing, implementing and managing the process of forming students' (pupils') knowledge, skills and abilities, developing their psyche, scientific worldview.

Teaching is the work of students to master knowledge, skills and abilities in accordance with the requirements of modern life.

Teaching - a teacher (teacher), by means of pedagogical influence influencing the psyche of a student (student), developing it, forming their knowledge, skills and abilities.

Trainees - students (pupils) reflecting information in their minds and actively responding to the influence of the teacher (teacher), while mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

Today's reality requires further intensification of the educational process.

We highlight the main areas for its improvement:

• Improving the quality of education, improving the pedagogical style and methods of teachers. They should be characterized by organization, professionalism, competence, a sense of the new, creativity, responsibility, morality, culture, decency;
• Scientific approach to planning the educational process;
• Strengthening the individualization of teaching students (pupils). It is necessary to teach what is necessary in the specialty, based on general preparedness, abilities, personal qualities;

Intensify the training of specialists- means to compact the time of classes due to the optimal selection of the content of the theory and practice of teaching, its methods and forms.

Optimize the learning process- to find such means and technologies of training that would allow convincingly conveying the most important thing.

Thus, learning process- multifunctional. It solves the problems of education, upbringing, development, psychological preparation.

8.2. Principles and methods of teaching

8.2.1. Learning principles

Principles are the fundamental provisions that express the requirements for the content, organization, teaching methods. In their origin, they are a theoretical generalization teaching practice and, therefore, have an objective character, become guiding, regulate the activities of teachers (teachers) in the process of teaching students (pupils). However, in the form of their existence, the principles are subjective, since they are reflected in the mind of the teacher with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy. Their ignorance, unwillingness to follow them, misunderstanding make the training system unproductive.

The principle of consciousness, activity and independence

It requires such a formulation of training, in which students (pupils) consciously understand their goals, tasks, while showing high activity, initiative and independence.

Principle Requirements:

• Awareness of responsibility for the goals and objectives of classes, their practical significance;
• The use of new technologies that stimulate the cognitive activity of students, their independence, initiative, creativity;
• Raising a sense of critical self-assessment of the actions of students (pupils);
• Encouragement of positive decisions and actions.

The principle of consistency, consistency and complexity

It is implemented through the organization of the educational process. On its basis, programs are compiled in all disciplines. In order to successfully and competently perform professional duties, it is important to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, to apply them in a complex. It is possible to form this by establishing logical links between subjects, sections, topics.

Principle Requirements:

• Accurately plan classes;
• Consistently distribute material;
• New knowledge should be closely linked to previously studied, reveal the main problems;
• Move on to the next after the complete assimilation of the previous one;
• Ensure constant and effective monitoring of the results of classes;
• Manage the independent work of students (pupils), increase the sense of responsibility for the knowledge, skills and abilities they have acquired.

The principle of learning at a high level of difficulty

It reflects the dependence of the pedagogical influences of the teacher (teacher) on the nature of the activity, individual characteristics and capabilities of students (pupils). Its essence lies in the fact that the organization, the content of training put young people in such conditions under which they would acquire knowledge, skills and abilities with the maximum exertion of mental and physical strength.

This principle is necessary for the following reasons:

1. it has been established that knowledge, skills and abilities are intensively formed when students (pupils) see, realize the difficulties of study, actively move towards the intended goal, milestone;
2. practice confirms that it is impossible to achieve success without overcoming difficulties.

Principle Requirements:

• Encouraging young people to solve complex problems of educational activities;
• Ensuring the feasibility of training in terms of volume, depth and intensity;
• Providing individual assistance to students (pupils);
• moral encouragement of those who constantly show good results in their studies;
• The creative attitude of the teacher to their professional duties.

The principle of strength of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities

Difficult situations of today's life require professionals to competently, productively and independently make decisions based on their intellect and social experience. That is why solid knowledge, skills and abilities are so important now. They are also necessary in order to successfully and further improve the level of their education.

Principle Requirements:

• Explanation to students (pupils) of the meaning of the information received for their practical activities;
• Setting for a strong and long-term memorization;
• Conducting classes in dynamics, interesting, exciting;
• Encouraging students to meaningful assimilation of the material;
• Application of acquired knowledge in practice;
• Stimulation of independent work of students (pupils);
• Encouragement of integrity and initiative.

Principle of group and individual approach

Usually in a student group (class) common interests, the first shoots of mutual assistance quickly appear, a friendly atmosphere and competitiveness are established. Young people are enriched by the experience of their comrades, act more confidently, self-critically evaluate actions. In the classroom, it is necessary to develop the search for joint actions, decency, empathy, mutual understanding. The effectiveness of group learning largely depends on the ability of the teacher to individually approach each person, relying on the team, its mood, opinion, and traditions.

Principle Requirements:

• Teaching young people coordinated, well-coordinated joint actions;
• Accounting public opinion, moods, traditions, etc.;
• Individual approach to each student (student), take into account psychological characteristics, abilities;
• Team training through the solution of significant tasks, the use of positive aspects in their achievement;
• Instilling a sense of responsibility for the state of affairs in the group, education of moral principles, support, mutual assistance;
• Application optimal means educational impact in the classroom.

The principle of visibility in teaching

Its essence lies in the fact that a student (student) acquires knowledge, forms skills and abilities based on sensory perception of objects, objects, phenomena or their images during training sessions.

Principle Requirements:

• Development of training materials that meet the content of the topic, their systematic use;
• Comprehensive preparation of the teacher for the lesson, the ability to methodically correctly apply visual aids;
• Information should be attractive, understandable, accessible, meet the ethical provisions of pedagogy and psychology.

Thus, the content and requirements of the principles of education were considered from the standpoint of traditional approaches.

There are other formulations of the principles of learning:

• The principle of social conditioning and scientific character - expresses the importance of compliance with the requirements and recommendations in the preparation of students (pupils) educational concept adopted in the state and society;
• The principle of practical orientation - focuses on the formation of skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of professional duties;
• The principle of purposefulness, consistency and consistency - determines the focus, logic and consistency of the educational process;
• The principle of accessibility and a high level of difficulty - forms the position and attitude of students (pupils) to their understanding of the essence of cognizable problems, conviction in the practical value of knowledge;
• The principle of strength in mastering the components of professional competence;
• The principle of a differentiated and individual approach - determines the organization of group educational and cognitive activities in the classroom in various subjects, with an individual approach to each student (pupil);
• The principle of complexity and unity of education and upbringing is achieved through the efforts of all its participants (teachers and trainees, educators and educators).

8.2.2. Theories (concepts) of learning

The theory of learning is a system of views that characterizes the essence, content, methodology and organization of the educational process, the features of the activities of the teacher (teacher) and student (student) in the course of its implementation.

In practice, the following concepts are used:

1. Associative-reflex;
2. Gradual formation of mental actions;
3. Problem based learning;
4. Problem-activity learning;
5. Programmed learning.

The ultimate goal of these learning theories is to form a system of knowledge, skills and abilities among students (pupils), successfully prepare them for practical professional activities.

Methods and forms of education

Teaching methods are ways of organizing cognitive activity, joint work of the teacher and students, with the help of which mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities, development of mental and physical abilities is achieved.

Consolidation of acquired knowledge Formation of skills and abilities Application of knowledge, skills and abilities in practical activities

Tab. 1. Classification of teaching methods based on didactic tasks

Oral presentation of educational material

This method involves an active, productive impact on students. It is used to communicate new knowledge, explain a device, talk about new facts, events.

Types of oral presentation of the material:

• Story. Figurative, emotional and consistent presentation of factual material, complex issues, rules, principles, combined with the show.
• Explanation. A brief, lively disclosure of the meaning of the studied phenomena, processes and events.
• Instruction. Concise, clear instructions (recommendations) on the implementation of a particular action.
• Lecture. An extended theoretical reasoning that combines elements of a story and an explanation.

Requirements for the presentation of educational material:

• High content and scientific content;
• Close connection with life, practice;
• Logic, persuasiveness;
• Emotionality, clarity and brightness of speech;
• Skillful combination with other methods, especially display (demonstration), visual aids;
• Problematic consideration of the material;
• Efficiency, productivity.

Discussion of the studied material

This method determines the active interaction and influence of the teacher and student (student) on each other. It is used to deepen, consolidate and systematize knowledge on the subject.

Types of material discussion:

1. Conversation. The conversation can be informing (heuristic), detailed, control and verification. It is important to be able to use knowledge and personal experience students in order to develop their cognitive activity, involving them in a productive mental search, independent formation of conclusions and generalizations.
2. Classy group activity. All students (pupils) take Active participation in consideration of issues, show interest, vigorously enter into discussions, citing convincing figures, facts and arguments.
3. Seminar. A form of collective search by efficient solution, scientific analysis theoretical or practical problem. The most difficult task is to organize a creative disclosure of the questions raised, using visual aids, discussion of reports, abstracts, and fixed messages.

Requirements for the discussion of the studied material:

• Problem statement of questions and active work around them;
• Clear management of the course of the lesson;
• Diagnostic and polemical character, stimulation of creativity;
• Objective evaluation of performances;
• Orientation of trainees to further work.

Show (demo)

The method is based on demonstrating to students (pupils) real life events, natural phenomena, scientific and production processes, the operation of instruments and equipment in order to analyze them analytically and discuss various problems associated with them. It is a set of techniques by which an image of the object being studied is created and specific ideas about its structure are formed.

Types of display (demonstrations):

1. Personal demonstration of teaching techniques, actions, behavior;
2. Show with the help of specially trained people;
3. Display of equipment, equipment, devices;
4. Demonstration visual means visuals, movies, videos, etc.

Requirements for the display method (demonstrations):

• Competent selection of material;
• Determining the most appropriate types of demonstrations, their number and sequence;
• Reasonable and strict dosage of visual aids, their differentiated and complex application;
• A skillful combination of words and display.

Exercise method:

A method of conscious, repeated, constantly becoming more complex repetition of mental and practical actions in order to fold, consolidate and improve skills and abilities. The functions of the method are to transform part of the knowledge of the student (student) into skills and abilities, to prepare for practical activities. Exercises are obligatory for any discipline. Their systematic implementation brings up curiosity, perseverance, attention, diligence.

Types of exercises:

1. Depending on the subject, the nature of the formed skills and abilities.
   • physical;
   • Special;
   • Complex.
2. Depending on the didactic purpose.
   • introductory;
   • Basic;
   • Workout.

Exercise can also be collective And individual.

Conditions for the successful implementation of exercises in training:

• Qualitative preparation of the teacher (teacher) for the lesson;
• Understanding by the trainees of the purpose of the exercise, the content and consistency of the actions being learned;
• Maintaining students' (pupils') interest in the exercise, a conscious attitude towards its implementation;
• Compliance with a certain sequence and rhythm;
• Formation of skills of self-control and self-assessment when performing actions;
• Organization of competition.

Independent work of trainees

This method involves the individual activity of students (pupils) in consolidating knowledge, skills, abilities and preparing for classes.

Types of independent work:

1. Work with printed sources;
2. Independent search;
3. Viewing and listening to video and audio recordings;
4. Workouts, etc.

Conditions for the effective organization of independent work of students (pupils):

• Creative nature of independent work;
• Stimulating the need for it in students (pupils) by posing various educational problems before them;
• Accounting for the personal characteristics of trainees, individualization of tasks;
• Organization of effective assistance and mutual assistance;
• Control over independent work and its evaluation.

To improve the efficiency of the educational process, active teaching methods. They help to liberate consciousness, use the intellectual potential of the individual, acquire strong skills and abilities.

Such methods:

• They put the student (student) in the position of an active participant in the lesson;
• Allows you to increase the productivity of study time;
• They ensure the improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of social and value positions, psychological qualities and practical experience.

When reading lectures the following methods apply:

1. Logical-compositional: inversion ((lat. inversio - turning, rearranging) - changing the usual word order in a sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech.), contrasting comparison, "intriguing" beginning, intermittent presentation of the thesis, expressive conclusion;
2. Psychological and pedagogical: attractive form of announcement of the topic, unusual introduction to it, question-answer reasoning, staging problem situations, reliance on convincing facts and examples;
3. Speech: use literary images and quotations, lexical-semantic translation of concepts and figures, artistic presentation, intonational expressiveness;
4. Audiovisual: the use of diagrams, tables, graphs, paintings, film clips, posters, sound and video recordings.

Seminar activated through dialogue, discussion, intellectual warm-up, brainstorming, business games, situational problem solving, role-playing, socio-psychological training (SPT), etc.

Intellectual warm-up is the posing of questions, the answers to which require a clear understanding of the topic under study. It lasts 10–15 minutes, is held at a fast pace, according to basic concepts, categories, definitions, events, facts, etc. The main thing here is to activate the mental activity of students (pupils) before discussing problems.

"Brainstorming" is used when a deadlock occurs in the disclosure of the issue. It is important to follow certain rules:

• All become equal participants, with the right to defend any point of view;
• It is forbidden to criticize the ideas put forward, it is only allowed to clarify questions;
• Each speaker should be concise and express his/her point clearly.

A role-playing (business) game is appropriate when it is necessary to develop techniques and skills in performing functional duties. For example, it is used in the formation of students' professional traits of a leader.

Socio-Psychological Training (SPT) is the training of trainees in order to develop the necessary qualities, skills and abilities in them. Teaching experience shows that young man you need to practically learn a lot: how to deal with bosses, elders, equals, overcome difficulties in communication, interaction with others, diagnose personality traits, orientation, character, abilities, etc. The SPT system should be regular, useful, interesting, and enjoyable.

8.3. Forms of study

The forms of education are a purposeful, clearly organized, rich in content and methodically equipped system of cognitive and educational communication, interaction, relations between a teacher (teacher) and a student (student).

Forms of learning represent the organizational side of this process. They provide for the composition of groups (classes), the structure, place and duration of the lesson, the specifics of the activities of the teacher (teacher) and student (student), close connection with the methods, providing external and internal conditions for their application.

Forms of study:

1. Educational and planned:
   • Lesson;
   • Lecture;
   • Seminar;
   • Homework;
   • Exam, etc.
2. Unscheduled:
   • Brigade-laboratory classes;
   • Consultations;
   • Conferences;
   • Mugs;
   • Excursions;
   • Classes in advanced and auxiliary programs;
3. Auxiliary:
   • Group and individual sessions;
   • Alignment groups;
   • Tutoring.

Curriculum forms ensure the assimilation by students (students) of specific disciplines, the formation of skills and abilities. Unscheduled - allow them to improve knowledge, broaden their horizons. Auxiliary - determine the differentiation and individualization of the educational process, contribute to overcoming the backlog of individual students, as well as accelerate the advancement of those who successfully master the program.

unscheduled

Tab. 2. Functions of learning forms

Teaching and educational- serves to create favorable conditions for the transfer of knowledge, skills, abilities to students (pupils), the formation of a worldview, the development of talents, practical abilities, etc.

Educational - is aimed at the productive use of all the spiritual forces of young people.

Psychological- is to develop in students (students) the correct biorhythm of activity, the habit of studying and resting at a certain time.

Integrating-differentiating- promotes the exchange of information, learn mutual understanding and mutual assistance.

systematizing and structuring- provide a breakdown of educational material into parts, topics.

In relation to each other, the forms of education perform complexing and coordinating functions.

Stimulating - takes into account the characteristics of the age of children, the specifics of the development of their body, psyche.

From the side of the form, the occupation structurally consists of three parts:

1. introductory;
2. Basic;
3. Final.

When preparing for the lesson (using the lecture as an example), you must:

• Familiarize yourself with the requirements of the curriculum, with sections (topics) of related subjects;
• Formulate the purpose and objectives of the lecture;
• Make her plan;
• Study the literature on the topic;
• Pick up and classify educational material, highlight the main thing;
• Find interesting examples, facts, arguments;
• Write the text of the lecture;
• Pick up visual aids and TCO;
• Think over the method of conducting the lesson;
• Determine tasks (methodological advice) for subsequent independent work.

8.4. Testing and assessment of knowledge, skills, abilities

This is an integral part of the learning process and is carried out in the form of constant monitoring of its progress, which makes it possible for the teacher to influence the activities of students (pupils): to determine what they are successfully learning, what difficulties they encounter, who needs help. At the same time, he continues to train and educate them, helps them deepen and consolidate knowledge, skills and abilities, develop attention, thinking, memory, and develop emotional and volitional stability.

Pedagogical requirements for verification:

• Must be carried out systematically;
• Be informative, be interesting, useful;
• It is important to combine individual control with checking the entire team;
• The process should be comprehensive, objective and carried out in a variety of ways;
• It is necessary to impose high demands on students (pupils), combined with respect for their dignity, practical assistance to them;

Testing teaches youth to self-control.

The check could be:

• current;
• Preliminary;
• final;
• control;
• Inspectorskaya.

Current - held at each lesson.

preliminary- consists in identifying the level of preparation of students (pupils) for some time, the teacher (teacher) talks with them, observes their actions, requires them to perform certain techniques.

Final - organized in order to obtain grades, their final results for the period of study.

Inspection - carried out by representatives of higher educational structures.

Check methods:

1. Control observation;
2. Analysis of the results of practical activities;
3. Oral and written questioning;
4. Verification by technical means.

Assessment of knowledge, skills, abilities

It can be expressed in the form:

• Emotional attitude (approving head nods, brief remarks, etc.);
• Value judgment (“acted correctly, but uncertainly”);
• Marks ("excellent", "good", "satisfactory", "unsatisfactory").

When assessing knowledge, the following is taken into account:

• The volume of knowledge on educational issues;
• The degree of their systematization and depth;
• Understanding of the studied, independence of judgments, confidence in the presentation;
• The effectiveness of knowledge, the ability to apply it in solving practical problems.

When evaluating skills and abilities, the following is taken into account:

• The content of skills and abilities;
• Their precision, strength and flexibility;
• Ability to apply them in practice;
• The presence of errors, their number, nature and impact on work;
• Confidence, independence, systematic and sequence of actions.

When grading, the teacher (teacher) is guided by pedagogical criteria:

1. “Excellent” if the student (student) deeply studied the educational material, discovered its comprehensive understanding, exhaustively stated and substantiated the conclusions, correctly, confidently and quickly completed the task;
2. “It’s good” when the student knows the material well, answers without leading questions, unerringly performed practical work;
3. “Satisfactory”, if the student (student) knows only the basic material, can apply it in practice, but makes mistakes that do not affect the quality of the task performed by him;
4. “Unsatisfactory” when the student has a superficial understanding of the topic and cannot correctly apply his knowledge in practice.

The assessment in all cases must be:

• Objective;
• clear and understandable;
• Perform a stimulating function;
• Comprehensive and fair.

Learning is an interdependent activity of two parties: the educator (teacher, lecturer), who has a pedagogical influence, and the trainees (pupil, student), who reflect the information received in their minds, mastering knowledge, skills, and abilities. The work of a teacher is designed to encourage active work (teaching) of a schoolchild, a student, and they, in turn, are obliged to show diligence.

Literature on the topic

• Babansky Yu.K. etc. Pedagogy. M.: 1988
• Baranov S.P. The essence of the learning process. M.: 1986
• Verbitsky A.A. New educational paradigm and contextual learning. M.: 1999
• Gessen S.N. Fundamentals of Pedagogy. M.: 1995
• Davydov V.V. Developmental training. M.: 1996
• Dyachenko V.K. Cooperation in education. M.: 1991
• Klarin M.V. Innovations in education. Metaphors and models. M.: 1997
• Likhachev B.T. Pedagogy. Lecture course. M.: 1998
• Pedagogy: pedagogical theories, systems, technologies: Textbook / Ed. Smirny S.A. M.: 1998
• Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. New Deal: Textbook. In 2 books. M.: 1999
• Psychology and pedagogy. Textbook / Under the editorship of Abulkhanova K.A. etc. M.: 1998
• Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. M.: 1990